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Contents

03 11 22 29
Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4
Disaster and Important aspects Institutional International
Disaster of Disaster Framework Cooperation
Management Management

35 38 41 43
Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8
Earthquakes Tsunami Tropical Cyclones Floods

1
46 51 55 61
Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12
Droughts Landslides Industrial and Biological Disasters
Chemical Disasters

64 66 68 70
Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16
Lightning Desert Locust Slow Onset Urban Flooding
Disasters

72 74
Chapter 17 Previous Year
Epidemic / Questions
Pandemic

2
 CHAPTER - 1
DISASTER AND DISASTER MANAGEMENT
Introduction
• Disaster is an event or chain of events
that causes casualties and damage
or loss of properties, infrastructures,
environment, essential services or
means of livelihood on such a scale
which is beyond the normal capacity of
the affected community to cope with.
• According to the United Nations,
disaster is “the occurrence of sudden
or major misfortune which disturbs the
basic fabric and normal functioning of
the society or community”.
• Geo-climatic conditions of India as well
as its high degree of socio-economic
vulnerability, makes it one of the most
disaster-prone countries in the world.
Parameter Hazard
Hazards are elements
circumstances in the natural
Definition environment that have the
potential to cause harm to people
or property or both.
3
Distinction between
Hazard and Disaster
• “Practically what we call as natural
disasters are actually natural hazards,
such as landslides, earthquakes and
cyclones. The difference between a
disaster and a hazard is minor but
important. A hazard becomes disaster
when a community is affected by a
hazard (usually defined as an event and
even psychological factors.
• Which goes beyond the community's
capacity to cope. The impact of the
disaster is ascertained by the extent of a
community’s vulnerability to the hazard.
This vulnerability is not natural. It is the
human dimension of disasters, the result
of the whole range of economic, social,
cultural, institutional, political lives and
create the environment that they live
in. - Source: Twigg, J. 2001. (Extracted
from Living with Risk, A global review
of disaster reduction initiatives 2004
version).
Disaster
Disasters are direct or indirect
results of hazards. Disaster
of impacts include human losses,
property losses, resources and
environmental destruction,
ecological damages, disruption
of social order, and threats to the
normal functioning of lifelines and
production lines.
 Hazards may be swift (ex: volcanic
eruption) or permanent aspects
of the respective environmental
settings like currents in the
Occurrence oceans, steep slope and unstable
structural features in the
Himalayas or extreme climatic
conditions in deserts or glaciated
areas.
Occurrence of disasters depend
on the extent of Hazard and
the associated vulnerabilities of
the affected population. Same
hazard can become a major
disaster for a population which is
more vulnerable.

Hazards take its full shape after a

As disaster happens most often in
series of events and it has all the
a short time, thus making it more
potential to be harmful but won’t
severe than the hazards.
actively harm humans or our
Severity environment. So, unlike hazards, disaster is
an event that actually harms
Ex: a hurricane in the middle of
human’s life, property and thus
the ocean that is nowhere near to
disrupts social activities.
land could be a simple hazard.

Like hazards, natural disasters

As hazards are naturally occurring cannot be avoided. But with
Avoidance situations in the world, they certain level of preparedness
cannot be avoided. the manmade disasters can be
avoided.

Both hazard and disaster can cause dangerous results to the affected
Similarity
victims.

Risk: » Setting up of early warning systems

Risk is the possibility of damage in terms
of life, property and livelihood due to
a disaster at a given point of time. It
depends on the intensity of the Hazard
and the vulnerability of the population. It
can be simply understood as
Risk= Vulnerability x Hazard
• Risk due to Hazard depends on following
factors:
» Demography
» Economic status
» Geographical location
» Use of scientific methods for mitigation
» Implementation of the laws
» Preparedness of the community
Classification of
Disaster
• Disasters can be natural disasters or
human-made disasters.
Natural Disaster
• Natural disasters are large-scale
geological or meteorological events
that have the potential to cause loss of
life or property.
• Earthquake, cyclone, hailstorm, cloud-

4
 burst, landslide, soil erosion, snow • Fire, road, epidemics, air, rail accidents
avalanche, flood etc. are some of the and leakages of nuclear installations /
examples of natural disasters. chemicals etc. come under the human-
made disasters.

Human-Made Disaster The High Power Committee on Disaster

• Human Made disasters are disasters Management, constituted in 1999, has
that are caused as a direct result of identified various disasters categorized
human action. into five major sub-groups.

Classification of Disasters

Water and Geological Chemical, Accidental Biological

climate related disasters industrial disasters disasters
disasters and nuclear
disasters

− Floods and − Landslides − Chemical − Forest fires − Biological

drainage and mud- and − Urban fires disasters
management flows industrial and
disasters − Mine epidemics
− Cyclones − Earthquakes flooding
− Tornadoes − Dam failures − Nuclear − Oil spills
− Pest attacks
and disasters − Cattle
− Minor fires − Major
hurricanes epidemics
building
− Hailstorms collapse − Food
− Cloud bursts poisoning
− Serial bomb
− Heat waves blasts
and cold − Festival
waves related
− Snow disasters
avalanches − Electrical
− Droughts disasters &
− Sea erosion fires

− Thunder and − Air, road

lightning and rail
accidents
− Tsunami
− Boat
capsizing
− Village fires

5
• The HPC was constituted in August
1999 under the Chairmanship of Shri
J.C. Pant. It was a first attempt in India
towards drawing up a systematic,
comprehensive, and holistic approach
towards disasters.
• HPC members were drawn from the
Ministries, States, NGOs, and experts
drawn from relevant fields.
• The original mandate of the HPC was
confined to preparation of management
plans for natural disasters only. However,
it was expanded to include man-made
disasters and towards developing an
effective plan of action that would
encompass disasters of all origins.
• The enhanced Terms of Reference of
the HPC:
» To review existing arrangements for
preparedness and mitigation of natural
and man-made disasters including
industrial, nuclear, biological, and
chemical disasters.
» Recommend measures for strengthening
organizational structures
» Prepare model plans for management
of these disasters at the National, State
and District levels.
Disaster
Management
• Disaster Management is an integrated
and continuous process of planning,
organizing, coordinating and
implementing measures which are
expedient or necessary for:
» Prevention of threat or danger of any
kind of disaster.
» Mitigation or reduction of risk of any
kind of disaster or its intensity or its
consequences.
» Capacity building along with research
and knowledge management.
6
» Preparedness to deal with any type of
disaster.
» Prompt response to any threatening
disaster situation.
» Assessing the severity or magnitude of
effect of any disaster.
» Evacuation, rescue and relief.
» Rehabilitation and reconstruction.
Disaster
Management Cycle
• The concept of Disaster Management
Cycle integrates isolated attempts
on the part of different government
and non-government actors, towards
vulnerability reduction or disaster
mitigation, within the enveloping
domain of disaster management, as
phases occurring in different time
periods in disaster management
continuum, though essentially relating
to/comprising disaster management.
• This has facilitated a planned approach
to disaster management in that post-
disaster recovery and pre-disaster
mitigation planning is perceived as
integrated/related activities and not
separate. Thus, prevention, mitigation
and preparedness form pre-disaster
phases in the Disaster Management
Cycle and response, recovery are post-
disaster phases.
Pre-disaster Post-disaster
activities: activities:
• Prevention • Response
• Mitigation • Recovery
• Preparedness
 Disaster Management Cycle
Disaster
Preparedness
Planning how to respond. Eg.
emergency exercises/train - hazards created by a disaster.
ing; warning systems.
Mitigation
Minimizing the effects of Returning the community to
disaster. Eg. Vulnerability
analyses; public education.
I m a g e 1.1: D i s a s t e r m a n ag e m e n t
• Prevention: Activities which are
aimed at trying to prevent future
disasters, such as planting trees on
slopes to prevent landslides or a dam
to control flooding.
• Mitigation: Activities which are
aimed at trying to reduce/minimize the
impact of a disaster if prevention is not
possible, such as earthquake resistant
buildings according to the earthquake
prone zones.
• Preparedness: Activities which are
aimed at trying to prepare communities
for a disaster, such as emergency drills or
pre-stocking relief items in logistic hubs.
• Response: The response phase consist
of the mobilization of the necessary
emergency services, logistical support
and first responders in the disaster area
like community and local government.
This include core emergency services,
such as fire-fighters, police and
healthcare services like ambulance,
doctors etc.
• Recovery: The objective of the
recovery phase is to restore the
affected area to its pre-disaster state.
It differs from the response phase in its
focus; recovery efforts are concerned
with issues and decisions that must
7
Response
Efforts to minimize the
Eg. Search and Rescue
Recover y
normal. Eg. temporary
housing; medical care.
C yc l e
be made after immediate needs
are addressed. Recovery efforts are
primarily concerned with actions that
involve rebuilding destroyed property,
re- employment, and the repair of other
essential infrastructure.
Recovery may be further segregated as:
• Rehabilitation: It includes provision
of temporary public utilities like
shelters, food, health facilities as interim
measures as reconstruction is a long
term process.
• Reconstruction: It includes
construction of damaged infrastructure
like houses, roads, electricity lines,
sewage lines and enabling sustainable
livelihoods of the disaster affected
community.
Vulnerability to
disaster
• The potential for loss to an individual,
community or a place because of a
disaster that is affected by geographical
as well as social conditions. There are
many aspects of vulnerability to disaster,
arising from various physical, social,
economic, and environmental factors.
Factors determining
vulnerability to a disaster
event:
• Physical Vulnerability may be
ascertained by aspects such as
population density, remoteness of
a settlement, the site, design and
materials used for critical infrastructure
and for housing (UNISDR). E.g. Wooden
homes are less likely to collapse in an
earthquake but are more vulnerable to
fire.
• Social Vulnerability means the
 inability of people, organizations and
societies to withstand adverse impacts
of hazards due to factors inherent
in social interactions, institutions
and systems of cultural values. It is
linked to the level of wellbeing of
individuals, communities and society
as a whole. It includes factors related
to levels of literacy and education,
the existence of peace and security,
access to basic human rights, systems
of good governance, social equity,
positive traditional values, customs
and ideological beliefs and overall
collective organizational systems
(UNISDR). E.g. When flooding occurs
some citizens, such as children, elderly
and differently-able, may be unable
to protect themselves or evacuate if
necessary.
• Economic Vulnerability: The
intensity of vulnerability is highly
dependent upon the economic status
of individuals, communities and
nations. The poor people are generally
more vulnerable as they lack the
resources to build strong structures
and put other engineering measures
in place to protect themselves from
being negatively impacted by disasters.
E.g. Poorer families may live in slums
because they cannot afford to live in
safer (more expensive) areas.
• Environmental Vulnerability:
Natural resource depletion and
resource degradation are key aspects
of environmental vulnerability. E.g.
Wetlands, such as the Caroni Swamp,
are sensitive to increasing salinity from
sea water, and pollution from storm
water runoff containing agricultural
chemicals, eroded soils, etc.
Disasters – Indian
Scenario
• India is vulnerable to a large number
8
of natural as well as human induced
disasters because of its unique
geo-climatic and socio-economic
conditions.
• It is highly vulnerable to droughts, floods,
cyclones, earthquakes, landslides, forest
fires and avalanches.
• As far as the vulnerability to disaster is
concerned, the five distinctive regions
of the country have their own specific
problems. These regions are: Himalayan
region, the alluvial plains, desert area,
the hilly part of the peninsula, and the
coastal zone.
» Himalayan region is prone to disasters
like landslides and earthquakes.
» Plains are affected by floods almost
every year like Ganges plain.
» Desert area is affected by droughts and
famine.
» The hilly part of the peninsula is prone
to landslides and flash floods.
» Coastal zones are vulnerable to
cyclones and storms and sometimes
flooding as a consequence of cyclones.
• India is one of the worst disaster prone
countries of the world.
• 58.6% landmass of India is prone
to earthquakes of moderate to very
high intensity; 12% land is prone to
flood and river erosion; out of 7,516
km coastline, 5,700 km is prone to
cyclones and tsunamis; 68% of the
cultivable land is vulnerable to drought,
hilly areas are at risk from avalanches
and landslides, and 15% of landmass
is prone to landslides. A total of 5,161
Urban Local Bodies (ULBs) are prone to
urban flooding.
• The hazard vulnerability of the country
finds a face when we look at the major
disasters of the country from 1980-
2010. During this period of 30 years the
country has been hit by approximately
25 major disasters apart from the heat
 wave, cold wave and heavy winds
affecting some areas of the country.
• Disaster risks in India are further
intensified by increasing vulnerabilities
related to changing demographic and
socio-economic conditions, unplanned
urbanization, development within high-
risk zones, environmental degradation,
climate change, geological hazards,
epidemics and pandemics.
• The management of disasters in India
is governed legally by the Disaster
Management Act 2005 and the
guidelines given by the National
Disaster Management Authority (a
statutory authority under the DM Act
2005) which are specifically described.
in the subsequent sections.

