Science of the Total Environment 777 (2021) 146180

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Science of the Total Environment

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Shrinking Tonlé Sap and the recent intensification of sand mining in the
Cambodian Mekong River
Wen Xin NG a, Edward Park a,b,⁎
a
National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
b
Asian School of the Environment, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• Impacts of riverbed-mining on Tonlé

Sap's shrinking were analysed.
• River incision in the Mekong is related
to the decrease in Tonlé Sap's water
level.
• There has been an increase in sand min-
ing intensity in recent years.
• Short-term economic gains should not
be prioritised over the environment.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This paper investigates the impacts of extensive riverbed mining in the Lower Mekong on the water level, extent
Received 12 January 2021 and volume of the Tonlé Sap Lake, the largest freshwater lake in Southeast Asia. Our results indicate that the lake's
Received in revised form 21 February 2021 volume has decreased from 1980 to 2018 (p-value = 0.016), with water levels at Phnom Penh Port and Phnom
Accepted 24 February 2021
Penh Bassac showing decreasing trends since 1980 (p-values <0.0001). However, discharge at Phnom Penh Bassac
Available online 3 March 2021
(1960–2002) presented an insignificant trend (p-value = 0.147), indicating that riverbed incision due to extensive
Editor: Fernando A.L. Pacheco sand mining in Phnom Penh has affected the Mekong's water levels more than basin-scale climatic factors. Similarly,
the modulation of a limited portion of water by upstream dams is unlikely to have caused dramatic inundation var-
Keywords: iation along the Lower Mekong River around Tonlé Sap. A hysteretic relationship between water levels at Prek
Sand mining Kdam and Tonlé Sap indicates that Tonlé Sap's water level is largely controlled by Tonlé Sap River and the Mekong,
Riverbed incision and declining water levels at Prek Kdam due to extensive sand mining in Phnom Penh is directly related to the
Hydropower dams shrinking of the lake. Although there are three main inflows into Tonlé Sap (from the Mekong, local tributaries
Tonlé Sap and direct precipitation), the Mekong's contribution is the largest; tributary discharge and rainfall did not display
Mekong River
any significant trend over the investigated period as well. Additionally, the analysis of high-resolution images re-
Cambodia
vealed a recent intensification of riverbed mining, with Phnom Penh being a mining hotspot in the Lower Mekong.
Considering its economic and ecological importance, the shrinking of Tonlé Sap would have grave repercussions for
the region. Since sand demand is unlikely to weaken in the foreseeable future, these new insights can potentially
help inform regulatory frameworks in ensuring sustainable sand extraction rates.
© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction

⁎ Corresponding author at: National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological

Located in the central plains of Cambodia, Tonlé Sap is Southeast
University, Singapore. Asia's largest freshwater lake. Tonlé Sap is the fourth most productive
E-mail address: edward.park@nie.edu.sg (E. Park). inland fishery in the world, with its fisheries representing more than

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146180
0048-9697/© 2021 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
W.X. NG and E. Park Science of the Total Environment 777 (2021) 146180

70% of Cambodia's total annual inland fishery captures (Campbell et al.,

2006). The lake's water resource is exploited for expanding irrigated ag-
riculture, with the completion of the Vaico Irrigation Development Pro-
ject in 2017 enabling the irrigation of 108,300 and 27,100 ha of farmland
in the wet and dry season, respectively (Lower Mekong Food Security
Database, 2020). Leveraging on the lake's fishery resources and the
basin's large water resources for irrigation, over 65% of Tonlé Sap's
workforce is employed in either the fishing or agricultural industry
(Keskinen et al., 2015). Apart from providing employment
opportunities, fishing and agriculture are also key contributors to food
security in Cambodia, given that fish and rice are the nation's staple
food (Keskinen et al., 2015). For example, proteins derived from fish
provide up to 80% of the animal protein intake in the average
Cambodian diet (Hortle, 2007). Tonlé Sap and the associated Angkor
temple complex in Siem Reap also boasts great tourism potential, with
the region attracting more than 1.6 million foreign visitors in 2019
alone (Ministry of Tourism Cambodia, 2019). Tonlé Sap therefore
plays a vital role in sustaining the livelihoods of the people residing in
the region, who rely on the lake as their primary economic and food re-
source. Tonlé Sap is also home to globally important colonies of endan-
gered reptiles, mammals and water birds, most notably supporting
more than half of the global population of the Bengal Florican, a
Critically Endangered bird species (Wildlife Conservation Society
Cambodia, n.d.). Recognising the ecological value of the lake, Tonlé
Sap Lake was designated a UNESCO World Heritage Biosphere Reserve
in 1997 (UNESCO, 1997).
Tonlé Sap Lake is linked to the Mekong by the Tonlé Sap River, and it
acts as a flood water reservoir for the Lower Mekong Basin (Fig. 1).
There are three main inflows to the lake: from the Mekong mainstream
via the Tonlé Sap River (53.5%), from its tributaries (34%), and from di- Fig. 1. A: Map of study area; inset map showing Mekong River Basin and locations of
rect precipitation (12.5%) (Kummu et al., 2014). Tonlé Sap's flow regime operational dams and dams under construction; red box indicating reaches of the
is influenced by the Mekong's hydrological fluctuation — Tonlé Sap Mekong, Tonlé Sap and Bassac Rivers where a tally of the number of suction dredges,
mechanical shovels and sand barges between 2014 and 2020 was performed (Fig. 5). B:
River, which drains Tonlé Sap into the Mekong River during the dry sea-
Conceptual model of the correlation between riverbed mining in Phnom Penh region
son, reverses its flow during the wet season (Kummu et al., 2008). The and water level of Tonlé Sap: Tonlé Sap's water level is controlled by the Mekong's
lake's extent varies greatly between the dry and wet season, from water level. This means that a decline in water level of the Mekong at Phnom Penh due
2500 km2 up to about 15,000 km2, while its depth increases from less to riverbed incision as a result of riverbed mining will directly result in declining water
than 1 m to up to 7–9 m (WUP-FIN, 2003). It has been observed, in levels in Tonlé Sap.