Central Agencies designated for Natural

Hazards
Hazard Agency

Avalanches Snow and Avalanche Study Establishment (SASE)

Cyclone India Meteorological Department (IMD)

Drought Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare (MoAFW)

Earthquake India Meteorological Department (IMD)

Epidemics Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoHFW)

Floods Central Water Commission (CWC)

Landslides Geological Survey of India (GSI)

India National Centre for Oceanic Information

Tsunami
Services (INCOIS)

Nodal Ministries for different disasters

Disaster Ministry

Air Accidents Ministry of Civil Aviation

Civil Strife Ministry of Home Affairs

Railway Accidents Ministry of Railways

9
 Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Chemical Disasters
Climate Change

Biological Disaster Ministry of Health and Family Welfare

Nuclear accident inside or outside the

country which poses health or other Department of Atomic Energy
hazards to people in India

Major breakdown of any of the Essential

Services posing widespread and protected Concerned Ministries
problems

Cyclone, tornado, tsunami Ministry of Home Affairs

Urban floods Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs

Oil spills Ministry of Defence/Indian Coast Guard

Landslide and avalanche Ministry of Home Affairs

Earthquake Ministry of Home Affairs

Drought, pest attack, hailstorm Ministry of Agriculture

Ministry of Environment, Forest and

Forest fires
Climate Change

Floods Ministry of Home Affairs

Stats on the economic and Human losses due to disasters.

Decadal Deaths from Natural Disasters

fr om natur al dis as te rs

6,000,000
600 537

500 475
U. S. dollars

4,500,000
400 340 349
327
280 3,000,000
Economic loss in billion

300 258 266 263

244 232

200 149 170 177

145 345 1,500,000
122 106
106
Global deaths

93
100

0 0
1 7 11 7
19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

19

20

20

0 0 0 2 03 04 05 0 6 0 0 8 0 9 10 12 13 14 15 16 1 18 19
0 20
20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20 20
00

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

90

00

10
-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-1

-2

-2
90

91

92

93

94

95

96

97

98

99

00

01
9

I m a g e 1.2: E c o n o m ic and Human loss from N at u r a l D i s a s t e r s

10
 CHAPTER - 2
IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF DISASTER
MANAGEMENT
Introduction
• The first important step towards
reducing disaster impact is to correctly
analyze the potential risk and identify
measures that can prevent, mitigate or
prepare for emergencies.
Disability Inclusive
Disaster Risk
Reduction (DIDRR)
• "Empowering women and Persons
with Disabilities (PwD) to publicly lead
and promote gender equitable and
universally accessible response, recovery,
rehabilitation and reconstruction is key"
- Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk
Reduction.
• Persons with Disabilities (PwD) may
be at higher disaster risk because of
physical or cognitive impairments. Such
factors may limit the ability of a person
with disabilities to access information
and/ or to act on that information.
National and International
Need for Disability Inclusive Framework:
Disaster Risk Reduction (DIDRR) • Section 8 of the Rights of Persons with
• Large population of disabled
people: In India, of the 2.68 crore
(about. 2.1% of total population)
persons with disability, men with
disabilities constitute 56% and women
with disabilities make up the rest 44%.
• Lack of readiness: Persons with
disabilities are more likely to be left
behind or abandoned during evacuation
in disasters and conflicts due to a lack
11
of preparation and planning, as well as
inaccessible facilities and services and
transportation systems.
• Disproportionate impacts:
Disruption to physical, social, economic,
and environmental networks and
support systems affect persons with
disabilities much more than the general
population.
• Inaccessibility: Most shelters and
refugee camps are not accessible and
people with disabilities are many times
even turned away from shelters and
refugee camps due to a perception that
they need “complex medical” services.
• High mortality rate of disabled
people: They have 2 to 4 times the
mortality rate of the general population
in acute onset of disasters, with that
of women with disability being even
higher.
• Social discrimination: There is also
a potential for discrimination on the
basis of disability when resources are
scarce.
Disabilities Act, 2016 ensures equal
protection and safety for persons with
disabilities in such situations.
» The Act also mandates Disaster
Management Authorities at District/
State/National levels to take measures
to include persons with disabilities in
disaster management activities and
to keep them informed about these
measures.
» These authorities are compulsorily
required to involve the concerned
State Commissioner for Persons
with Disabilities during disaster
management.
• The United Nations Convention on the
Rights of Persons with Disabilities pays
particular attention to the obligation
of States parties, to undertake “all
necessary measures to ensure the
protection and safety of persons
with disabilities in situations of risk,
including situations of armed conflict,
humanitarian emergencies and the
occurrence of natural disasters.”
National Disaster Management
Guidelines on Disability Inclusive
Disaster Risk Reduction » Centre should earmark specific
• Principle of disability inclusion
» Strengthen the implementation process
on providing appropriate support
to people with disabilities when
responding to disasters.
» Empower persons with disabilities and
their representative organization to
contribute to all aspects of DiDRR so
that they are viewed not as passive
actors but as decision makers.
» Targets: These guidelines are intended
primarily for the government officials/
administration working in the field
of DRR at national, state and local
level, international NGO, person
with disability, disabled people’s
organization.
• Some of the guidelines are
» Centre should conduct census and
survey of people with disabilities for
data & resource mapping.
» Inclusion of issues of persons with
disability and their organization in
disaster risk reduction activities as
stipulated in the Right of Person with
12
Disability Act (RPWDA) 2016 has to be
institutionalised.
» Awareness of DRR planning and
services among people with disabilities
has to be universalized.
» Adoption of universal design principle,
facilitation of accessibility and access
to assistive technology.
» Preparedness and mitigation strategies
such as national stockpiling of durable
medical equipment, life saving devices
etc. for reducing the chance of
increasing their disability.
» Early warning system mechanism for
informing people with intellectual
disability through repeated and
alternative formats such as audio and
sign languages.
budgetary allocation towards DiDRR
and state should mobilize and utilize
CSR fund and District Mineral Fund
towards implementation of inclusive
actions.
Recent Guidelines for protection
and safety of Persons with
Disabilities (Divyangjan) in light of
Pandemic Covid-19: Guidelines issued
by the Department of Empowerment of
Persons with Disabilities (DEPwD) are as
follows:
• All information related to COVID-19,
services offered and precautions to
be taken should be available in simple
and local language in accessible
formats; i.e. in Braille and audio tapes
for persons with visual impairment,
video-graphic material with sub- titles
and sign language interpretation for
persons with hearing disability and
through accessible web sites.
• Provide same health and safety
protection to sign language
interpreters working in the emergency
and health settings as other health
care workers dealing with COVID19.
• Training on the rights of persons with
disabilities and the risks associated
with additional problems for persons
with specific disabilities should be
provided to all persons responsible
for handling emergency response
services.
• All awareness campaigns should
include information related persons
with disabilities.
• Caregivers of persons with disabilities
should be exempted from restrictions
during lock-down or providing passes
in a simplified manner on priority.
Disasters and
Vulnerability of
Women
• It has been noted that women and
children are the most adversely
affected in disasters, particularly
natural disasters, and consequently
suffer the most. This was evident during
the recent Tsunami in India where in
Nagapattinam district, 1/3rd of the
total dead were women. Total death
count was 6065.
• The basic reason for this situation is
the gender disparities which exist in
our society because of which women
have little say in decision making,
particularly outside the household, they
are comparatively less literate, have
lesser mobility and are dependent on
menfolk in most matters. Consequently,
they are not adequately consulted in
the decision making process in the
community and have a lesser role in all
activities.
2nd ARC recommendations:
• Any vulnerability analysis should work
out the women specific vulnerabilities
13
and these should be addressed
in mitigation efforts. Women’s
organizations should be consulted
while making disaster mitigation plans.
• Rescue and relief should focus on the
most vulnerable groups like children,
women, the elderly and the physically
challenged.
• Relief measures should focus on the
special needs of children, women
and other vulnerable sections of the
affected community. Special focus
needs to be given to their physical and
mental well-being through health care
and counseling.
• Efforts in the recovery phase should
focus on making women economically
independent by offering them livelihood
opportunities, skill development,
forming self-help groups, providing
micro- finance, marketing facilities etc.
• The ownership of new assets created
should be in the names of both husband
and wife.
• Camp managing committees should
have sufficient number of women
representatives.
• Trauma counseling and psychological
treatment should be made available to
women, widows and persons in distress.
All these activities should be made part
of the disaster management plan.
• Orphaned children should be
rehabilitated on a long term basis.
NGOs need to be encouraged to play a
major role in their rehabilitation.
Role of technology
in Disaster
Management
While technology cannot replace the
vital resources people need during
disaster – food, shelter, water, or comfort
from beloved ones – but technology is
transforming disaster relief efforts and
paving the way for a changing approach
to international aid: technology which
helps to reach more people in a matter
of time, and help communities to develop
resilience for the disaster.
• Aerial robotics: Aerial robotics,
including unmanned aerial vehicles
(UAVs), offers tremendous potential
to transform humanitarian aid during
disasters. Aerial technology can
help to map terrain more effectively,
assess damage in real time, increase
situational awareness through high-
resolution mapping and deliver items
faster, cheaper and more efficiently.
E.g. global non-profit WeRobotics’
programme; Aid Robotics, identifies
local humanitarian needs and incubates
robotics solutions via regional Flying
Labs.
• Modern Cameras: infrared cameras
and advanced listening systems enable
UAVs to uncover survivors from rubble
or among flames and live-stream night
footage, increasing the success of
critical rescue efforts.
• Modern Communication: In times
of disaster, basic connectivity is a
form of aid that connects people to
the resources, critical for survival and
enables humanitarian organizations to
quickly deliver life-saving information.
For example, Cisco’s Tactical
Operations (TacOps) takes advantage
of the latest mobile networking
technology, including cloud-controlled
Meraki technology, to establish
connectivity when disaster strikes,
often faster than government or local
providers can.
• Social media solutions: Mobile
solutions, social media and digital
communities provide a new way for
organizations and their beneficiaries
to communicate. This includes the
development of a feedback loop,
through which information collected is
applied to develop a deeper and more
real-time understanding of both sector
and service user needs, leading to
faster, more efficient responses which
ultimately supports beneficiaries. For
example, the World Food Programme
(WFP) Mobile Vulnerability Analysis
and Mapping (mVAM) uses mobile
technology to address the barrier of
aggregate and manual data collection.

• Use of big data in disaster management:

Identification of
vulnerable hotspots
and population living
there.

Sharing information Forecasting the

to all stakeholders Big Data in DM vulnerabilities and
and involving them. ground activities.

Identification of new
plan, resources &
opportunities for
rescue and relief.