recent years, that the inundation extent of Tonlé Sap Lake has been
shrinking (Ji et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2020). Given the importance of
Tonlé Sap on the national and regional scale, a decreasing lake extent
and its potential impact on Tonlé Sap's ecology and productivity
would pose grave consequences for the region.
Existing literature has attributed the shrinking of Tonlé Sap to cli-
mate change (Arias, 2013; Cochrane et al., 2014; Frappart et al., 2018;
Wang et al., 2020). Reduction in rainfall in the Mekong Basin in recent
years — as a result of both the El Niño/La Niña events and the Indian
and Asian Summer Monsoons — has led to a decline in runoff from the
Mekong (Frappart et al., 2018). Given the strong correlation between
Tonlé Sap's surface water volume variations and wet season precipita-
tion in the entire Mekong Basin (R2 = 0.84) (Frappart et al., 2018), re-
duced runoff from the Mekong in the wet season will reduce the
inflow of water into Tonlé Sap, which could cause the lake to shrink.
Wang et al. (2020) also found a strong correlation between Tonlé
Sap's mean annual inundation extent and rainfall in a region located
in the Lower Mekong Basin (R2 = 0.67). Existing literature has also at-
tributed the shrinking of Tonlé Sap to hydropower dam operations
(Cochrane et al., 2014; Dang et al., 2016; Eslami et al., 2019; Lin and
Qi, 2017; Van Binh et al., 2020). Eleven cascade dams built between
1993 and 2018 straddle the Lancang River, the mainstream of the
Upper Mekong River (WLE-CGIAR, 2016). Dams operating in the
Lancang could potentially reduce upstream runoff to the Lower Mekong
River; just one dam in China's cascade of dams, Nuozhadu, has the stor-
age capacity of 27.49 km3 (Eyler, 2020). The withholding of water by
Chinese dams in the dry season could thus have the potential to reduce
discharge from mainstream Upper Mekong, in turn causing the decrease
in the water level, extent and volume of Tonlé Sap Lake. Lin and Qi
(2017) deemed dam construction in the Mekong Basin to be the pri-
mary cause of the decline in Tonlé Sap's open water area over the past
two decades.
Although climate change is an ongoing global phenomenon, its
impacts are both spatially and temporally heterogeneous — so
much so that the scientific community has yet to come to a consen-
sus about the potential hydrological alterations, climate change
may cause throughout the Mekong Basin, much less in Tonlé Sap spe-
cifically. This is despite considerable discussion of the subject (e.g.
Ali et al., 2020; Eastham et al., 2008; Kingston et al., 2011; Lauri
et al., 2012; Pokhrel et al., 2018). For instance, though Lauri et al.
(2012) and Eastham et al. (2008) agree that largest climate-
induced increases in the Mekong's discharge take place in the first
and last months of the monsoon season, Lauri et al. (2012) postu-
lated more moderate climate-induced impacts on the Mekong's hy-
drology than the latter; Lauri et al. (2012) projected variations in
the Mekong's discharge at Kratie ranging from −12% to +16%,
while Eastham et al. (2008) predicted a change ranging from −2%
to +82% for year 2030. Furthermore, an increase in glacial melting,
a specific consequence of climate change, could theoretically con-
tribute to an increase in dry season runoff throughout the Mekong
River (Costa-Cabral et al., 2008; Nijssen et al., 2001), as experienced
by other large rivers in the Greater Himalayan region (Xu et al., 2009;
Yang et al., 2019); however, the long-term effect of glacial melting
would be a reduction in discharge, particularly during the
dry season.

2
W.X. NG and E. Park
In terms of upstream dam construction, it is also unlikely that the
modulation of a small portion of water within China (which only con-
tributes to about 16% of the Mekong's total runoff) would result signif-
icant inundation variation along the Lower Mekong River around
Tonlé Sap (Wang et al., 2020). Some may argue that the completion of
all planned dams in the 3S Basin (encompassing the Sesan, Srepok,
and Sekong Rivers) — combined with definite plans for hydropower de-
velopment throughout the Mekong basin — would likely result in signif-
icant hydrological alterations to Tonlé Sap in terms of dry season water
levels, as well as water rising and falling rates (Arias et al., 2014a). How-
ever, it must be acknowledged that there are only 8 major dams (dams
located on a major river, or a tributary with an impounded reservoir that
is greater than 25 km2) in the 3S Basin as of 2017 (Bonnema et al., 2020;
WLE, 2017), and these 8 dams only add 0.26 km3 of water storage to the
basin. The remaining dams are largely run-of-river dams with no
impounded reservoir (Bonnema et al., 2020; Piman et al., 2013;
Shrestha et al., 2020). Similarly, the Xayaburi dam in Laos, which is
the sole operational dam on the Lower Mekong mainstream, only
began operations in 2019, and only has a storage capacity of 1.3 km3
(Xayaburi Hydroelectric Power Project, 2014). Since all existing dams
in the 3S Basin and on the Lower Mekong mainstream store less than
three days of the mean annual inflow of the Mekong, their influence
on seasonal flow variation to the Tonlé Sap is likely to be unsubstantial
(Piman et al., 2013; Trung et al., 2020). As such, operational dams in
both the 3S Basin and the Lower Mekong Basin are unlikely to have sig-
nificantly influenced the shrinking of Tonlé Sap in the past decades
as well.
In this paper, we hypothesise that apart from climate change and
dam development in the Mekong Basin, extensive sand mining in
Cambodia, particularly in Phnom Penh, is another major yet overlooked
cause of the shrinking of Tonlé Sap. The over-exploitation of sand is one
of the most critical contemporary environmental issues facing large riv-
ers worldwide (Best, 2019). The demand for sand aggregates mainly
stems from land reclamation and construction projects — up to 40 bil-
lion tonnes of sand aggregates are mined per year globally to meet
these demands (Peduzzi, 2014). In Cambodia, sand is extracted for the
production of concrete and materials for landfill (Chaktomuk Project
Management Unit and DHI Water and Environment, 2002). External de-
mand for sand is also fueling the industry in Cambodia, triggering large-
scale extractions. According to the United Nations Commodity Trade
Statistics Database (Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU), 2017),
Cambodia exported more than 7.2 million tonnes (Mt) of sand between
2007 and 2015 to Singapore alone. The demand for sand, both domesti-
cally and globally, is expected to grow even more rapidly in response to
population growth and the unprecedented speed at which urbanisation
is taking place (Beiser, 2019a). Apart from constructing buildings and
infrastructure needed for the world's growing urban population, large-
scale land reclamation projects across the globe necessitate the extrac-
tion of immense quantities of sand. For instance, Hong Kong recently
announced plans to spend USD80 billion to create 1000 ha of artificial
land — which will be built largely with imported sand (Beiser, 2019b).
Bathymetric surveys of the Mekong River at Phnom Penh carried out
in July 2014 presented evidence of intensive sand mining (Hackney
et al., 2020). The impact of extensive sand mining on bed-level lowering
in Phnom Penh is evident, with 559 individual pockmarks observed in
the impacted reach of the river, equating to a total volume of 1.03 Mt
of sand extracted (Hackney et al., 2020). This results in the lowering
of water levels of the Mekong River around Phnom Penh. Since Tonlé
Sap's water level is controlled by the Mekong's water level (Kummu
et al., 2014), a decline in the Mekong's water level at Phnom Penh
would directly result in declining water levels of Tonlé Sap. Therefore,
the reduction in the inflow of water from the Mekong River into Tonlé
Sap due to riverbed incision as a result of extensive sand mining will
contribute to the shrinking of Tonlé Sap Lake.
The main objectives of our research are as follows: (1) to investigate
the changes in Tonlé Sap's inundation extent in recent years; (2) to reveal
3
Science of the Total Environment 777 (2021) 146180
the relationship between extensive sand mining in the Lower Mekong on
Tonlé Sap's water level, extent and volume; and (3) to identify trends of
sand mining operations in the Cambodian Mekong River. Hydrological
data between 1960 and 2020 from multiple gauge stations located near
Tonlé Sap and along the Mekong River around Phnom Penh, as well as
data from satellite radar altimetry between 2002 and 2020 were
analysed, with water level, rainfall and discharge data primarily analysed
using statistical trend analysis. Google Earth imagery between 2014 and
2020 was used to estimate the number of suction dredges, mechanical
shovels and sand barges operating in the vicinity of Phnom Penh, with
mining intensity maps produced to visualise the spatial and temporal
trends of sand mining operations around Phnom Penh.
This research is significant in two ways: First, despite the pervasive-
ness of riverbed mining globally (Pearce, 2019; Torres et al., 2017;
UNEP, 2019), existing research into its environmental consequences
has been mostly limited to water level decline (e.g. De Leeuw et al.,
2010; Lai et al., 2014; Yao et al., 2018), reduction in inundation fre-
quency (e.g. Park et al., 2020) channel instability and bank erosion
(e.g. Ashraf et al., 2011; Hackney et al., 2020; Padmalal et al., 2008), as
well as impacts on biodiversity (e.g. Saviour, 2012; Sreebha and
Padmalal, 2011). This paper reports a new environmental consequence
of sand mining, specifically the shrinking of a large freshwater lake re-
lated to extensive sand mining in Phnom Penh. Second, this new insight
can be crucial in the formulation of regulatory frameworks in ensuring
sustainable sand extraction rates. Such management frameworks are
vital in ensuring the health and sustainability of Tonlé Sap as the pri-
mary economic and food resource for those residing in the region. Fur-
thermore, tackling the issue of the over-exploitation of sand can help
advance the United Nations' 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development,
specifically in achieving Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 12 — en-
suring the sustainable management and efficient use of natural
resources.
2. Data and methods
2.1. Inundation area extraction
Landsat and Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer
(MODIS) observations were used to map the Tonlé Sap's inundation ex-
tent between 1988 and 2020. Landsat Collection 1 Level-1 data products
(30 m resolution) between 1988 and 2018 were obtained from the U.S.
Geological Survey (USGS). In total, 80 qualified images, where cloud
cover is less than 10% around the lake, were downloaded. MODIS/
Terra Surface Reflectance 8-Day Level-3250 m resolution products
(MOD09Q1) were obtained from the National Aeronautics and Space
Administration (NASA) Land Processes Distribution Archive Center. A
total of 231 product files between 2000 and 2019 were obtained, with
each file representing the best MODIS observation during an 8-day pe-
riod (i.e. high observation coverage, low view angle, minimal cloud
cover and cloud shadows, and thin loads). Inundation areas were ex-
tracted based on the normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI)
(McFeeters, 1996), which is calculated as follows:
RNIR −RRed
NDVI ¼
RRed −RNIR
where RNIR and RRed represent the reflectance of the red and near
infrared (NIR) bands, respectively. Although the normalized difference
water index (NDWI) is conventionally used for water/land classifica-
tion, the NDVI was used because 250 m spatial resolution data was only
available for the NIR and red bands for MODIS, while the green band
(necessary for the NDWI) is available only at 500 m resolution. We used
image-specific thresholds (identified manually, usually <0) to delineate
the land-water boundaries. When comparing the inundation areas ex-
tracted from Landsat and MODIS observations, correlation between
the area values was high (R2 = 0.85).
W.X. NG and E. Park Science of the Total Environment 777 (2021) 146180

width/depth ratio of the channel, the channel's wetted perimeter approx-

2.2. Hydrological data and analysis
Daily water level, rainfall and discharge data between 1960 and
2020 from several hydrological stations (Fig. 1B) were obtained from
the Mekong River Commission (MRC) (Table 1). These stations were
chosen due to their proximity to Tonlé Sap and Phnom Penh, where ex-
tensive sand mining is occurring. Water level data from altimetry sta-
tions in the Tonlé Sap Basin (see locations in Fig. 1B) were obtained
from the Database for Hydrological Time Series of Inland Waters
(DAHITI) (Schwatke et al., 2015) (Table 1). Given that altimetry water
level data for Tonlé Sap is only available from 2000 onwards, a rating
curve of water levels at Tonlé Sap (altimetry data) against water levels
at Prek Kdam (gauge station data) was constructed to estimate water
levels at Tonlé Sap from 1980 to 1999. A rating curve of water extent
against the water level of Tonlé Sap was then constructed to estimate
the volume of Tonlé Sap above permanent water. Trends of water
level, rainfall and discharge were analysed using the Seasonal Mann-
Kendall's test (Helsel and Hirsch, 1992) to examine the forces driving
inundation changes of Tonlé Sap Lake. The Seasonal Mann-Kendall's
test is a nonparametric test that analyses data for monotonic trends in
seasonal data. The time series were tested at 95% confidence level,
with p-values and Kendall's tau reported. Additionally, correlation anal-
ysis between stations along the Mekong and Tonlé Sap River, as well as
in Tonlé Sap Lake was conducted to investigate the relationship
between water levels along the Mekong River and in Tonlé Sap Lake.
The inflow contribution of the Mekong via Tonlé Sap River, and the
decreasing trends of water level of stations along the Mekong and
Tonlé Sap River were used to explain the shrinking of Tonlé Sap Lake.
In order to estimate the recovery rates of pockmarks created as a re-
sult of sand mining in Phnom Penh, flow velocity at Phnom Penh during
the wet season in 2018 was calculated and confronted against the re-
covery rates in selected mining sites in the Vietnam Mekong Delta as de-
termined by Jordan et al. (2019) in the same time period. We chose to
focus on wet season flow velocities since a large proportion (50–60%)
of the total annual sediment load of the Mekong River at Chroy
Changvar (see location in Fig. 1A) is transported in August and Septem-
ber (Lu et al., 2014). Flow velocity at Phnom Penh was estimated using
Manning's equation, which is calculated as follows:
R2=3  S1=2
V¼
n
The hydraulic radius of the channel at peak water level was estimated
using bathymetric survey data from Lu et al. (2014). Given the high
imates to its width. Channel bed slope was estimated using daily water
level series at Kompong Cham and Neak Luong, assuming that channel
bed slope is well-adjusted to the water surface slope due to very low
channel gradient in this reach (<10 cm/km slope estimated between
KC-NL). Manning's n of 0.03 was attributed to the studied reach, following
suggestions for unvegetated, straight channels with sandy beds (Chow,
1959). Flow velocity in the Vietnam Mekong Delta was estimated from
Jordan et al. (2019) for flow velocity close to the riverbed. Water surface
slope at Phnom Penh and the Vietnam Mekong Delta were also estimated
using daily water level series at Kompong Cham and Neak Luong (Phnom
Penh), as well as at Tan Chau and My Thuan (Vietnam Mekong Delta)
(see location in Fig. 1A); Tan Chau was chosen for estimating slope at
the Vietnam Mekong Delta since water levels here are unaffected by
tidal influences. Daily water level data between 1995 and 2000 from
Tan Chau and My Thuan were obtained from the Southern Institute of
Water Resources Research (SIWRR).
2.3. Examining spatial and temporal trends of sand mining operations and
quantifying water level decline in the Lower Mekong
Since the actual sand mining volume in the Lower Mekong is almost
unknown (Bravard et al., 2013; UNEP, 2019), and conducting bathymet-
ric surveys along long reaches of the Mekong, Bassac and Tonlé Sap
River is cost-prohibitive and time-consuming, we developed an alterna-
tive remote sensing approach to investigate the spatial and temporal
trends of sand mining operations around Phnom Penh. A tally of the
number of suction dredges, mechanical shovels and sand barges along
a 53 km reach of the Mekong mainstream, 30 km reach of Bassac
River and 14 km reach of Tonlé Sap River between 2014 and 2020 was
performed using images from Google Earth (mostly 0.5 m resolution;
Figs. 1 and 2A). These reaches were chosen after taking into consider-
ation that extensive sand mining is occurring around Phnom Penh
(Bravard et al., 2013; Hackney et al., 2020), and the fact that the impact
of sand mining on river water level is localised (Park et al., 2020). Me-
chanical shovels and suction dredges are used to extract sand from the
riverbed, while sand barges are flat-bottomed boats used to transport
the extracted sand. Suction dredges and mechanical shovels are identi-
fied by the presence of suction pipes and a crane, respectively, on a rect-
angular platform (Fig. 2B–D). Since the dimensions of the extractors
easily exceed 0.5 m, they are clearly identifiable on Google Earth. Yearly
composites with the best available satellite imagery (i.e. minimal cloud
cover and cloud shadows, and thin aerosol loads) were used to identify
trends of sand mining operations around Phnom Penh.