I m a g e 2.1: B i g D ata in D i sa st e r M a n ag e m e n t

14
» Predictive Policies: This can be
developed from previous disasters,
officials and responders can collect
insights that help forecast future
incidents and identification of
vulnerable social sections. Combined
with sensor data collection, surveillance
and satellite imagery, big data
analytics allow mission-critical areas
to be surveyed and assessed. Through
Artificial Intelligence (AI), for instance,
Google is predicting flood patterns
in India and working to bring greater
precision and accuracy to response
efforts.
» Efficient Allocation of Resources:
Big data generated from geo-
informatics and remote sensing
platforms help to identify the gaps and
make the recommendation on where
to allocate resources to mitigate the
risk. This includes, helping to monitor
recovery, focusing early warning and
assessing resilience.
» Economic mitigation plans: Big
data provides a deeper understanding
about how an economy is interconnected
and how devastation of even a single
crop like rice, by a disaster can trigger
a chain impact across several industries
and services, such as transportation,
rice-trading, packaging and retail.
• Social media also collects data and
allows survivors to mark themselves
safe in times of crisis, helpful for both
emergency response teams and worried
friends and family alike.
• Ushahidi, is an open-source crisis-
mapping software that creates a
database of geo-tagged and time-
stamped reports gathered via email,
SMS, or tweets. From this information,
it builds a comprehensive, real-time
picture of what is happening on the
ground. Today, Ushahidi V3, or “Ushahidi
in the Cloud”, can be accessed by
anyone, even non-developers.
15
• The American Red Cross, put lifesaving
information at the user’s fingertips
through free mobile apps. The apps
provide people instant access to more
than 35 customizable emergency
weather alerts, as well as safety tips
and preparedness information for 14
different types of emergencies and
disasters.
• The pilot project was done by Google
in collaboration with the Central Water
Commission, to estimate the flood level
situation in Patna.
• Odisha State Disaster Mitigation
Authority (OSDMA) in collaboration
with Regional Integrated Multi-Hazard
Early Warning System (RIMES) has also
developed a web and smartphone-
based platform called “SATARK”. The
application is developed to provide
real time watch, alert and warning
information for different hazards like
heatwave, lightning, agriculture risk
(drought), and flood monitoring.
Disaster Resilient
Infrastructure (DRI)
• Infrastructure that can stand any huge
damage from any kind of natural
disaster is known as Disaster Resilient
Infrastructure. It encompasses structural
and non-structural measures.
» Structural Measures involve
adjusting engineering designs and
standards to reflect disaster risk such
as, flood control systems, protective
embankments, seawall rehabilitation,
and retrofitting of buildings.
» Non-structural measures
refer to risk-sensitive planning,
enabling institutional frameworks,
hazard mapping, ecosystem-based
management, and disaster risk
financing.
• SDG Goal 9 recognizes Disaster Resilient
Infrastructure as a crucial driver of
economic growth and development.
Need for DRI:
• Loss to human life can be
reduced- It will help achieve targets
pertaining to reduction in mortality
and number of affected people due to
disasters.
• Post Disaster Response - The
public infrastructure sectors - energy,
transportation, tele-communication
are also crucial to step up the overall
disaster response, thus making their
resilience critical for effective post-
disaster response.
• Bring Down the Economic Loss -
It could bring down the economic cost
of rebuilding the whole set up that the
nations face due to natural disasters.
Steps to be taken:
• States need to incorporate infrastructure
resilience in their national and local
disaster risk reduction strategies.
• Strengthening Infrastructure
regulations is the need of the hour. This
includes developing risk informed laws,
regulations and public policies which
prevent the creation of new risk and
reduce existing risk.
• The exposure of infrastructure
investments to risk should be measured,
monitored. And making disclosure of
disaster risks mandatory.
• Actively engage and provide incentives
to the private sector to participate in
the building, a sustainable and resilient
infrastructure. This is because the
majority of investment for infrastructure
is done by the private sector. Without
their engagement, it is difficult to meet
demands and fill the financing gap.
• Knowledge enhancement and
16
capacity building. Awareness-raising,
advocacy and training programmes
targeting each category of stakeholder
across a range of national and local
contexts are necessary.
• Disaster Risk Financing strategy could
include budget reserve funds as well as
disaster risk transfer instruments like
catastrophic bonds.
• The “Build Back Better” principle must
be followed not only for the structural
design of the infrastructure but also in
terms of management systems around
it.
• Mock drill is another important aspect
of disaster management. Without
practice, one would not be able to
use these safe routes at the time of
emergency. Such kind of mock drills
should be organized frequently. During
the mock drills, people should practice
to come out from their buildings and
houses within 3-4 minutes to the open
spaces identified in the community
maps.
2nd ARC recommendations
• As a part of a long term disaster
management plan for an area it should
include structural prevention measures.
• Zoning Regulations should be extended
to all the regions. Zoning of the regions
should be made based on the intensity
of the hazard anticipated.
• Building bye-laws should incorporate
the features of disaster resistant
buildings. It is necessary to issue
simplified guidelines which could be
understood by the common people, as
safety codes are complex and technical.
• The existing enforcement of building
regulations needs to be professionalized
by licensing architects and structural
engineers for assessment of structures
and certification of safe buildings.
• The Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS)
 for disaster resistant buildings should
be available in the public domain, free
of cost.
• In rural areas, methods of dissemination
including setting up of Building
Technology Demonstration Centres and
undertaking demonstrative disaster
constructions in severe hazard prone
areas should be taken up.
Coalition for Disaster Resilient
Infrastructure (CDRI)
• It was launched by Prime Minister in
September 2019 at the UN Secretary-
General’s Climate Action Summit in
New York, US.
• Coalition for Disaster Resilient
Infrastructure is a multi-stakeholder
global partnership of national
governments, United Nations agencies
and its programmes, private sector,
multilateral banks and financial
mechanisms, knowledge and academic
institutions. Currently, it is not an
intergovernmental organization.
• The coalition aims to promote the
resilience of infrastructure to climate
and disaster risks to ensure sustainable
development.
• It strives to rapidly expand the
development and retrofit of resilient
infrastructure to respond to the
disasters.
• Sustainable Development Goals
expanding universal access to basic
services, enabling prosperity and
decent work.
• It brings together a multitude of
stakeholders to create a mechanism
to assist countries to upgrade their
capacities, systems, standards,
regulations and practices with regard
to infrastructure development in
accordance with their risk context and
economic needs.
17
Community
Based Disaster
Management
• ‘Where communities are equipped and
prepared, disasters clearly have much
lesser impact, especially in terms of the
loss of lives’ - UNISDR.
• Community based disaster
management has emerged as a
primary priority area in disaster risk
management. Communities are the
first responders during the disaster,
thus communities become significant
in disaster response, mitigation and
management interventions.
Rationale for Community Based
Disaster Management (CBDM):
• Disaster risk reduction measures are
most successful when they directly
involve the people most likely to be
exposed to hazards.
• Community-based preparedness and
early warning systems help in saving
lives, protecting property, and reducing
economic losses.
• Failure to understand the risk behaviour
and culture of local communities can
lead to badly designed preparedness
measures including early warning
systems.
• Local people’s participation ensure self-
reliance and ensures that emergency
management plans meet local needs.
Indigenous knowledge and innovation
with respect to hazards and mitigation
also play an important role.
• Disaster relief and recovery responses
do not directly involve the affected
communities and frequently provide
inappropriate and unsustainable forms
of assistance.
• Organized communities are always in
 a better position to enforce downward
accountability.
• A community-level focus helps in the
identification of vulnerable sections.
• Community Based Disaster
Management (CBDM) promotes a
bottom-up approach working in
harmony with the top-down approach,
to address the challenges and
difficulties.
Indian DM framework and
Community based disaster
Management:
• Disaster Management Act, 2005
– It facilitates community training and
awareness programmes for prevention
of disaster or mitigation with support
of local authorities, governmental and
non-governmental organisations. It
encourages participation of NGOs and
voluntary social-welfare organisations
working at the grassroots level for
disaster management.
• National Policy on Disaster
Management 2009 (NPDM) - It
lays special emphasis on community
based disaster preparedness. It
recognizes community as the bedrock
of the process of disaster response. It
also emphasizes on training, simulations
and mock drills of vulnerable sections.
• The National Disaster
Management Plan (NDMP) 2016
(Updated in 2019) – The plan was
first released in 2016 aimed at making
India disaster resilient and reduce the
damage due to any disaster, natural or
man-made drastically. It is based on
the four priority themes of the Sendai
Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction.
They are:
» Understanding disaster risk.
» Improving disaster risk governance.
18
» Investing in disaster reduction (through
structural and nonstructural measures).
» Enhancing the preparedness for
disasters to respond effectively and
building back better in the aftermath of
a disaster.
Key features of the plan:
• It covers all the phases of disaster
management i.e. prevention, mitigation,
response and recovery.
• It uses the four priorities enunciated in
the Sendai framework for each Hazard.
• The responses scheme in the plan
identifies 18 broad activities arranged
in a Matrix format that can be used as
a ready reckoner.
• It also focuses on strengthening disaster
risk governance. There is a responsibility
matrix that specifies the agency is at the
union and the state levels with specific
roles. The matrix has six thematic areas
where the Centre and the States have
to act in order to strengthen disaster
risk governance.
• It further focuses on horizontal and
vertical integration among agencies
and departments with specific roles up
to the third tier (Panchayats and Urban
Local Bodies).
• The design is such that it can be scaled
in all phases of disaster management
depending upon the status of
preparedness. There is a greater
focus on information, education and
communication in order to prepare
communities to cope up with the
disasters.
• It reinforces the need for enhancing
the capacity of communities, as they
are the first responders to disasters
and this capacity building includes
awareness, sensitization, orientation
and developing skills of communities
and community leaders.
Steps to be taken:
• Community Preparedness - nutrition, maternal and child health,
Community preparedness can be
thought of as the advance capacity
of a community to respond to the
consequences of an adverse event by
having plans in place so that people
know what to do and where to go,
if a warning is issued or a hazard is
observed.
Major components of a community
preparedness program are:
• Raising public awareness and effecting
behavioural change regarding disaster
management.
• Deployment of stable, reliable, and
effective early warning systems.
• Development of effective messaging
for inducing favourable community
response for mitigation, preparedness,
and warning communications.
• Community Empowerment - Being
the first responders, communities should
have capacity to respond to disasters
themselves. Because of this reason,
that communities should be involved in
managing the risks which may threaten
their well-being. Provide technical and
legal advice to communities to help
them implement their own mitigation
projects and programmes, and to
negotiate effectively with governments
and agencies.
• Time and Resource budgeting –
It is important that we follow a process
and do it efficiently within a given time
frame and resources (human, physical
and financial), further it needs to be
ensured, that no step is left midway
or incomplete without achieving the
desired result.
• Convergence - Convergence
of government schemes and
programmes implemented by the
Centre and the States is extremely
crucial for community based disaster
19
management. Programmes for poverty
alleviation, school education and
drinking water and sanitation programs
etc., if implemented properly, can go a
long way in empowering communities.
• Gender sensitive CBDM - Working
with existing women's networks helps
strengthen women's participation in
the community's decision-making
processes. Working with existing
women's organizations can help
strengthening women's participation
in the community's decision-making
processes.
• Inclusion of other disadvantaged
groups - Most of the deaths and
injuries in the aftermath of a disaster
are generally of women, children,
disadvantaged groups such as
differently abled, socio-economically
disadvantaged groups such as SCs,
STs, senior citizens, etc. Mandatory
membership to women and other
disadvantaged groups in various
resource groups / working groups
/ standing committees gives an
opportunity to adequately voice
their concerns and plan inclusive DM
interventions.
2nd ARC recommendations on
building community resilience:
• Panchayats should be roped in for
location specific training programmes.
• Crisis management awareness should
be included in school, college, university,
professional and vocational education
curriculum.
• Disaster awareness should be included
in training programmes for public
representatives, civil servants, police
personnel and personnel in critical
sectors such as agriculture, irrigation,
health and public works.
• Orientation and sensitization
 programmes should be introduced for
legislators, policy makers, and elected
leaders of urban local bodies and
Panchayati Raj Institutions.
• National Institute of Disaster
Management (NIDM) and National
Disaster Management Authority
(NDMA) would have to play a vital
role in working out the details of these
suggestions for implementation by
different authorities.
• Government and the insurance
companies should play a more pro-
active role in motivating citizens in
vulnerable areas to take insurance
cover.
• Disaster management plans should try
to integrate traditional knowledge of
the communities.
Case studies of Community based Di-
saster Management
• Flood Kolhapur, (2019) - From 14th
of July 2018 as per the prediction of
IMD it rains heavily in all the 12 blocks
of the Kolhapur district. Emergency
Management plan was made under
the guidance of District Magistrate
(Incident Commander) with all the
line department including Aapda Mi-
tra. With the support of trained Aap-
da Mitra, 06 lives got saved due to ef-
fective communication and efficient
response by the Aapda Mitra.
• Cyclone Fani, Odisha, (2019) - Odis-
ha is having 400 trained Aapda Mitra
in the District Puri and Jagatsingh-
pur. Aapda Mitra volunteers immedi-
ately came into action and did early
warning and support in evacuation.
As soon as the cyclone Fani started
losing grip, Aapda Mitra volunteers
supported district administration in
clearing roads, providing first aid and
managing the distribution of food
and medical aid and other relief ma-
terial at various relief shelters to the
cyclone victims.
20
• Post-Earthquake (2001) reconstruc-
tion at Kutch region - In response to
the disaster, the Government of Guja-
rat with the support of the multilateral
and bilateral agencies prepared the
Gujarat Earthquake Rehabilitation
and Reconstruction Policy. Consent
and support of villagers were sought
while relocating the villages which
were completely damaged by the
earthquake. In-situ rehabilitation was
initiated where people were not inter-
ested to get relocated. The villagers
built their own houses by getting fi-
nancial and technical assistance from
the government.
15th Finance
Commission
recommendations on
Disaster Management
• The 15th FC recommended for establishing
National & State Disaster Management
Funds (NDMF and SDMF) for the local-
level mitigation activities. It has also
recommended retaining the existing
cost-sharing mechanism between the
Centre and states to fund the SDMF (new)
and the SDRF (existing). The cost- sharing
pattern between centre and states is (i)
75:25 for all states, and (ii) 90:10 for north-
eastern and Himalayan states.
• The terminology, “Disaster Risk
Management” instead of “Disaster
Management” has been introduced
for the first time. This signals a move
towards an advanced approach
of managing disaster risk, which is
proactive and preparedness based
rather than response centric.
• The term ‘river erosion’ has been used for
the first time in the Finance Commission
report. This may mark the beginning of
systematic efforts to address ‘riverine
erosion’ as a significant hazard affecting
vulnerable communities.
Some Case Studies
Traditional Knowledge for
Disaster Management
• Tribes of Andaman and Nicobar have
survived the tsunami only because their
existing warning systems worked well
as compared to modern systems which
were practically non-existent.
• The fact that traditional wood and
stone made houses withstood the
Uttarkashi earthquake while modern
buildings collapsed are testimonials
for traditional knowledge of the
community.
• In the flood-prone rural areas of North-