Table 1
Information on gauge stations, altimetry series and their data availability.

Source Gauge station (code) Latitude (°N) Longitude (°E) Data

Water level Discharge Rainfall

MRC Neak Luong (NL) 11.261 105.284 1980–2020 (daily) 1965–2002 (daily calculated)
Phnom Penh Bassac (PPB) 11.563 104.935 1980–2020 (daily) 1960–2002 (daily calculated)
Phnom Penh Port (PPP) 11.610 104.920 1980–2020 (daily)
Prek Kdam (PK) 11.811 104.807 1980–2020 (daily) 2007–2019
Kompong Cham (KC) 11.995 105.469 1980–2020 (daily) 1960–2002 (daily calculated)
Kompong Luong (KL) 12.575 104.215 1996–2020 (daily)
Battambang (BTB) 13.056 103.199 1997–2020 (daily)
Sisophon (SSP) 13.614 102.998 1988–2017
DAHITI Tonlé Sap (103) 12.924 104.030 16/6/02 to 21/6/20 (856a)
Unknown Wetland (6033) 12.9296 103.6245 5/7/02 to 24/4/16 (101)
Sangker River (6034) 13.2741 103.703 5/7/02 to 24/4/16 (101)
Sangker River (6935) 13.3144 103.5177 10/7/02 to 25/3/16 (111)
Unknown River (8387) 13.0224 104.3634 16/6/02 to 17/10/10 (85)
SIWRR Tan Chau (TC) 10.803 105.243 1995–2000 (daily)
My Thuan (MT) 10.273 105.900 1995–2000 (daily)
a
Number of available observations.

4
W.X. NG and E. Park
Fig. 2. A: Yearly composites of the reaches of the Mekong, Bassac and Tonlé Sap River where a tally of suction dredges, mechanical shovels and sand barges was performed, with image
dates indicated. (Image courtesy of CNES/Airbus and Maxar Technologies, via Google Earth) B: Suction dredges, mechanical shovels and sand barges operating in the confluence of the
Mekong, Bassac and Tonlé Sap River. (Image courtesy of Maxar Technologies, via Google Earth) C: A suction dredge operating near Phnom Penh. (Image courtesy of Chris Hackney) D:
Sand being dredged using a mechanical shovel.
(Image courtesy of Kalyanee Mam.)
Images used were mostly between October and April, given that me-
chanical shovels are used to extract sand mostly during the low-flow
season when the river depth is shallower (Bravard et al., 2013). With
suction dredges, sand extraction is possible all year-round, apart from
during peak flooding. Heat maps were created to visualise the spatial
and temporal trends of sand mining operations from 2014 to 2020,
with point density (100 m radius) calculated based on the number of
mechanical shovels and suction dredges in operation (details in SI
Text 1). Although we acknowledge that the number and spatial distri-
bution of mechanical shovels and suction dredges in operation does
not provide direct evidence of sand mining intensity in the region, the
frequency and mobility of these two extractors can be considered a
good proxy of mining rates. This is since mechanical shovels and suction
dredges are the only means of riverbed sand extraction in the studied
reach (Bravard et al., 2013). In addition, water level decline of the Me-
kong River at Phnom Penh due to sand mining was estimated by divid-
ing the sediment extraction volume derived from bathymetric surveys
done in July 2014 by Hackney et al. (2020) by the area of the mining
hotspot identified for 2014.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Recent decrease in inundation extent and volume of Tonlé Sap Lake
Monthly mean inundation extent of Tonlé Sap Lake between 1988
and 2018 are presented (Fig. 3A). With reference to Landsat observa-
tions, Tonlé Sap Lake's inundation extent displayed an insignificant in-
creasing trend from 1988 to 2000, while MODIS observations
presented a significant decrease in the lake's inundation extent between
2000 and 2018 (p-value <0.0001, Kendall's tau = −0.266). This de-
creasing trend is corroborated by Landsat observations in the same
time period notwithstanding substantial differences in their data avail-
ability. This decrease in inundation extent is also in agreement with ob-
servations made by previous studies (Lin and Qi, 2017; Wang et al.,
2020), who reported declining trends in Tonlé Sap Lake's open water
area over the past two decades. A rating curve of the inundation area
5
Science of the Total Environment 777 (2021) 146180
against the water level of Tonlé Sap Lake during the rising season was
used to estimate the volume of the lake above permanent water
(Fig. 3C). The calculated volume of Tonlé Sap displayed an overall de-
creasing trend from 1980 to 2018 (p-value = 0.016, Kendall's tau =
−0.252) (Fig. 3D).
Sedimentation rates within Tonlé Sap Lake is relatively low — pre-
suming that all 5.7 Mt of sediments remaining in the Tonlé Sap system
(based on an inter-annual average calculated between 1997 and 2003
by Kummu et al., 2008), settles out in the permanent lake area of ap-
proximately 2500 km2, only 1.42 mm of sediments would accumulate
in the lake every year on average (fine sediment density assumed to
be 1600 kg/m3). This means that the effect of sedimentation in the
lake on the water level, extent and volume of Tonlé Sap Lake is negligi-
ble. Since Tonlé Sap Lake's inundation extent and volume is determined
by its water level, and Tonlé Sap Lake's water level has been decreasing
from 1980 to 2020 (p-value <0.0001, Kendall's tau = 0.123) (estimated
using rating curve of water level at Tonlé Sap Lake (altimetry data)
against water level at Prek Kdam (gauge station daily series); Fig. 3B),
it can be inferred that the lake's open water area and volume have
been decreasing since 1980, though MODIS observations only presented
a significant decrease in Tonlé Sap Lake's inundation area since 2000.
There are three main inflows into the lake — inflow contribution from
the Mekong is the largest (53.5%), while its tributaries and direct precip-
itation contribute to 34% and 12.5% of Tonlé Sap's inflow respectively
(Kummu et al., 2014). Therefore, to determine the impact of the Me-
kong on Tonlé Sap's inundation extent and volume, trends of discharge
of Tonlé Sap's tributaries, as well as rainfall in the Tonlé Sap Basin were
also investigated in the next section.
3.2. Decreasing water level trends related to riverbed mining
The daily water level series of Phnom Penh Port and Phnom Penh
Bassac (Fig. 4), stations located near the confluence of Tonlé Sap River
and Mekong River, displayed decreasing trends since 1980 (p-values
<0.0001, Kendall's tau = −0.069 and −0.143, respectively). Though a
reduction in discharge of the Mekong River could have contributed to
W.X. NG and E. Park Science of the Total Environment 777 (2021) 146180

Fig. 3. A: Monthly mean inundation area of Tonlé Sap Lake from 1988 to 2018. Landsat Collection 1 Level-1 data products (30 m resolution) between 1988 and 2020 were obtained from
the USGS. MODIS/Terra Surface Reflectance 8-Day Level-3250 m resolution products (MOD09Q1) between 2000 and 2019 were obtained from the NASA Land Processes Distribution
Archive Center. B: Rating curve of water level at Tonlé Sap Lake (altimetry data) against water level at Prek Kdam (gauge station data) constructed to estimate water levels at Tonlé
Sap Lake; rating curve revealed strong correlation of water levels at Tonlé Sap Lake and Prek Kdam during both the rising and falling season (R2 = 0.9388 and R2 = 0.9673,
respectively). C: Rating curve of inundation area against water level of Tonlé Sap Lake constructed to estimate the volume of Tonlé Sap Lake above permanent water. D: Volume of
Tonlé Sap Lake above permanent water from 1980 to 2018.