East, one can find houses on bamboo
stilts that allow flood waters to flow
under them rather than through or over.
• Native intelligence is significant and
technical expertise needs to treat this as
complementary. This intelligence needs
to be tapped for devising approaches
to management of disasters. Further,
policies and laws for disaster
management need to provide space for
such intelligence to be counted.
21
Public Address System Saves
Lives in Pondicherry Villages
• In the coastal villages of Nallavadu and
Veerampattinam in the Union Territory
of Pondicherry, a Public Address System
(PAS) installed in their ‘Rural Knowledge
Centres’ saved thousands of lives when
the tsunami struck on 26th December,
2004.
• One of the residents of Nallavadu, who
lived abroad, heard about the tsunami
and informed his village on telephone.
The villagers used the PAS to warn
the residents who quickly vacated the
village and were saved.
• In Veerampattinam, a fisherman was
repairing his boat when he noticed
a dramatic increase in the sea level.
He raised an alarm which alerted the
Panchayat leaders who used the PAS to
make the villagers vacate the area.
Disaster Management in India:
Success stories
• The Indian government's "zero
casualty" policy for cyclones and early
warning system of India Meteorological
Department (IMD) has helped reduce
the possibility of deaths from cyclone
Fani in Odisha.
• India's policy of minimising fatalities
from cyclones has been proven by past
performances as in cyclone Phailin in
2013, when famously the casualty rate
was kept to as low as 45 despite the
intensity of the storm.
 CHAPTER - 3
INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK
Introduction
• The Disaster Management Act, 2005
has provided the legal and institutional
framework for disaster management in
India at the national, state and district
levels.
Centre level
Institutions
National Policy on Disaster
Management (NPDM)
• The National Policy on Disaster
Management (NPDM) was approved by
the central government on October 22,
2009.
• The policy envisions a safe and disaster
resilient India by developing a holistic,
proactive, multi-disaster oriented and
technology driven strategy through
a culture of prevention, mitigation,
preparedness and response.
• The policy covers all aspects of disaster
management including institutional
and legal arrangements, financial
arrangements.
• This policy will be a paradigm shift, from
the erstwhile relief-centric response
to a proactive prevention, mitigation
and preparedness-driven approach for
conserving developmental gains and
to minimize loss of life, livelihood and
property.
Constitutional Provisions
There is no mention of disaster
management as a subject/item in any
of the three lists (Central, State and
22
Concurrent) under the Seventh
Schedule of the Constitution of India.
As the National Commission to Review
the Working of the Constitution (NCRWC)
recommended the management of
disasters and emergencies (both natural
and man-made) should be included in
the List III (Concurrent List) of the Seventh
Schedule.
Disaster Management Act 2005
• On 23 December 2005, the Indian
Parliament passed the Disaster
Management Act, which envisaged
the creation of National Disaster
Management Authority (NDMA),
chaired by the Prime Minister, and
State Disaster Management Authorities
(SDMAs) chaired by respective Chief
Ministers, to spearhead and implement
a holistic and integrated approach to
Disaster Management in India.
• The Act further provides for the
constitution of different Executive
Committee at national and state levels.
• Under its aegis, the National Institute
of Disaster Management (NIDM) for
capacity building and National Disaster
Response Force (NDRF) for response
purpose have been set up.
• It also mandates the concerned
ministries and departments to draw up
their own plans in accordance with the
National Plan.
• The Act further contains the provisions
for financial mechanisms such as
creation of funds for response, National
Disaster Mitigation Fund and similar
funds at the state and district levels for
the purpose of disaster management.
 LEGAL-INSTITUTION FRAMEWORK
Disaster Management Act 2005
Central Govt.
MHA
(D.M.Cell)
State Govt.
Dist Administration
Panchayat Municipalities
I m a g e 3.1: L e g a l -I n s t i t u t i o n F r a m e wo r k D M A c t 2005
National Disaster Management
Authority (NDMA) » Prepare guidelines to be followed by
• Under the section 2 of DM Act 2005,
“disaster” means a catastrophe, mishap,
calamity or grave occurrence in any
area, arising from natural or man-made
causes, or by accident or negligence
which results in substantial loss of life
or human suffering or damage to, and
destruction of, property, or damage to,
or degradation of, environment, and
is of such a nature or magnitude as to
be beyond the coping capacity of the
community of the affected area.
• NDMA, as the apex body, is responsible
to lay down the plans, policies, and
guidelines for Disaster Management
for timely and effective response to
disasters.
• NDMA has the following responsibilities:
» Prepare policies on disaster
management.
» Approve the National Plan.
» Approve the plans prepared by the
Ministries or Departments of the Central
23
NIDM
NDRF
NDMA
SDMA
DMD
DDMA
Local Administration
Government.
the State Authorities while making the
State Plan.
» Prepare guidelines to be followed by
the different Ministries or Departments
for integrating the various measures for
disaster prevention or the mitigation of
its consequences in the development
projects and plans.
» Coordinate the implementation and
enforcement of the policy and plans for
disaster management.
» Recommend providing funds for the
mitigation purpose.
» Provide support to other countries
affected by devastating disasters as
determined by the Government of India.
» Take other such measures for the
prevention of disaster, or the mitigation,
or preparedness and capacity building
for dealing with threatening disaster
situations or disasters.
» Prepare broad policies and guidelines
for the functioning of the National
Institute of Disaster Management.
• The NDMA is mandated to deal with all
types of disasters; whether natural or
man- made.
• It also includes emergencies which
require close involvement of the
security forces and/ or intelligence
agencies such as terrorism, law and
order situations, bomb blasts, hijacking,
air accidents, rail accidents.
• CBRN (Chemical, Biological,
Radiological and Nuclear) weapon
systems, mine disasters, port and
harbour emergencies, forest fires,
oilfield fires and oil spills will continue
to be handled by the extant mechanism
i.e., National Crisis Management
Committee (NCMC).
National Crisis Management Committee
(NCMC)
• For effective implementation of relief
measures in the wake of a natural
calamity, the Cabinet may set up a
committee. On the constitution of
such a committee of the Cabinet, the
Agriculture Secretary shall provide
all necessary information to and
seek directions if any, of the Cabinet
Committee in all matters concerning
relief in the wake of natural
calamity and take steps for effective
implementation of its directions.
• In the absence of such a Cabinet
Committee, all matters relating to
relief shall be reported to the Cabinet
Secretary.
• A National Crisis Management
Committee (NCMC) has been
constituted in the Cabinet Secretariat.
The composition of the Committee is
as under: -
» Cabinet Secretary - Chairman
» Secretary to Prime Minister Member
» Secretary (MHA) Member
» Secretary (MCD) Member
24
» Director (IB) Member
» Secretary (R&AW) Member
» Secretary (Agri & Coop.) Co-opted
Member
» An officer of the Cabinet Secretariat
Convenor
• NDMA may, however, formulate
guidelines and facilitate training and
preparedness activities in respect of
CBRN emergencies.
National Executive
Committee (NEC)
• A National Executive Committee
is established under Section 8 of
DM Act, 2005 to assist the National
Disaster Management Authority in the
performance of its duties. NEC consists
of Home Secretary as its Chairperson.
• NEC acts as the coordinating
and monitoring body for disaster
management, to prepare a National Plan,
monitor the implementation of National
Policy etc. vide Section 10 of the DM Act.
State level
Institutions
State Disaster Management
Authority (SDMA)
• The DM Act, 2005 provides for the
establishment of SDMAs and DDMAs in
all the states and Union Territories.
• Except Gujarat and Daman & Diu,
remaining have established SDMAs
under the DM Act, 2005.
• Gujarat has established its SDMA under
Gujarat State Disaster Management
Act, 2003. Diu & Daman have also
established SDMAs prior to enactment
of DM Act 2005.
State Executive Committee
(SEC)
• Section 20 of the Act provides for the
establishment of a State Executive
Committee to be chaired by the Chief
Secretary of the state Government
with four other Secretaries of such
departments as the state Government
may think fit.
• It has the responsibility for coordinating
and monitoring the implementation of
the National Policy, the National Plan
and the State Plan.
District level
Institutions
District Disaster Management
Authority (DDMA)
• Section 25 of the DM Act envisages
the establishment of DDMA for every
district of a state.
• The District Magistrate/District
Collector/Deputy Commissioner
acts as Chairperson and an elected
representative of the local body as Co-
Chairperson except in the tribal areas
where the Chief Executive Member of
the District Council of Autonomous
District acts as Co-Chairperson.
• The District Authority is responsible
for planning, coordination and
implementation of disaster
management plans and to take
measures for disaster management as
per the guidelines.
• The District Authority is also empowered
to inspect the construction in the district,
to enforce the safety regulations and
also to arrange for relief measures and
respond to the disaster at the district
level.
25
National Disaster Response
Fund
• National Calamity Contingency Fund
(NCCF) was renamed as National
Disaster Response Fund (NDRF) under
the provisions of the DM Act in 2005.
• The fund is defined under Section 46 of
the DM Act, 2005.
• It is constituted under the Public
Account of India under “reserve funds
not bearing interest”.
• It is administered by the Central
Government for meeting the
expenditure for emergency response,
relief and rehabilitation due to any
disaster.
• It supplements the State Disaster
Response Fund (SDRF) if a disaster is of
severe nature and adequate funds are
not available in the SDRF.
• It is financed through the levy of a
Cess on certain items, chargeable to
excise and customs duty, and approved
annually through the Finance Bill.
• Recently, The Central Government has
allowed contributions from any person
or institution in the National Disaster
Response Fund (NDRF) as per Section
46(1)(b) of the Disaster Management
(DM) Act, 2005.
• Department of Agriculture and
Cooperation monitors relief activities
for calamities associated with drought,
hailstorms, pest attacks and cold
wave/frost while the rest of the natural
calamities are monitored by the Ministry
of Home Affairs (MHA).
• The National Disaster Response Fund is
audited by the Comptroller and Auditor
General (CAG).
• The main task of NDRF is to provide
specialist response in case of disasters
which broadly covers:
» Assistance to civil authorities to
distribute relief material.
» First medical response to victims.
» Capacity building.
» To conduct mock exercises in
coordination with other stakeholders
for well-coordinated response during
disasters.
» To train State Disaster Response Force
(SDRF), community and NGO’S in
disaster management.
State Disaster Response Fund
• Established under Section 48 (1) (a) of
the DM Act, 2005, is the primary fund
available with State Governments for
responses to notified disasters.
• The Central Government gives 75%
of SDRF share for general category
States/UTs and 90% for special
category States/UTs (NE States, Sikkim,
Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh,
Jammu and Kashmir).
• The annual Central contribution is
released in two equal installments as
per the recommendation of the Finance
Commission.
• SDRF can be used only for meeting the
expenditure for providing immediate
relief to the disaster affected people.
• Local Disaster: A State Government
may use up to 10% of the SDRF for
providing immediate relief to the
people affected by the natural disasters
within the local context in the State and
which are not included in the notified
list of disasters of the Ministry of Home
Affairs. It is subjected to the condition
that the State Government has listed
the State specific natural disasters and
notified clear and transparent norms
and guidelines for such disasters with
the approval of the State Authority, i.e.,
the State Executive Authority (SEC).
26
NDMA guidelines on minimum
standard of relief
• Section 12 of disaster management
act mandates the National Disaster
Management Authority (NDMA) to
recommend guidelines for minimum
standard of relief to be provided to
persons affected by disaster. It shall
include:
» Minimum requirements to be provided
in terms of shelter, food, drinking water
and sanitation.
» Special provisions to be made for
widows and orphans.
» Ex-gratia assistance on the account
of loss of life, damage to houses and
restoration of the means of livelihood.
• For shelter in relief camps, 3.5 sq. m.
covered area per person with basic
lighting facilities. In mountainous areas,
it can be reduced depending upon lack
of availability of flat land. Special care
for safety and privacy of women, widows
and children. Special arrangements
shall also be made for differently abled
persons, old and medically serious
patients.
• Relief centres shall be temporary in
nature and to be closed as soon as
normalcy returns.
• For food in relief camps, men and
women shall be supplied a minimum of
2400 Kcal per day. For children, it shall
be 1700 Kcal per day. Milk and dairy
products shall be provided for children
and lactating mothers.
• Minimum supply of 3 L per person
per day of drinking water shall be
made available. Sufficient quantity of
water shall be provided for personal
cleanliness and hand wash.
• One toilet for every 30 persons should
be made available. Separate toilet and
bath areas to cater to the needs of
women and children. Toilets must not
 be more than 50 m away from the relief
camps.
• A separate register shall be maintained
for noting the details of women who
have been widowed and children who
have been orphaned. Special care shall
be given to widows and orphans who
have got separated from their families.
PM CARES Fund - Prime
Minister’s Citizen Assistance
and Relief in Emergency
Situations Fund
Introduction:
• The Fund is established as a public
charitable trust. It has been set up
keeping in mind the need for having
a dedicated fund with the primary
objective of dealing with any kind of
emergency or distress situation, like
posed by the COVID-19 pandemic, and
to provide relief to the affected.
Objectives:
• To undertake and support relief or
assistance of any kind relating to a
public health emergency or any other
kind of emergency, calamity or distress,
either natural or man-made, including
the creation or upgradation of
pharmaceutical or healthcare facilities,
any other necessary infrastructure,
financing relevant research and
development or any such kind of
support.
• To extend financial aid, provide grants
or initiate such other necessary steps.
• To initiate any other activity, which is not
inconsistent with the above objectives.
Constitution of the Trust:
• PM is the ex-officio Chairman of the
Trust and Minister of Defence, Minister
of Home Affairs and Minister of Finance
are ex-officio Trustees.
27
• The Chairperson of the Board of Trustees
can nominate 3 trustees to the Board
of Trustees and they shall be eminent
persons in the field of health, research,
science, social work, law, philanthropy
and public administration.
• Any person appointed as a Trustee shall
act in a pro bono capacity.
• The fund is audited by an independent
auditor as decided by the central
government and not by the Comptroller
and Auditor General (CAG) of India.
• The fund is “not a public authority”
under the ambit of the RTI Act, 2005.
So, it does not come under RTI. Also,
the fund is not shared with the states.
Contribution to the Fund:
• The fund consists only of voluntary
contributions from individuals/
organizations and does not get
any budgetary support from the
government.
• Donations to Fund would qualify to
avail 80G benefits for 100% exemption
under the Income Tax Act, 1961.
• Donations to PM CARES Fund will
be considered as Corporate Social
Responsibility (CSR) expenditure under
the Companies Act, 2013.
• PM CARES Fund has also been exempted
under the FCRA. This enables the Fund
to accept donations and contributions
from individuals and organizations
based in foreign countries.
Prime Minister’s National
Relief Fund (PMNRF)
Objectives:
• The Prime Minister’s National Relief
Fund (PMNRF) constituted after
independence with public donations to
assist displaced persons from Pakistan.
• The funds of the PMNRF are now utilized
 to give immediate relief to families of
those killed in natural calamities like
cyclones, earthquakes and floods etc.
and to the victims of the major riots
and accidents.
• PMNRF is also utilized to partially defray
the expenses for medical treatment like
kidney transplantation, heart surgeries,
cancer treatment and acid attack etc.
Constitution of the Trust:
• The fund is recognized as a Trust under
the Income Tax Act and managed by
the Prime Minister or multiple delegates
for national causes.
Contribution to the Fund:
• The fund consists entirely of public
contributions. Budgetary contributions
or contributions from public sector
enterprises are not accepted.
• Conditional contributions, which means,
if the donor specifically mentions that
the amount is meant for a particular
purpose, are not accepted in the Fund.
• The fund is invested in different forms
with scheduled commercial banks and
other agencies.
• All contributions towards PMNRF are
exempt from Income Tax under section
80(G).
28
2nd ARC Recommendations on
The Disaster Management Act,
2005
• The Disaster Management Act, 2005
should be amended to include the
following provisions:
• Crisis/Disaster Management should
continue to be the key responsibility of
the State Governments and the Union
Government should play a supportive
role.
• The Act should provide categorization
of disasters like local, district, state
or national level. This categorization
with intensity of each disaster will help
to determine the level of authority
responsible for dealing with the
disaster as well as the scale of response
and relief - detailed guidelines may be
stipulated by the NDMA on this subject.
• The implementation task of prevention/
mitigation and response measures
may be left to the State Governments
and the district and local authorities
with the line ministries/ departments
of Government of India, playing a
supportive role.
• The law should invest a duty on every
public functionary, to inform the
appropriate authority regarding any
crisis, if the public functionary feels
that such authority does not have such
information.
• The law should provide stringent
punishment for mis-utilization or
misappropriation of funds designated
for disaster/crisis management.
• The local bodies should be brought
to the forefront for disaster/ crisis
management.
 CHAPTER - 4
INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION
Introduction
• India has played a crucial role in global
initiatives on disaster management.
With multi-dimensional initiatives and
expertise, India is taking a leading role
in strengthening regional cooperation
among South Asian countries for
reducing disasters.
Yokohama Strategy
and Plan of Action
for a Safer World:
• The United Nations and other States
held the World Conference on Natural
Disaster Reduction at Yokohama,
Japan in 1994.
• At this conference, the Yokohama
strategy was adopted and the decade
of 1990-2000 was declared as the
International Decade for Natural
Disaster Reduction (IDNDR).
• Yokohama Strategy consists of
the guidelines for Natural Disaster
Prevention, Preparedness and
Mitigation.
Hyogo Framework of
Action
• Representatives from 168 countries
participated in the global conference
on Disaster Risk Reduction in January
2005 in Kobe, Japan.
• Hyogo Framework of Action (HFA)
(2005-2015) was adopted to work on a
29
global level for sustainable reduction of
disaster losses of lives and of the social,
economic and environmental assets of
communities and countries.
• The framework set three strategic goals
given as under:
» More effectual assimilation of disaster
risk reduction into planning
and programming at all levels,
sustainable development policies,
having a special emphasis on disaster
prevention, mitigation, preparedness
and reduction in vulnerability.
» Development and reinforcement of
institutions, capacities and mechanisms
at every level of community level
that can systematically contribute to
building resilience to hazards.
» The systematic integration of risk
reduction approaches into the
design and application of emergency
readiness, response and recovery
packages in the reconstruction of the
affected communities.
• Under the HFA the following priority
areas have been identified for the
countries to concentrate in their efforts
for making the countries disaster
resilient.
» Making sure that disaster risk reduction
is a local as well as national priority
with robust institutional source for
execution.
» Recognize, assess and monitor disaster
risks and enhance early warning.
» Make utilization of knowledge,
innovation & education to build a
culture of safety & resilience at all levels.
» Minimize the underlying risk factors,
» Reinforce disaster preparedness for
effective response at all levels.
• India is one of the participating
countries and works closely with the
UN-ISDR to implement the Priority
Areas of HFA for DRR.
Sendai Framework
for Disaster Risk
Reduction 2015-
2030
• Sendai Framework for Disaster
Risk Reduction of 2015-2030
(Sendai Framework) was the first
major agreement of the after-2015
development agenda and provides
Member States with concrete actions
to protect development gains from the
risk of disaster.
• It was sanctioned by the UN General
Assembly following the 2015 Third UN
World Conference on Disaster Risk
Reduction (WCDRR).
• It’s objective is to attain the considerable
reduction of disaster risk and harms
to lives, livelihoods and health and to
economic, physical, social, cultural
and environmental assets of people,
businesses, communities and countries
over the next 15 years.
• Sendai Framework is the successor of
Hyogo Framework.
• The Sendai Framework sketches seven
global targets to guide and against
which to assess progress. The seven
global targets are:
» Greatly reduce global disaster mortality
by 2030, aiming to lower the average
per 100,000 worldwide mortality rate in
decade of 2020–2030 compared to the
period 2005–2015;
» Considerably decrease the number
30
of affected people globally by 2030,
aiming to lower the average worldwide
figure per 100,000 in decade 2020–
2030 compared to the period 2005–
2015;
» Minimize direct economic loss in relation
to global gross domestic product (GDP)
by 2030;
» Substantively reduce the damage due
to disaster to critical infrastructure,
disturbance of elementary services,
health and educational facilities;
» Considerably increase the number
of countries with national and local
disaster risk reduction strategies by
2020;
» Significantly improve international
cooperation to emerging countries by
means of satisfactory and sustainable
support to complement their national
actions for implementation of the
present Framework by 2030;
» Significantly increase the readiness
of and entree to multi-hazard early
warning structures and disaster risk
information and assessments to people
by 2030.
United Nations
International
Strategy for Disaster
Reduction (UNISDR)
• In December 1999, General Assembly
Resolution 54/219 created the
UNISDR, as a successor of secretariat
of International Decade for Natural
Disaster Reduction, in 2001.
• It is mandated by UNISDR to work as
the focal point in the United Nations
System for the management of disaster
reduction and to ensure synergies
among the disaster reduction activities
of the United Nations Systems and
 regional organizations and activities
in socio-economic and humanitarian
fields.
• For developing the resilience of
communities and nations to disasters
by means of operation of the HFA, the
UNISDR attempts to catalyze, simplify
and mobilise the commitment and
resources of national, regional and
international stakeholders of the ISDR
system.
• The two-yearly Global Platform for
Disaster Risk Reduction (GFDRR) acts
as the main global forum for continued
and concerted emphasis on disaster
reduction.
Global Facility
for Disaster Risk
Reduction (GFDRR)
• GFDRR got set up in September 2006
jointly by the World Bank, donor partners
(21 countries and 4 international
organisations), and key stakeholders of
the International Strategy for Disaster
Reduction (UNISDR).
• It is a long-term worldwide partnership
under the ISDR system, established to
cultivate and implement the HFA by
means of a coordinated programme for
reversing the trend in disaster losses by
2015.
• Its task is to mainstream disaster
reduction and climate change
adaptation in a country’s development
strategies to reduce vulnerability to
natural hazards.
• As and when required, India has been
participating in the status of observer
in the GFDRR programme.
31
Asian Disaster
Reduction Centre
(ADRC)
• Asian Disaster Reduction Center got
established in Kobe, in 1998, with a
work to improve disaster suppleness
of the member countries, to build safe
communities, and to generate a society
in which sustainable development is
conceivable.
• The Center strives to develop disaster
resilient communities and to establish
networks among countries through
many programs including personnel
exchanges in this field.
• As of now, there are 29 member
countries of ADRC.
• Each member country has to bear the
annual contribution calculated on the
basis of GDP.
• India is one amongst the founding
members of ADRC.
Asian Disaster
Preparedness
Centre (ADPC)
• ADPC was established in 1986 at
Bangkok, Thailand.
• It is an autonomous non-profit, non-
political, regional organization serving
as a regional centre in Asia-Pacific
for promoting disaster preparedness,
disaster mitigation, awareness
generation, exchange of information,
community participation etc.
• India has been a member of the Board
of Trustees (BoT), since August 2000.
• Union Home Secretary is one of the
Members of the BoT of ADPC, since
the transfer of the subject of Disaster
 Management to the Ministry of Home
Affairs.
SAARC Disaster
Management Centre
(SDMC)
• SAARC Disaster Management Centre
(SDMC) got set up in October 2006 at
the premises of National Institute of
Disaster Management in New Delhi.
• The Executive Director of the NIDM is
also the Director of SAARC Disaster
Management Centre New Delhi.
• Centre has the decree to help all eight
Member Countries of South Asian
Association of Regional Cooperation
(SAARC) - by means of providing policy
advice and enabling capacity building
services comprising of research, training,
strategic learning, system development
and exchange of information for
effective disaster risk reduction (DRR)
and management in South Asia region.
Sustainable
Development Goals
(SDGs) with Targets
related to Disaster
Risk
Goal 1: End poverty in all its forms
everywhere
• By the year 2030, build the resilience
of poor and those in vulnerable
circumstances and reduce their
exposure and vulnerability to climate-
associated extreme events and other
economic, social and environmental
shocks and disasters.
32
Goal 2: End hunger, achieve food
security and improved nutrition and
promote sustainable agriculture
• By the year 2030, guarantee sustainable
food production systems and implement
resilient agricultural practices which will
increase productivity and production,
that help maintain ecosystems, which
strengthen capacity for adaptation
to climate change, extreme weather
events, droughts, flooding and few other
disasters and that gradually improve
quality of land and soil.
Goal 3: Ensure healthy lives and
promote well-being for all at all
ages
• Reinforce the ability of all countries,
particularly developing nations, for
timely warning, risk lessening and
managing of national and global health
risks.
Goal 6. Ensure availability and
sustainable management of water
and sanitation for all
• By 2020, protect and restore water-
related ecosystems, including
mountains, forests, wetlands, rivers,
aquifers and lakes.
Goal 9: Build resilient infrastructure,
promote inclusive and sustainable
industrialization and foster
innovation
• To develop reliable, quality, sustainable
and resilient infrastructure, comprising
regional and trans border infrastructure
to upkeep economic development and
human welfare with focus on affordable
and equitable access to all.
• Enable sustainable and resilient
infrastructure development in
developing countries by means of
improved technological, financial, and
technical support to African countries,
least developed countries, landlocked
 developing countries and small island
development states.
Goal 11: Make cities and human
settlements inclusive, resilient, safe
and sustainable
• By the year 2030, considerably reduce
the number of deaths and amount
of people affected and considerably
reduce the direct economic damages
relative to global gross domestic
product caused by disasters, comprising
water-related disasters, with a focus
on protecting the poor and people in
vulnerable situations.
• By the year 2020, considerably raise the
number of cities and human settlements
accepting and implementing combined
policies and plans to include, resource
productivity, mitigation and adaptation
to climate change, resilience to
disasters, and cultivate and implement,
according to the Sendai Framework for
Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030.
• Support least developed countries,
including through financial and
technical assistance, in building
sustainable and resilient buildings
utilizing local materials.
Goal 13: Take urgent action to
combat climate change and its
impacts
• Strengthen resilience and adaptive
capacity to climate-related hazards
and natural disasters in all countries
• Integrate climate change measures
into national policies, strategies and
planning.
• Improve education, awareness raising
and human and institutional capacity on
climate change mitigation, adaptation,
impact reduction and early warning.
• Implement the assurance undertaken
by developed country parties to the
United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change to a goal of
33
mobilizing jointly $100 billion annually
by 2020 from all sources to address
the needs of developing countries in
the context of meaningful mitigation
actions.
• Promoting mechanisms for raising
capacity for the effective climate
change- related preparation and
management in least developed
countries, including focus on women,
youth and local and marginalized
communities.
Goal 14: Conserve and sustainably
use the oceans, seas and
marine resources for sustainable
development
• By the year 2020, sustainably manage
and protect coastal and marine
ecosystems to circumvent substantial
adverse impacts, by strengthening their
resilience, and take action for their
repair in order to achieve healthy and
productive oceans.
Goal 15: Protect, restore and promote
sustainable use of terrestrial
ecosystems, sustainably manage
forests, combat desertification, and
halt and reverse land degradation
and halt biodiversity loss
• By the year 2020, guarantee the
conservation, restoration and
sustainable use of terrestrial as well
as inland freshwater ecosystems and
their services, particularly in forests,
wetlands, mountains and drylands, in
line with obligations under international
agreements.
• By the year 2020, promote the execution
of sustainable management of all kinds
of forests, stop deforestation, reinstate
degraded forests and considerably
increase afforestation and reforestation
worldwide.
• By the year 2030, fight desertification,
reinstate degraded land and
 soil, comprising land affected by
desertification, famine and floods, and
strive to achieve a land degradation
neutral world.
Satellites in DM
International efforts
• Satellite communication and navigation
systems plays an important role in
disaster management with improved
technological options.
• ISRO as signatory of International
Charter “Space and Major Disasters”
supports various Authorised Users (AUs)
of the Charter during major disasters.
• Under the framework of APRSAF
initiative called as Sentinel Asia, ISRO
supports the disaster management
activities in Asia-Pacific region.
• In Addition to the Charter and Sentinel
Asia, ISRO also supports the Disaster
Management activities of UNESCAP
(Economic and Social Commission for
Asia and the Pacific) (ESCAP) under
regional cooperation.
South Asia Satellite (SAS):
• It is part of India's efforts and
commitments towards international
cooperation in disaster management.
• The satellite is built and launched by
ISRO, to be used by countries of SAARC
grouping except Pakistan. Pakistan has
opted out of the initiative.
34
• It permits a complete range of
applications and services ranging from
broadcasting to medicine and disaster
management support.
Indian efforts
• In India, RISAT 2BR1 and RISAT 2B in
the Low Earth Orbits (through Earth
Observation applications which
can help in prediction of detectable
disasters) and INSAT 3DR and 3D in the
Geostationary Orbits (For prediction as
well as communication during and post
disaster) help in disaster management
applications.
• Also, initiatives like GAGAN and GEMINI
can help in weather prediction and
cyclone awareness applications.
GAGAN Enabled Mariner’s Instrument
for Navigation and Information (GEMINI)
device
• For seamless and effective
dissemination of emergency
information and communication on
disaster warnings, Potential Fishing
Zones (PFZ) and Ocean States Forecasts
(OSF) to fishermen, the Government
today launched the GAGAN Enabled
Mariner’s Instrument for Navigation
and Information (GEMINI) device.
• Satellite based communication is
the only suitable solution for the
dissemination of such emergency
information and affordable satellite
based communication systems should
be made part of the dissemination
chain to deal with cyclones, high waves
and tsunamis”.
 CHAPTER - 5
EARTHQUAKES
Introduction
• An earthquake is the shaking of the
Earth surface resulting from a sudden
release of energy in the Earth's
lithosphere that creates seismic waves.
• Huge earthquakes usually occur near
the connection of two tectonic plates,
e.g. along the Himalayan range where
the Indian plate goes below the
Eurasian plate.
• The Indian sub-continent is located
on the boundaries of two continental
plates is very prone to earthquakes.
• India is separated into four seismic
zones according to the maximum
intensity of earthquake expected.
The broad base of the zones is
as follows:
Zone V:
• Covers the areas liable to seismic
intensity IX and above on MSK (1964)
Intensity scale.
• This is the highest active and severe
seismic zone and referred here as Very
High Damage Risk Zone.
Zone IV:
• Gives the area liable to MSK VIII. This
zone lies second in the severity to Zone
V.
• This is referred to as High Damage Risk
Zone.
Zone III:
• The associated intensity is MSK VII. This
is termed here as moderate Damage
Risk Zone.
35
Zone II:
• The probable intensity is MSK VII. This
zone is referred to as Low Damage Risk
Zone.
• As per the latest seismic zoning map
developed by the Bureau of Indian
Standard (BIS), more than 65 percent
of the country is prone to earthquakes
of intensity Modified Mercalli Intensity
Scale (MSK) VII or more.
• Zone V is the most active zone which
comprises the whole of Northeast
India, the northern portion of Bihar,
Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, J&K,
Gujarat and Andaman & Nicobar
Islands. Whole Himalayan Region is
considered to be susceptible to high
intensity earthquakes of a magnitude
which exceeds 8.0 on the Richter Scale.
• Most of the areas which can be
considered safe are from the stable
landmass covered under the Deccan
plateau.
MSK Scale
• Medvedev-Sponheuer-Karnik scale
is denoted by MSK or MSK-64. It was
proposed by Sergei Medvedev (USSR),
Wilhelm Sponheuer (East Germany),
and Vft Karnfk (Czechoslovakia) in
1964.
• It is a macro seismic intensity scale
which is used to evaluate the severity
of ground shaking on the basis of
observed effects in an area of the
earthquake occurrence. MSK-64
is used in India, Israel, Russia, and
throughout the Commonwealth of
Independent States.
 • Earthquakes have disastrous effects on
Effects of the area of their occurrence. Some of