the decreasing water levels, the daily discharge series at Kompong
Cham (1960–2002; Fig. 4A) (along the Mekong River, approximately
100 km upstream from Phnom Penh Port) revealed a statistically signif-
icant increasing trend (p-value <0.0001, Kendall's tau = 0.144). The
discharge series at Phnom Penh Bassac from 1960 to 2002 also did not
present any significant trend (p-value = 0.147). This means that along
the Mekong River mainstream around Phnom Penh, water level de-
creased while discharge trends at the same stations were stationary or
even increasing. Therefore, we conclude that riverbed incision due to
sand mining contributed significantly to the recent decrease in water
levels around Phnom Penh Port and Phnom Penh Bassac, in addition
to changes in the river's discharge as a result of climate change or
upstream dams.
Though decreasing water levels were observed at Kompong Cham
and Neak Luong (Fig. 4B) — stations located along the Mekong main-
stream (p-values <0.0001, Kendall's tau = 0.050 and − 0.013, respec-
tively) (slope = −0.00004 and − 0.00003) — the decreasing trends
were not as significant as those observed at Phnom Penh Port and
Phnom Penh Bassac (slope = −0.00005 and − 0.00009), where more
intensive sand mining has been taking place (Bravard et al., 2013;
Hackney et al., 2020). Similarly, the trend of declining water level
was more pronounced at Phnom Penh Port than at Prek Kdam
(Fig. 4E) (p-value <0.0001, Kendall's tau = 0.044). Considering that
Tonlé Sap River experiences seasonal flow reversal, we assume that
the channel bed is relatively flat as a result of this unique hydrological
reversal (as observed in floodplain channels of large rivers by Park
and Latrubesse, 2017). This makes Prek Kdam an unconducive environ-
ment for sustained riverbed mining, by virtue of the fact that the con-
stant seasonal alterations of the river bed slope do not favour
sediment deposition. Furthermore, Tonlé Sap River, which is approxi-
mately 400 m in width, is much narrower compared to the Mekong
River, which is likely to make it difficult for sand extractors and sand
barges to operate. Since the decrease in water levels is more significant
at Phnom Penh Port and Phnom Penh Bassac than at stations where sig-
nificantly less riverbed mining has taken place, it can be inferred that
the impact of riverbed mining on water levels is localised.
As highlighted previously, water levels at Prek Kdam displayed a sta-
tistically significant decreasing trend despite less riverbed mining tak-
ing place at Prek Kdam compared to around Phnom Penh. The rating
curve of water level at Tonlé Sap Lake against water level at Prek
Kdam reflects a flow regime that has two clearly defined seasons —
the rising season (typically from May to September) and the falling sea-
son (typically from October to April) (Fig. 3B). A clockwise hysteretic re-
lationship exists between water levels at Prek Kdam and Tonlé Sap.
During the rising season, significant inflow from the Mekong River en-
ters Tonlé Sap Lake via Prek Kdam. Since Prek Kdam receives inflow
from the Mekong prior to the most downstream part of Tonlé Sap
Lake, this creates a time lag between the increase in water levels at
Prek Kdam and Tonlé Sap Lake. As a result, water levels at Prek Kdam in-
crease faster than that at Tonlé Sap Lake during the rising season. During
the falling season, the seasonal flow reversal causes Tonlé Sap Lake to
drain into the Mekong, and water levels at Prek Kdam similarly decrease
faster than that at Tonlé Sap. This means that water level at Tonlé Sap is
largely controlled by water levels at Prek Kdam. This clockwise hystere-
sis is similarly exhibited by the majority of Poyang Lake, the largest
freshwater lake in China where its seasonal hydrological dynamics is
largely controlled by the Yangtze River through a narrow channel in
the north of the lake (Zhang and Werner, 2015).
Since the water level at Tonlé Sap is controlled by the inflow from
the Tonlé Sap River via Prek Kdam, a decline in water levels at Prek
Kdam due to bed lowering as a result of sand mining at Phnom Penh
will directly influence water levels in Tonlé Sap. The correlation

6
W.X. NG and E. Park Science of the Total Environment 777 (2021) 146180

Fig. 4. Water level series of stations along Mekong mainstream and Tonlé Sap River and within the Tonlé Sap Basin. A–E, G and I are daily series from gauge stations. F is the daily water level
series of Tonlé Sap Lake reconstructed using a rating curve of water level at Tonlé Sap (altimetry data) against water level at Prek Kdam (gauge station data) (Fig. 3B). H and J–L are water
level series derived from satellite radar altimetry. Daily discharge at Kompong Cham, Neak Luong, and Phnom Penh Bassac are plotted in the background (grey). Total annual rainfall at
Prek Kdam and Sisophon are also plotted in the background (grey); rainfall at Sisophon was plotted in the background of Battambang's water level series given that these two stations are
located in close proximity.

between water levels at Prek Kdam and stations around Tonlé Sap Lake
is evident, with water levels at Tonlé Sap (Fig. 4F) and Kompong Luong
(Fig. 4G) similarly displaying decreasing water level trends (p-values
<0.0001, Kendall's tau = 0.123 and −0.246, respectively). Therefore,
a decrease in water levels of the Mekong at Phnom Penh will lead to a
decrease in water levels at Prek Kdam, and consequently declining
water levels at and the shrinking of Tonlé Sap Lake. This is especially
since the inflow contribution of the Mekong into Tonlé Sap Lake is sub-
stantial (53.5% on an inter-annual average calculated between 1997 and
2005 by Kummu et al., 2014).
Given that 34% of inflow into Tonlé Sap Lake is contributed by local
tributaries, decrease in discharge from these tributaries could poten-
tially contribute to the lake's shrinkage. However, an analysis of water
level series of stations in the tributaries within the Tonlé Sap Basin re-
vealed that water levels of all stations within the basin displayed no
significant trend (Battambang, 6033, 6034, 6935 and 8387; Fig. 4H–L;
p-values and Kendall's tau reported in SI Fig. 1). Thus, we assume that
changes in discharge from local tributaries is not the primary factor con-
tributing to the declining water level trend of Tonlé Sap. In addition to
water level and discharge analyses, rainfall trends within the Tonlé
Sap basin were also examined. Although rainfall at Prek Kdam and
Sisophon (Fig. 4E and I) displayed decreasing trends (p-values and
Kendall's tau reported in SI Fig. 1), it is unlikely that this decrease in pre-
cipitation is related to the shrinking of Tonlé Sap Lake, since the water
levels of most of the lake's tributaries did not display any significant
trend; rainfall at these stations merely capture precipitation patterns
at two discrete points in the watershed, while measured water levels
of the Tonlé Sap's tributaries is representative of the total amount of
rainfall experienced by the basin. Furthermore, though rainfall at Prek
Kdam displayed a seemingly statistically significant trend, there was a
distinct dip in precipitation between 2012 and 2015, which could
have contributed to the skewness of the data. Moreover, direct precipi-
tation contributes to only 12.5% of Tonlé Sap's inflow. Thus, a decrease in
rainfall would not have drastic impacts on Tonlé Sap's inundation area,
as opposed to the reduction in inflow from the Mekong River.
Although climate change and dam construction have an influence on
Tonlé Sap Lake's inundation changes, this paper is providing insights on
another significant yet overlooked factor contributing to the shrinking
of Tonlé Sap Lake — riverbed mining in the Lower Mekong River around
Phnom Penh. Hydropower dam development and the increase in irri-
gated agriculture in the Upper Mekong Basin were regarded as the
main cause of Tonlé Sap's decreasing inundation extent and diminishing
lake seasonality between 2001 and 2015, with these changes being
largely unrelated to climatic influences during the investigated period

7
W.X. NG and E. Park
Table 2
Hydroelectric dams along the Mekong River mainstream and their capacities.
Country Dam name Installed capacity Water storage capacity
(year completed) (MW) (106m3)
China Manwan (1993) 1750
Dachaoshan (2002) 1250
Jinghong (2008) 1750
Xiaowan (2009) 4200
Gongguoqiao (2012) 900
Nuozhadu (2012) 5850
Miaowei (2017) 1400
Huangdeng (2017) 1900
Dahuaqiao (2018) 900
Lidi (2018) 420
Wunonglong (2018) 990
Laos Xayaburi (2019) 1285
(Lin and Qi, 2017). Modelling studies also suggest that dam-induced al-
terations within the next 20 to 30 years would have a larger impact on
the Lower Mekong hydrograph than the impacts of climate change, es-
pecially during the dry season (Arias, 2013; Cochrane et al., 2014; Lauri
et al., 2012). However, it should be acknowledged that the discharge
contribution of Lancang, where 11 out of 12 operational dams on the
Mekong mainstream are located (Eyler and Weatherby, 2020;
Xayaburi Hydroelectric Power Project, 2014; Table 2), only forms ap-
proximately 16% of the total runoff at Phnom Penh on inter-annual av-
erage (World Rivers Review, 2001) — Phnom Penh is more than
2000 km downstream from Lancang, and there are many other tribu-
taries with substantial drainage areas in the Lower Mekong Basin,
which are perhaps more important hydrological contributors to Tonlé
Sap than the Lancang River. In fact, the drainage area from downstream
of Lancang to Phnom Penh is almost four times larger than Lancang's
drainage area (167,400 km2 and 627,600 km2 respectively). As such,
we deem it to be difficult to establish the direct influence of hydropower
dams in the Upper Mekong Basin on Tonlé Sap's hydrology. Therefore,
hydrological alterations of Tonlé Sap caused by upstream dam construc-
tion may not be as significant as previous studies have proposed.
Arias et al. (2014a) modelled the expected cumulative effects of dam
developments along the Upper Mekong and the 3S Rivers (which ac-
cording to Adamson et al. (2009), contribute 18% of the total Mekong
discharge). Though the study concluded that the completion of all
planned dams in the 3S Basin — combined with definite plans for hydro-
power development throughout the Mekong basin — would likely result
in significant hydrological alterations to Tonlé Sap in terms of dry sea-
son water levels, as well as water rising and falling rates (Arias et al.,
2014a), it must be acknowledged that there are only 8 major dams
(dams located on a major river, or a tributary with an impounded reser-
voir that is greater than 25 km2) in the 3S Basin as of 2017 (Bonnema
et al., 2020; WLE, 2017), and these 8 dams only add 0.26 km3 of water
storage to the basin. The remaining dams are largely run-of-river
dams with no impounded reservoir (Bonnema et al., 2020; Piman
et al., 2013; Shrestha et al., 2020). Since they store less than three
days of the mean annual inflow of the Mekong, their influence on sea-
sonal flow variation to the Tonlé Sap is expected to be not very substan-
tial. Similarly, the Xayaburi dam in Laos, which is the sole operational
dam on the Lower Mekong mainstream, only began operations in
2019, and only has a storage capacity of 1.3 km3 (Xayaburi
Hydroelectric Power Project, 2014). As such, existing dams in both the
3S Basin and the Lower Mekong Basin are unlikely to have significantly
influenced the shrinking of Tonlé Sap, a trend that has been observed
over the past four decades.
Bravard et al. (2013) reported that large-scale riverbed dredging
along the Lower Mekong began in the early 1990s for land reclamation
and to bolster channel banks, particularly around Phnom Penh. How-
ever, considering that much sand mining activity is unmonitored and
unregulated (Best, 2019), there is reason to believe that extensive
Science of the Total Environment 777 (2021) 146180
sand mining began even before 1990, with a proliferation of illegal op-
erators dredging the rivers under the cover of night (Cambodian Center
for Human Rights, 2016). Though some may argue that the trend of de-
creasing water levels despite increasing or stationary trends of dis-
920 charge observed along the Mekong River mainstream around Phnom
940 Penh may be due to flow regulations by dams in the Upper Mekong
249 Basin (Chinese dams generally withhold water during the wet season
15,000
and release water during the dry season), most mega dams (installed
120
27,490 capacity of more than 400 MW) located along the Mekong mainstream
660 were only built after 2002. Thus, it is reasonable to propose that the re-
1613 duction in water levels of Tonlé Sap Lake between 1980 and 2018 is
293 largely a result of riverbed dredging as opposed to upstream dam con-
75
284
struction, since the simultaneous trend of decreasing water levels and
1300 stationary or even increasing trends of discharge has been observed
even before 2002.
3.3. Recent increase in sand mining intensity around Phnom Penh
Bravard et al. (2013) attempted to quantify the volume of sand ag-
gregates extracted from the Lower Mekong River. The study revealed
that 49.6 Mt of sand was collectively extracted from the Lower Mekong
mainstream in Laos, Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam in 2011. How-
ever, this proposed figure is determined from declarations of mining op-
erators; while this figure is valuable in providing a general estimate of
the mining intensity in the region, it is likely that the actual mining vol-
ume is severely underestimated (Jordan et al., 2019). This is because
mining operators are granted concessions and usually pay fees based
on how much sand they extract, and would therefore be predisposed
to keep declarations as low as possible (Bravard et al., 2013).
An analysis of Google Earth imagery revealed that the length of sand
barges and the area of extractors in the studied reach are normally dis-
tributed (see respective means and standard deviations in Fig. 5A and
B). With this information, sand barges and sand extractors were identi-
fied between 2014 and 2020. The tally performed revealed a recent in-
crease in the number of sand barges operating in the region, from 97
barges in 2014 to 166 barges in 2020 (Fig. 5C and D). This is indicative
of an increase in sand mining intensity, given that more barges are de-
ployed to transport sand dredged from the region. Additionally, there
was a spike in the number of barges in operation between 2015 and
2017. This could be attributed to the increase in the number of licenses
issued by the Cambodian government for dredging the Mekong and
Bassac Rivers — by the end of 2015, 49 licenses were issued, with 20
more awarded in the first quarter of 2016 (Runcie, 2016).
Over the time period investigated, the confluence of the Mekong,
Bassac and Tonlé Sap River was an evident hotspot for riverbed mining,
given the concentration of mechanical shovels and suction dredges in
this region (Fig. 5E; SI Fig. 2). It can thus be inferred that the shrinking
of Tonlé Sap is a result of the localised effect of sand mining on water
levels — the extraction of 1.03 Mt, or 2,748,023 m3, of sand (Hackney
et al., 2020) over 6.4 km2 of the Mekong River at Phnom Penh between
July 2013 and July 2014 resulted in a decline in water level of the Me-
kong River by approximately 0.43 m.
This estimation assumes that the volume derived by Hackney et al.
(2020) only accounts for sand mined in recent times, since the pro-
cesses of river deposition and erosion would have smoothened the riv-
erbed and obscured pockmarks created from riverbed mining that
occurred some time ago. The local refilling rates of sand in selected min-
ing sites in the Vietnam Mekong Delta is between six months and 1 year
(Jordan et al., 2019). It is thus speculated that recovery time of the pock-
marks seen in the bathymetric map of the Mekong River at Phnom Penh
(Hackney et al., 2020) is at least one year, since the pockmarks are still
visible and relatively well-defined. This time frame is proposed after
taking into consideration that the recovery time at Phnom Penh will
likely be longer than that at the Vietnam Mekong Delta, since the esti-
mated flow velocity at Phnom Penh is higher than at the Vietnam Me-
kong Delta, at 1.8 m/s and 0.6 m/s respectively during peak flow
8
W.X. NG and E. Park Science of the Total Environment 777 (2021) 146180