Earthquakes the important ones are listed

Effects of Earthquakes

On Ground On Man-made Structures On Water

- Fissures
- Cracking
- Settlements
- Slidings - Waves
- Landslides
- Overturning - Hydro-Dynamic Pressure
- Liquefaction
- Buckling - Tsunami
- Earth Pressure
- Collapse
- Possible Chain-effects

I m a g e 5.1: E a r t h q u a k e H a z a r d Z o n e s

36

Earthquake
Prevention and
Mitigation
• Pace of urbanisation in India is
constantly increasing. Many cities and
townships including the national capital
of New Delhi, are located in zones of
high seismic risk.
• Normally, the majority of the
constructions in these cities are
basically not earthquake resilient.
Regulatory mechanisms are weak, thus
any earthquake striking in one of these
cities would turn into a major disaster.
• The following measures are initiated
for prevention and mitigation of such
disasters:
National Earthquake Risk
Mitigation Project (NERMP)
• Proposed project aims at reinforcement
of the structural and nonstructural
earthquake alleviation efforts and
decreasing the vulnerability in the high
risk districts disposed to earthquakes.
• Necessary risk moderation measures
are proposed to be put in place in the
extreme seismic zones.
• Proposed components of the project
comprise of techno-legal regime,
institutional strengthening, capacity
building and public awareness etc.
National Building Code (NBC)
• National Building Code of India (NBC),
a complete building code, is a national
instrument providing guidelines for
regulating the building construction
activities across the country.
• NBC was for the first time published
in 1970 at the instance of the Planning
Commission. The revised NBC is now
brought out as National Building Code
of India 2005 (NBC 2005).
37
• The salient features of the revised NBC
include meeting the challenges posed
by natural calamities and reflecting
the state-of-the-art and contemporary
applicable international practices.
Efforts by Building Materials &
Technology Promotion Council
(BMTPC)
• The BMTPC undertook projects for
retrofitting of life-line arrangements for
generating awareness among the public
and various government agencies
about the need and techniques of
retrofitting.
• The experience on these retrofitted
buildings is aimed to help people
at large and the policy makers in
particular in working towards reducing
the vulnerability in case of future
earthquakes.
Six pillars of earthquake
management given by
National Institution for
Disaster Management (NIDM):
• Ensure the incorporation of earthquake
resistant designing features for
construction of new structures.
• In earthquake prone areas, facilitate
selective strengthening and seismic
retrofitting of existing priority and
lifeline structures.
• Improve the awareness and
preparedness of all stakeholders in
dealing with earthquakes.
• Improve the compliance regime
through appropriate regulation and
enforcement.
• Introduce suitable capacity
development interventions (of all
stakeholders) for effective earthquake
management (including education,
training, R&D, and documentation).
• Strengthen the emergency response
capability in earthquake prone areas.
 CHAPTER - 6

TSUNAMI

Introduction Lanka, and India etc.

• Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions
which cause the sea-floor to move
abruptly resulting in sudden release of
energy by displacement of ocean water
in the form of high vertical waves are
called tsunamis (harbour waves) or
seismic sea waves.
• The speed of waves in the ocean is
governed by the depth of water. It is
higher in the shallow water than in
the deep ocean. As such, the impact
of tsunamis is less over the ocean and
more near the coast where they cause
large-scale destruction.
• After reaching the coast, tsunami
waves release huge amount of energy
stored in them and water flows violently
onto the land damaging towns and
cities, structures, buildings and other
infrastructure.
• As the coastal areas are heavily
populated the world over, and these
are also centers of concentrated
human activity, the damage of life
and property will be much higher by
a tsunami compared to various other
natural hazards in the coastal regions.
• Tsunamis are regularly observed along
the Pacific ring of fire, mainly beside
the coast of Japan, Alaska, Philippines,
and other islands of Southeast Asia,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Sri
• Dissimilar from other natural risks,
the alleviation of hazards created by
tsunami is tough, chiefly because of the
fact that losses are on a much greater
gauge.
Tsunami Prevention
and Mitigation
• One of the natural measures which
could be adopted for mitigating the
impact of tsunami is using shoreline
tree cover.
• Tree plantation is a cost-effective long-
lasting means of tsunami mitigation in
comparison to the artificial barriers.
• Some locations of Indian Ocean where
tsunami struck in 2004 remained almost
intact because the existing coconut
palms and mangroves trees absorbed
the tsunami’s energy.
• The Government of India decided to
put in place an Early Warning System
for mitigation of such oceanogenic
disasters. Indian National Center for
Ocean Information Services (INCOIS),
Hyderabad was given the responsibility
to coordinate the entire project and
make it operational. The tsunami
warning system is in use from the mid-
2000s.

38
 I m a g e 6.1: T s u n a m i
NDMA Guidelines:
• Developing practical and effective
ways for awareness generation,
capacity building, education, training
and research & development for better
tsunami risk management. This can be
performed by conducting training and
outreach events and campaigns.
• The exploring choices for in effect
dissemination of tsunami alert and
warning messages created by INCOIS
to the appropriate agencies and coastal
vulnerable communities exposed to
tsunamis in a coordinated way.
• As a part of structural Mitigation
measures, BIS should roll out the
construction standards entitled
‘Criteria for tsunami-Resistant Design
of Structures’. This will act as a
brief management on design and
construction of new constructions as
well as new strategies for protecting
lifeline and priority infrastructures from
tsunamis along the seafront.
39
wav e s f o r m at i o n
• Development of the robust techno-
legal regime through efficient land
use practices, bio shields, shelter belt
plantation and mangrove regeneration
with community involvement.
• A strong mechanism for effective
emergency response by involving local
police network, civil defence volunteers
wherever available, home guards, State
Disaster Response Forces and National
Disaster Response Force.
• Conducting exercises that include
tsunami scenarios. Exercises enhance
the efficiency and effectiveness of
tsunami disaster management during a
real event.
• Further, the guidelines explore the
provisions of Disaster Management
Act 2005 to mainstream concern of
tsunami risk management in disaster
management plans of various levels.
Case Study:
• On 26 December 2004, a magnitude 9 earthquake struck the Indian Ocean off the west
coast of Northern Sumatra. This resulted in the Indian Ocean tsunami, which impacted 13
countries and killed an estimated 230,000 people.
• The epicentre was very close to heavily populated coastal cities, such as those in Indone-
sia.
• There was no early warning system for tsunami in the Indian Ocean. This may have saved
more lives in countries far away from the epicentre.
• Mangrove forests had been cleared in some coastal areas to make way for tourist devel-
opments. This resulted in less natural protection.
• Effects on India:
» Southwest Coast: This comprises Kerala, which suffered significant damage that impact-
ed the largest number of people of any affected state. But, suffered relatively lower loss
of life. The Kanyakumari district of Tamil Nadu suffered heavy loss of life due, to a large
extent, to human-created local topographical features.
» Southeast Coast: This comprises the rich alluvial delta region of the Tamil Nadu coast
and Pondicherry, which experienced maximum wave heights and recorded the maximum
loss of life and damage in mainland India.
» East Coast: This comprises Andhra Pradesh, which suffered marginal damage and loss of
life.