Fig. 5. A&B: Frequency histograms of sand barges, suction dredges and mechanical shovels operating in the selected reaches of the Mekong, Bassac and Tonlé Sap River from 2014 to 2020.
C&D: Number of sand barges, suction dredges and mechanical shovels over the period of investigation. E: Composite heat map showing overall concentration of mechanical shovels and
suction dredges over the period of investigation.
(Service Layer Credits: Esri, DigitalGlobal & GeoEye.)

(Fig. 6). The calculated velocity at Phnom Penh is in agreement with the 2015 (Sousa, 2017). The demand for sand, both domestically and inter-
average velocity of the Mekong mainstream at Chroy Changvar mea- nationally, is unlikely to weaken in the foreseeable future — it has been
sured during peak flow (MRC/WUP-FIN, 2006). The steeper slope at estimated in 2015 that Phnom Penh alone would require more than
Phnom Penh (Fig. 6) also does not favour sediment deposition, justify- 10,000 m3 of sand per day for construction and land reclamation
ing slower recovery rates at Phnom Penh compared to at the Vietnam (Meng, 2015), with this substantial demand being further fuelled by
Mekong Delta. other major markets all over Asia. Although no comprehensive and
Furthermore, annual bedload transport of the Lower Mekong River in up-to-date account of sand exports is available, it is widely believed
Cambodia was estimated to be approximately 0.18 ± 0.07 Mt yr−1 (based that the majority of sand dredged along Cambodia's coast would end
on an inter-annual average calculated between 1981 and 2014 by up in major Asian markets such as Singapore for construction and land
Hackney et al., 2020), which is less than 1% of the total annual sediment reclamation purposes (Rith, 2009; Willemyns and Naren, 2013). In the
load at Kratie (87.4 ± 28.7 Mt yr−1) during the same period (Darby case of Singapore, the small island state has actively expanded its land
et al., 2016). Given that the percentage of sediment flux that is area by 22% since 1965, and intends to reclaim as much as 6200 ha by
transported as bedload — the stores on the river bed that are typically 2030 (Subramanian, 2017; The Economist, 2015). This process requires
exploited rather than the suspended load — is extremely small, there is lit- vast quantities of sands, which is predominantly sourced from
tle sediment available to replenish the sediments removed by dredging neighbouring countries, including Cambodia. In fact, at least 500 Mt of
activities. Therefore, as presented above, riverbed dredging around sand has already been dredged from Koh Kong's estuaries and exported
Phnom Penh would result in the decline in water level of the Mekong to Singapore over the past decade (Murdoch, 2016).
River by approximately 0.43 m per year, assuming that local refilling
rates of sand at Phnom Penh is one year. This should have led to a de-
crease in water levels and consequently the shrinking of Tonlé Sap Lake
as described in previous sections. However, we acknowledge that our
proposed figure is an overestimation, considering that recovery time of
the pockmarks would be much longer than one year, even up to 3 to
5 years or beyond. This is due to the unfavourable conditions for deposi-
tion and a lack of coarse materials to replenish the sediments removed
by mining activities at Phnom Penh. Given the lack of empirical evidence
of sand replenishment rates in Phnom Penh, this paper proposes the larg-
est possible estimation of water level decline of the Mekong River as a re-
sult of riverbed mining in Phnom Penh, while acknowledging that the
actual figure would be smaller than suggested.

3.4. Implications of the over-exploitation of sand resources in Cambodia

Riverbed mining is one of the most critical contemporary environ-

mental issues – sand is the world's single most mined commodity,
with sand mining accounting for 85% of all mineral extraction globally
(Pearce, 2019; Torres et al., 2017; UNEP, 2019). Cambodia has been
recognised as one of the top sand exporters worldwide, with sand ex-
ports garnering the country more than US$53 million in income in
Fig. 6. Estimated flow velocity at Phnom Penh and in the Vietnam Mekong Delta in the wet
season (2018); flow velocity in the Vietnam Mekong Delta estimated from Jordan et al.
(2019) for flow velocity close to the riverbed; water surface slope at Phnom Penh and
the Vietnam Mekong Delta plotted on secondary axis (average water surface slope at
the Vietnam Mekong Delta was calculated using daily water level series at Tan Chau
(TC) and My Thuan (MT) between 1995 and 2000 due to lack of available data).

9
W.X. NG and E. Park
Large-scale riverbed dredging poses threats to the local environ-
ment; sediment starvation due to unsustainable rates of sand mining
can cause bank instability (Hackney et al., 2020; Jordan et al., 2019;
Kondolf, 1997) and delta erosion (Brunier et al., 2014; Brunier et al.,
2015), among many other detrimental environmental impacts. The sig-
nificant geomorphic impacts of excessive sand mining cannot be
overstated — a study by the International Union for Conservation of Na-
ture (IUCN) revealed that excessive sand mining in Cambodia's Koh
Kong province has destabilised riverbanks upstream of the beach bar-
rier, giving rise to erosion and river bank collapses. This resulted in
the displacement of those residing in places where river widening
has reached up to a hundred metres (Kastl et al., 2012). Downstream
of Cambodia, riverbed mining has also contributed significantly to
the intensification of drought and saline water intrusion in the
Vietnam Mekong Delta (Loc et al., 2021). It should be acknowledged
that sand mining is not exclusive to Cambodia — other developing
countries are also looking to export their natural resources to fuel
their economy. This includes Indonesia, Myanmar, Thailand and
Vietnam in the Southeast Asian region (e.g. Arsyad et al., 2020;
Bravard et al., 2013; Chaiwongsaen et al., 2019; Lamb et al., 2019).
It should be noted, however, that many of these countries have
completely banned or significantly cut down on the quotas of sand
exports since the early 2000s, after acknowledging the potential en-
vironmental impacts of large-scale riverbed mining. These control
measures have led to demand shifting to other countries, such as
Myanmar (Moon et al., 2020).
Despite a purported ban on sand exports by the Cambodian govern-
ment in 2009, a report published just a year later brought to light that
not only had the ban been utterly disregarded, sand exports from
Cambodia had also increased (Global Witness, 2010). Skepticism
about the effectiveness of the ban is further compounded by the lack
of transparency on the actual export figures — it has been brought to
light that the amount of sand being exported from Cambodia has been
massively under-reported (Economist Intelligence Unit (EIU), 2017).
More recently, Mother Nature Cambodia, a non-governmental organisa-
tion, exposed a discrepancy of more than USD30 million in imports of
silica sand into Taiwan that went unrecorded (Eco-Business, 2017). An
instance of dredging companies' blatant disregard for the law was in
2013, where five barges were found to be operating illegally in Kandal
province's S'ang district just two months after the Cambodian govern-
ment imposed a ban on riverbed mining along the Mekong and Tonlé
Sap Rivers (Pheap, 2013). Considering the fact that unlicensed dredging
companies face a low risk of punishment, it is unsurprising that they
continually flout the law in their operations (David, 2013).
Explicit policy recommendations to mitigate the detrimental im-
pacts of excessive riverbed mining is beyond the scope of this paper.
However, through the demonstrated relationship between extensive
riverbed mining in Phnom Penh and the shrinking of Tonlé Sap Lake,
this paper reports a new environmental consequence of sand mining.
The reduction in Tonlé Sap's inundation area would reduce the produc-
tivity of the lake's fisheries. Given the economic importance of Tonlé Sap
Lake, the over-exploitation of sand resources would present major chal-
lenges to the livelihoods of those who depend on primary fishery indus-
tries in Tonlé Sap. The loss of potential tourism revenue would also have
severe repercussions for the economy. Furthermore, rampant sand min-
ing is destroying the natural habitat on which endangered species are
dependent. Acknowledging these adverse economic and ecological im-
pacts, it should be stressed that the short-term economic profits derived
from riverbed mining should not be pursued at the expense of the envi-
ronment, especially since the economic benefits of riverbed dredging
are only enjoyed by dredging companies, at the cost of a disproportion-
ately large population who rely on Tonlé Sap Lake for their day-to-day
living. The adverse impacts of large-scale sand mining that bring so
much economic hardship to such a large population who rely on the
health and vitality of the lake should cause us to stop in our tracks to as-
sess its damage and costs.
10
Science of the Total Environment 777 (2021) 146180
The shrinking of Tonlé Sap will be exacerbated by climate change,
with projected flows within the Tonlé Sap Basin for three time horizons
(i.e. 2030s, 2060s and 2090s) indicating a likely reduction in both wet
and dry season flows (Oeurng et al., 2019). Similarly, future dam devel-
opment throughout the Mekong Basin driven by the power needs in the
region, will further reduce the inflow of water into the lake (Hecht et al.,
2019; Latrubesse et al., 2020; Schmitt et al., 2019). Apart from the re-
duction of inflow into the lake, all essential drivers of the Mekong
flood pulse have also been altered since the first Mekong tributary
dam began its operation, with these changes being congruous with
declining fishery yields in the Tonlé Sap Lake (Sabo et al., 2017).
These observed hydrological impacts caused by dam construction
are in agreement with basin-wide modelling studies, with average
monthly estimates of Tonlé Sap Basin's net primary production
showing a decline under all future hydropower development sce-
narios (Arias et al., 2014b). As such, the hydrological disruptions
jointly caused by excessive sand mining, climate change and dam
development pose serious threats to the Tonlé Sap ecosystem and
to regional food security; should there be no intervention, the future
of Tonlé Sap and the livelihoods of those residing in the region will
be in peril.
4. Conclusion
This paper analysed the impacts of riverbed mining on water level
trends at the Mekong and Tonlé Sap River, and the implications on the
inundation shrinkage of the lake. The results indicate that Tonlé Sap
Lake's water level is largely controlled by the Tonlé Sap River and the
Mekong. We show that the lake's volume has significantly decreased
from 1980 to 2018, with water level series at Phnom Penh Port
and Phnom Penh Bassac stations showing decreasing trends since
1980 (p-values <0.0001). However, discharge at Phnom Penh Bassac
from 1960 to 2002 did not present any significant trend (p-value =
0.147). This indicates that riverbed incision due to extensive sand min-
ing in Phnom Penh affected water levels more than other climatic
drivers. Similarly, dam-induced hydrological alterations to Tonlé Sap's
hydrological regime should not be overstated, since the contribution
of discharge from the Upper Mekong only forms approximately 16% of
the total runoff at Phnom Penh — Phnom Penh is more than 2000 km
downstream from Lancang, and there are many other tributaries with
substantial drainage areas in the Lower Mekong Basin, which are per-
haps more important hydrological contributors to Tonlé Sap than the
Lancang River. This, together with the fact that most mega dams located
along the Mekong mainstream were only built after 2002, makes it
difficult to establish the direct influence of hydropower dams in the
Upper Mekong Basin on Tonlé Sap's hydrology. Additionally,
considering that almost all existing dams in the 3S Basin and the
Lower Mekong Basin are run-of-river dams with small storage reser-
voirs, these dams are unlikely to have significantly influenced the
shrinking of Tonlé Sap, a trend that has been observed over the past
four decades.
The analysis of Google Earth imagery between 2014 and 2020 also re-
vealed a recent intensification of sand mining operations in Phnom Penh,
with the confluence of the Mekong, Bassac and Tonlé Sap River being a
hotspot for riverbed mining in the Lower Mekong. Therefore, we conclude
that riverbed incision due to extensive sand mining in Phnom Penh is
driving the reduction in water level and shrinking of Tonlé Sap Lake,
which will have grave environmental and economic repercussions for
the region. Despite a ban on sand exports by the Cambodian government
in 2009, riverbed mining remains unbridled, and dredging companies
continue to reap the short-term economic benefits of riverbed dredging
at the expense of the disproportionately large population who rely on
the lake as their primary economic and food resource.
Apart from the Mekong, rampant riverbed dredging is wreaking
similar havoc on many other large sand-bedded rivers in Asia, from
the Zhujiang and Yangtze Rivers in China to the Ayeyarwady River in
W.X. NG and E. Park
Myanmar (Chen et al., 2006; Lu et al., 2007; Moon et al., 2020). There-
fore, although our study is focused on the Lower Mekong River, it well
exemplifies the environmental pressures caused by unsustainable
sand mining, and serves an impetus for action to be taken in mitigating
the adverse environmental impacts that are similarly experienced by
many other large rivers in the region and beyond. Since the demand
for sand is unlikely to weaken in the foreseeable future, these findings
can potentially help inform regulatory frameworks in ensuring rates of
sand extraction that would not threaten the sustainability of the world's
riverbed sand resource in the long run.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Wen Xin NG: Conceptualization, Formal analysis, Methodology,
Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Edward Park: Con-
ceptualization, Methodology, Writing – original draft, Writing – review
& editing, Funding acquisition, Project administration.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgement
This study is funded by the National Institute of Education at the
Nanyang Technological University (SUG-NAP EP3/19) and Ministry of
Education- Singapore (AcRF Tier1 RT 06/19). Landsat data were
downloaded from the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) (http://glovis.usgs.
gov/), MODIS data were obtained from the National Aeronautics and
Space Administration (NASA) Land Processes Distribution Archive Center
(https://ladsweb.nascom.nasa.gov/), hydrological data were collected
from the Mekong River Commission (http://www.mrcmekong.org/)
and Southern Institute of Water Resources Research (SIWRR), and water
level time series from satellite radar altimetry were obtained from the
Database for Hydrological Time Series of Inland Waters (DAHITI)
(https://dahiti.dgfi.tum.de/en/products/water-level-altimetry/). We
would like to thank HL Ho (Josh) and Jana Lim for their technical assis-
tance in the development of this paper. This work is the Final Year Project
(FYP) of WXN (2021) under the supervision of EP.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.
org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.146180.
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