40
 CHAPTER - 7
TROPICAL CYCLONE
Introduction
• Tropical cyclones are basically an
intense low-pressure areas confined
to the area which lies between 30°
North and 30° South latitudes, in the
atmosphere within which high speed
winds blow around.
• Horizontally, it extends up to 500-1,000
kilometers and vertically from surface
to 12-14 kilometers.
I m a g e 7.1: T r o p ic a l C yc l o n e H a z a r d Z o n e s
Distribution of
Tropical Cyclone in
India
• India possesses a coastline of around
7516 kms, it is exposed to nearly 10
41
percent of the world’s tropical cyclones.
• Due to its peninsular shape which
is enclosed by the Bay of Bengal in
the east side and the Arabian Sea in
the west side, the tropical cyclones in
India originate in these two important
locations too.
• Nearby 71 percent of this area lies
in 10 states (Gujarat, Maharashtra,
Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu,
Puducherry, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha
and West Bengal). The islands of
Andaman, Nicobar and Lakshadweep
are also susceptible to cyclones.
Cyclones Prevention
and Mitigation
• When a cyclone approaches the coast,
a danger of serious loss or damage
rises from extreme winds, hefty rainfall,
storm surges and river floods.
• This outcomes in inundation of human
settlements, agricultural regions,
damaging crops and destruction of
structures created by human beings.
Following processes have been initiated
for prevention and mitigation of such
disasters:
National Cyclone Risk
Mitigation Project (NCRMP)
Initiative
• The scheme goals to upgrade cyclone
predicting, tracking and warning
systems, build capacity in multi-hazard
risk management and to construct
major infrastructures containing
multi-purpose cyclone shelters and
 embankments.
• The National Disaster Management
Authority (NDMA) is selected as the
implementing agency.
• The scheme is often monitored by
NDMA and MHA.
Integrated Coastal Zone
Management Project (ICZMP)
• The Government of India under the
aegis of the Ministry of Environment
and Forest (MoEF) launched the ICZMP.
• The objective of the project is
execution of a comprehensive coastal
management approach in the country
and piloting the integrated coastal
zone management approach in states
of Gujarat, Odisha and West Bengal.
NDMA guideline
on cyclone
management
• Establishing a state-of-the-art cyclone
early warning system (EWS) involving
observations, predictions, warnings and
user friendly advisories.
• Commission the ‘National Disaster
Communication Infrastructure’ (NDCI)
to provide dedicated and failsafe
communications to the National, State
42
and District Disaster Management
Authorities and officials concerned.
• Commission “Aircraft Probing of
Cyclone (APC) facility” to plug the
serious observational data gaps and
considerably lessen the margin of error
in predicting cyclone track, intensity
and landfall.
• Implementing the National Cyclone
Risk Mitigation Project (NCRMP) in all
the 13 coastal states and UTs.
• Taking up structural mitigation
measures like improving physical lifeline
infrastructure; construction of multi-
purpose cyclone shelters and cattle
mounts, ensuring cyclone resistant
design standards in rural and urban
housing.
• Expand the warning dissemination
outreach by introducing ‘Last Mile
Connectivity’, using Very High Frequency
(VHF) technology.
• Management of coastal zones to
comprise mapping and explanation of
coastal wetlands, patches of mangroves
and shelter belts and identification
of potential zones for expanding bio-
shield spread based on remote sensing.
• Establishing a comprehensive ‘Cyclone
Disaster Management Information
System’ (CDMIS) covering all.
• Set up a ‘National Cyclone Disaster
Management Institute’ in one of the
coastal states to address.
 CHAPTER - 8
FLOODS
Introduction
• Encroachment of land-living and
human settlements due to the rise of
water in the channels and its spill-over
presents the condition of flooding.
• Unlike other natural disasters, the causes
of floods are very well established.
• Characteristics of flood are that floods
are comparatively slow in occurrences
and often happen in well-identified
regions and within expected time of an
year.
Cause of flood:
• Heavy rainfall for considerably longer
period of time.
• Insufficient capacity of rivers to carry
the high flood discharge.
• Landslides hindering streams.
• Cyclones and typhoons cause floods
too.
• Flash floods happen because of high
rates of water flow as also due to poor
permeability of the soil.
Distribution of
Floods in India
• 23 out of 35 states and union territories
in the country are subject to floods and
Rashtriya Barh Ayog (National Flood
Commission) recognized 40 million
hectares of terrestrial region as flood-
prone.
• Assam, West Bengal and Bihar are
43
amongst the high flood-prone states of
India.
• Separately from these, most of the
rivers in northern India like Punjab and
Uttar Pradesh, are also susceptible to
infrequent floods.
• It is noticed that states like Rajasthan,
Gujarat, Haryana and Punjab are
getting inundated in recent decades
because of flash floods. This is partially
because of the changing pattern of
the monsoon and partially because of
blockage of most of the watercourses
and river channels due to human
activities.
• Sometimes, Tamil Nadu experiences
flooding during November and January
because of the retreating monsoon.
Consequence and
Control of Floods
• Recurrent flooding of farming land
and human settlement has grave
consequences on the national economy
and society.
• Floods do not just destroy valuable
crops every year but also damage
physical infrastructure such as roads,
rails, bridges and human settlements.
• Millions of people are rendered
homeless and are also washed down
along with their cattle in the floods.
Spread of diseases like cholera, gastro-
enteritis, hepatitis and other water-
borne diseases spread in the flood-
affected regions.
• Nevertheless, floods make a few positive
contributions too:
» Each year, floods deposit fertile silt over
farming fields which is good for crops.
» Majuli (Assam), the biggest riverine
island in the world, is the best example
of good paddy crops after the annual
floods in Brahmaputra.
» New predators and prey are introduced
to the areas, balancing the aquatic
population.
» The flood offers groundwater recharge
and high biological productivity.
• Control:
» There should be a master plan for
control of flood and management for
each flood susceptible basin area.
» Adequate flood-cushion must be
provided in water storage projects,
wherever possible, to ease better flood
management.
» In highly flood disposed areas, flood
control must be given overriding
consideration in reservoir regulation
policy even at the cost of foregoing
some irrigation or power benefits.
» While physical flood protection works
like embankments and dykes will
continue to be necessary, increased
emphasis should be laid on non-
structural measures like flood predicting
and warning, flood plain zoning and
flood proofing for the minimization
of losses and to reduce the repeated
spending on flood relief.
» There should be strict instruction of
settlements and economic activity in
the flood plain regions along with flood
proofing, to lessen the loss of life and
property on account of floods.
» The flood estimating events should be
modernised, value added and stretched
to other uncovered zones.
44
Flood Prevention
and Mitigation
National Flood Risk Mitigation
Project (NFRMP)
• Proposes at ensuring that preparations
are in place to mobilize the resources
and ability for relief, rehabilitation,
rebuilding and recovery from tragedies
besides creating consciousness among
susceptible communities.
• NDMA has been delegated to prepare a
Detailed Project Report (DPR) on Flood
Risk Mitigation Project.
Flood Management Programme
• The FMP scheme was launched by the
Ministry of Water Resources under the
central plan at a total cost of 8000 crore
during the 11th Plan period (2007-12).
• The scheme delivers financial aid to the
state governments for undertaking flood
management works in critical areas.
NDMA Guidelines:
Structural Measures:
• By building reservoirs, check dams
etc. to store extra water in case of
heavy discharge. Though such actions
have been taken but they have not
been successful enough due to poor
planning, maintenance activities in the
form of dredging etc.
• Diversion of floodwater towards
naturally and artificially build channels,
wetlands etc. to reduce the impact.
• Flood protection structures in the form
of embankments, walls to limit the
overflow of flood water towards the
habitable areas.
• Activities like desilting, dredging to
increase the carrying capacity of the
 channel and reduce the spill over. • Flood proofing in the form of constructing
• In the catchment area, watershed flood shelters on the highlands, ensuring
management measures like tree availability of food and fodder, flood
plantation to increase the vegetation proofing communication channels and
cover, reducing the erosion and run-off, ensuring unhindered availability of
increasing the porosity of the soil and health services in case of occurrence of
tackling any sudden surge. flood.
• All government departments and
agencies must prepare their own flood
Non-structural measures: management plans depending upon
• Floodplain zoning to regulate the the topography, frequency of flood and
land use and reduce the damage vulnerability of the population.
due to flood. It involves activities like In a step towards community participation
preventing habitation along the low- in flood mitigation, a centrally sponsored
lying and frequently flooding areas, scheme by the NDMA “Aapda Mitra” has
Demarcating areas to be evacuated been launched to impart training to 200
first in case of occurrence of flood community volunteers in 30 most flood
and highlands where people are to be prone districts across the country to assist
shifted during the flood. in flood rescue and rehabilitation.

Ind
INDIA
N us
R.
FLOOD HAZARD ZONE

Baas R.

Ga
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BANGLADESH
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Area Liable to Flood
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ARABIAN
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.

LAKSHADWEEP
(INDIA)

INDIAN OCEAN

I m a g e 8.1: F l o o d H a z a r d Z o n e s

45
 CHAPTER - 9
DROUGHT
Introduction
• The word ‘drought’ is applied to a
stretched period when there is a
shortage of water due to inadequate
rain, excessive rate of evaporation
and over-utilization of water from the
reservoirs and other storages, counting
the groundwater.
Types of Droughts
Meteorological Drought
• A situation when there is a continued
period of insufficient rainfall marked
with mal-distribution over time and
space.
Agricultural Drought
• It is also called as soil moisture drought,
characterized by little soil moisture
that is necessary to support the crops,
thereby resulting in crop failures.
• Moreover, if an area has more than 30
percent of its gross cropped zone under
irrigation, the area is omitted from the
drought-prone category.
Hydrological Drought
• It happens when the availability
of water in different storages and
reservoirs like aquifers, lakes, reservoirs,
etc. falls below what the precipitation
can replenish.
Ecological Drought
• When the efficiency of a natural
ecosystem flops due to shortage of
46
water and as a result of ecological
distress, damages are induced in the
ecosystem.
Drought Prone Areas
in India
• Indian agriculture is deeply dependent
on the monsoon. But, there is large-
scale variations and randomness in the
behaviour of the monsoon in India.
• Thus, droughts are extensive and
common occurrences in most parts of
the country.
• In India about 68 percent of the country
is prone to drought to varying degrees.
• Of the entire area, 35 percent receives
rain between 750 mm and 1125 mm
which is considered drought susceptible.
• While 33 percent which receives
rainfalls between less than 750 mm is
considered to be chronically drought
prone.
Consequence of
Drought
• Drought can be upsetting as water
supplies dry up, crops does not grow,
animals die, and malnutrition and ill
health become prevalent.
• The environmental effects of drought,
including salinization of soil and
groundwater decline, increased
pollution of freshwater ecosystems and
regional extinction of animal species.
• Since more than half of Indian
agriculture is rainfed, any drought
 severely impacts the rural community
and increases the instances of poverty.
• It leads to a rise in indebtedness resulting
in suicides and demand for debt waiver.
This further strains the fiscal balance
and accounts of the banks.
• The long-term impact of the droughts
is devastating as the crops continue to
suffer even after rains due to loss of soil
moisture and fertility.
• Loss of vegetation results in increased
air pollution and thus aids global
warming. It also leads to another
Hazard like forest fires.
• Loss of vegetation loosens the soil,
increases scope for soil erosion both
by wind and water and increases the
occurrence of floods.
Control Measures:
» Recognition of groundwater potential
in the form of aquifers, transmission
of river water from the excess to the
shortage areas, and predominantly
design for inter-linking of rivers and
building of reservoirs and dams, etc.
» Remote sensing and satellite images
can be beneficial in identifying the
possible river-basins that can be
interlinked and in recognizing the
ground water capability.
» Distribution of knowledge about
drought-resistant crops and proper
assistance to utilize the same can be
the long-term measures that will be
helpful in drought-mitigation.
» Rainwater harvesting is also an effective
method in minimizing the effects of
drought.
47
2nd ARC Recommendations
On Drought Management:
• Deployment of remote sensing as the
primary tool for diagnosing droughts,
monitoring their course and forecasting
prognosis is a goal that needs to be
pursued speedily and systematically.
This would require dovetailing remote
sensing into the routine framework of
drought management.
• In extremely drought prone areas, a plan
for making people pursue livelihoods
well-matched with their ecosystems
needs to be developed. Some tangible
steps in this direction could be:
» A multi-disciplinary squad needs to
instantly constitute by the Ministry of
Environment and Forests to specifically
identify villages where soil and
climatic conditions make ‘conventional
agriculture’ unsustainable.
» Alternate incomes of living have to
be evolved in discussion with the
communities, in such areas.
» A National Institute of Drought
Management may be set up for
networking on multi-disciplinary, cross-
sectoral research on various aspects of
drought, acting as a resource centre
on droughts and carrying out impact
evaluation studies of the drought
management efforts.
Drought Prevention
and Mitigation
• The Drought Prone Areas Programme
(DPAP) and Desert Development
Programme (DDP) are implemented by
the Government of India since 1973-74
and 1977-78 respectively.
• These programmes aims at drought
proofing and reducing desertification
 of delicate areas in the arid, semi-arid
and dry-sub humid regions frequently
affected by severe drought situations
and desertification.
• The National Rainfed Area Authority in
the Ministry of Agriculture is set up to
report the issue of drought mitigation
on a long term basis. It comprises
experts who provide knowledge inputs
regarding systematic upgradation and
management of the country’s dry land
and rainfed agriculture.
NDMA guidelines
for Drought
Management:
• In 2010, the NDMA issued guidelines for
management of droughts that will act
as a base for State governments and
the Union Territories to prepare plans
in order to minimise the hazard. Its key
features are:
» Drought monitoring cells DMCs to be
created at the state level.
» Use of information and communication
technology for real-time drought
related information.
» For comprehensive information, the
ground-based information to be
collated and synchronised with the
satellite-based information to have
a broader picture about the onset,
occurrence and severity.
» Vulnerability maps to be prepared
for each state by the respective state
DMCs.
» Agricultural research institutes to
research and develop drought resistant
varieties of crops.
» Promotion of crop diversification and
use of drip and sprinkler irrigation

INDIA
N
DROUGHT PRONE AREAS

NE
PA
L BHUTAN

I N D I A
BANGLADESH

M YA N M A R

B AY O F
BENGAL

Zone - 1 Extreme
Zone - 2 Severe
ARABIAN
SEA Zone - 3 Moderate
Drought Free Area

LAKSHADWEEP
(INDIA)

INDIAN OCEAN

I m a g e 9.1: D r o u g h t P r o n e Z o n e s

48
 system.
» All productive animals to be provided
with fodder in order to prevent the
distress sale of animals.
» If possible, corporate social
responsibility (CSR) initiatives to be
coupled with drought management
strategies.
Heatwaves
• Heatwave is an event/situation when
the maximum (day) temperature for a
location in the plains crosses 40 degrees
Celsius. Over the hills, the threshold
temperature is 30 degrees Celsius.
• When the day temperature jumps
by 4 to 5 degrees above the normal
maximum temperature of a location, it
is also declared as a heatwave.
• It is occurring mainly during March to
June and in some rare cases even in
July. The peak month of the heat wave
over India is May.
• Heat Wave conditions can result in
physiological strain, which could even
result in death.
Criteria for Heat
Waves:
• When the normal maximum
temperature of a station is less than or
equal to 40C then an increase of 5°C
to 6°C from the normal temperature is
considered to be heat wave condition.
And further temperature increase of 7°C
or more from the normal temperature
is considered as severe heat wave
condition.
• When the normal maximum
temperature of a station is more than
40°C, then temperature increase of 4°C
to 5°C from the normal temperature is
49
considered to be heat wave condition.
And further, an increase of 6°C or more
is considered as severe heat wave
condition.
• When actual maximum temperature
remains 45°C or more irrespective of
normal maximum temperature, heat
waves should be declared.
NDMA has issued national guidelines for
preparation of action plan – “prevention
and management of heat waves” to
provide a framework for implementation,
coordination and evaluation of extreme
heat waves related activities in the country.
It provides the measures to minimise
the impact during the heatwave and to
prevent serious ailment or death because
of heat stroke:
• Avoid going out in the sun, especially
between 12.00 noon and 3.00 p.m.
• Drinking often and sufficient water even
if not thirsty
• Wearing light-weight, loose, porous
cotton, and light-colored clothes. Carry
water while travelling
• Use of umbrella, hat, protective goggles,
and footwear while going out in the sun.
• Avoiding working outside and strenuous
activities when the outside temperature
is high (especially between 12 noon and
3 p.m.)
• Avoiding drinking of dehydrating things
like tea, coffee, alcohol, and carbonated
soft drinks.
• Drinking homemade drinks like lassi,
torani (rice water), lemon water,
buttermilk, etc. and use of Oral
Rehydration Solution (ORS) which helps
to rehydrate the body.
• Avoiding eating of high-protein food
and stale food.
• Using of hat, an umbrella while working
 outside and also use a damp cloth on
your head, neck, face and limbs.
• Keeping the home cool, by using
curtains, shutters or sunshade and open
windows at night.
• Use fans, damp clothing and take bath
in cold water frequently.
The guidelines also list long-term mitigation
measures to be undertaken by states/local
authorities in respective areas in order
to address the issues at a broader level.
NDMA also organises workshops annually
in collaboration with heat prone states
to discuss ways to further strengthen the
preparedness by bringing all stakeholders
at one platform.
The coordinated efforts taken by all
stakeholders had significantly brought
down the number of heat related deaths
from 2040 in 2015 to 1111 in 2016 and further
down to 384 in 2017 and 25 in 2018.
Heat Wave Action
Plan:
• It aims to provide a framework for
implementation, evaluation and
coordination to reduce the impact of
the extreme heat events.
• The focus is on alerting the population
at risk due to heat waves and also to
take appropriate precautions for the
vulnerable sections like elderly, children
and pregnant women.
• It provides scope for modifications
at the local level depending upon the
meteorological conditions, capacity
50
of the society and capability of the
administration.
• NDMA plays a critical role in guiding
the states and the union government,
continuously modifying the plan
and research through the National
Institution for Disaster Management
(NIDM).
Issues and Way
Forward:
• Currently, the Government of India
doesn't recognise heat wave as a natural
disaster under the National Disaster
Management Act, 2005. Therefore, the
government does not devote financial
and infrastructure resources to the
issue.
• Huge diversity in the impact of heat
waves across geography makes it
further difficult to devise an integrated
strategy.
• The central government have to put
resources and help cities and states
prepare for the heatwave emergency
by developing and implementing Heat
Code and Heal Action Plans (HAPs).
• The current IMD definition of a heatwave
is based only on temperature, which
most scientists believe is insufficient
to capture heat stress. The Heat
Code should also define the Standard
Operating Procedure to be activated
during intense heat, like restrictions on
working hours and provisions for relief
at public places and hospitals.
 CHAPTER - 10

LANDSLIDES

Introduction supply of everyday essentials.

• In India landslides constitute a major
natural hazard, which accounts for
considerable loss of life and damage
to communication routes, human
settlements, agricultural fields and
forest lands.
• The regions of the Himalaya and the
Western Ghats of India are mainly
affected by the landslides.
• It is estimated that about 30 percent
of the world’s landslides occur in the
Himalayan region only. Due to its unique
nature which constitutes the youngest
and most dominating mountain system
in the world.
• The reconstruction of roads and
embankments involves a huge
economic cost. The ongoing projects
also get delayed resulting in huge cost
and time overruns.
• At times, it leads to collapse of dams
built in the hilly areas causing massive
floods in the plains.
• It negatively impacts the vegetation
and biodiversity that takes a long time
to recover.
• Landslides can create the diversion of
river courses which can lead to flood
and loss of life and property.
• Ex: In India the flood mudslides occurred
in Uttarakhand in 2013 is listed as the
5th highest number of casualties from

Consequences
landslide events in the world, with 5,700
deaths.

and Control of • Another example is flash floods and

landslides in Ladakh in 2010.
Landslides
• Landslides constitute a major natural
hazard in our country, which accounts
for considerable loss of life and
damage to communication routes,
human settlements, agricultural fields
and forest lands.
• Slide landslides are caused due to the
action of water through intense rainfall
or snowfall, excess groundwater, etc.
at the base of the slopes. In these
landslides the downward movement of
soil and rock on a slope occurs due to
rupture over sometimes thin sheets with
characteristically intense shear strain.
• Blocking of roads in the hilly and
mountainous regions that hampers
normal communication, tourism, and I m a g e 10.1: L a n d s l id e H a z a r d Z o n e s

51

Landslide
Prevention and
Mitigation
• Regulation and restriction on the
construction and other developmental
activities such as roads and dams,
limiting agriculture to valleys and areas
with moderate slopes, in landslide
prone areas.
• Controlling the development of large
settlements in the high vulnerability
zones, should be enforced.
• Promoting large-scale afforestation
programmes & construction of bunds
to reduce the flow of water.
• Encouraging the terrace farming in
the northeastern hill states where
Jhumming (Slash and Burn/Shifting
Cultivation) is still prevalent. Installing
protective covers such as metal meshes
over the sensitive zone.
• Other measures:
» Structural measures:
− a) Planting (Avalanche Prevention
Forest)
− b) Stepped Terraces
− c) Avalanche Control Piles
− d) Avalanche Control Fence
− e) Suspended Fences
− f) Snow Cornice Control Structures
− g) Protection structures such as
stopping, deflecting and retarding
structures.
» Non-structural measures like, removing
snow deposits on slopes by blasting,
predicting avalanches and evacuating
people from vulnerable areas.
» ‘National Landslide Risk Mitigation
Project’ (NLRMP) has been proposed
to be launched.
52
» This
project aims to strengthen
the structural and non-structural
landslide mitigation efforts, reducing
the landslide risk and vulnerability in
the hilly districts, prone to landslides
and mud-flows and minimise the risks
arising out of disasters in landslides.
» Use of technology: Equipments for
emergency response, geological
reconnaissance of landslide-prone
areas, local monitoring services, site
investigation with borings and test
pits, slope stability analyses, seismic
analysis of slopes, technical assistance
in construction of buildings, roads, pipes
etc., design assistance for drainage
systems, and erosion modelling.
NDMA guidelines on
Landslides:
• Inventory of landslide incidents in the
country to be continuously updated.
• Landslide hazard zone mapping: at
macro and meso scales in consultation
with Border Roads Organisation (BRO),
state governments and the local
communities.
• For detailed study and monitoring
and assessing the stability status and
associated risk, pilot projects to be
taken across the country in various
regions.
• For generating awareness and
preparedness among various
stakeholders, setting up the institutional
mechanisms.
• Setting up early warning systems
depending upon the cost-benefit ratio
and evaluation of risk due to the slide.
• Training and capacity building of
professionals and organisations working
in the field of landslide management.
The existing courts and guidelines for
landslide management to be revised
 and new codes to be developed.
• An autonomous centre for research and
study in landslide management to be
set up to assist and provide scientific
guidance and interventions for
managing the occurrence of landslides.
Recent
technological
interventions:
• A wireless sensor-based landslide
detection system has been set up in
the Western Ghats of Kerala in 2009 by
Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham that has
issued several successful warnings.
• The second such project was taken
by the same institution in 2018 by
establishing sensors in Sikkim in an
area spanning around 150 acres of
Chandmari, a densely populated village
in the Gangtok district.
Hazard Zonation
Mapping
• Landslide Hazard Zonation maps were
prepared for selected pilgrim routes in
the country. These zones are delineated
based on geological, topological, and
anthropogenic factors. These factors
include lithology, soil, slope, drainage,
lineament, land use, etc.
• At present these maps are available
for pilgrim routes in Himachal Pradesh,
Uttarakhand, Meghalaya. In addition,
event-based and seasonal landslide
inventory is also carried out. The
information on landslide inventory and
hazard zones help the decision makers
for better planning in these areas.
53
Avalanche
• Avalanche refers to a mass of snow, ice
and rocks moving rapidly down a steep
slope.
• Avalanches come in many shapes and
sizes i.e. shifting of loose snow to the
displacement of enormous slabs of
snow. Slab Avalanche is more disastrous
than loose snow displacement as it is
capable of destroying forests and small
villages in its path.
Factors responsible for
Avalanche:
1. Heavy Snowfall- It deposits snow in
unstable areas and puts pressure on
the weak layer of snow in the snowpack
causing Avalanche.
2. Human Activity- Winter sports that
require steep slopes put pressure on the
layer of snow in the snowpack causing
Avalanche.
3. Wind Direction- The direction of the
wind determines the patterns of the
snowfall as well snow accumulation on
the mountain slopes.
4. Steep Slopes- An avalanche is also
caused by the influence of gravity.
5. Warm Temperatures- It leads to
snowpack melting and the accumulated
snow will be highly susceptible to sliding
down.
6. Layers of Snow- There are conditions
where snow is already on the mountains
and has turned into ice. Then, fresh
snow falls on top which can easily slide
down.
7. Earthquake- It generates seismic waves
that cause the ground to vibrate and
coupled with the gravitational pull, it is
one of the quickest ways to cause an
Avalanche.
 Scarps • E.g. Recently in 2021, Parts of
Uttarakhand witnessed massive
flooding after a chunk of the Nanda
Rock fall Devi Glacier broke off at Joshimath in
Slump
talus Chamoli district of Uttarakhand.

C
hu
te
debris flow
NDMA guidelines for
GLOF:
Slump

Ponded
water
Slump blocks Glide plane Transverse • Identifying and mapping the potentially
ridge dangerous lakes through field
I m a g e 10.2: A va l a n ch e observations, geomorphological and
geo-technical characteristics, satellite
imagery etc.
Glacial Lake • Using Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR)
Outburst Flood imagery to detect changes in water
bodies, new lake formations etc.
(GLOF) • Structural measures like pumping or
siphoning out water, making tunnels
• A Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) through moraine barriers, reducing the
refers to flooding caused by the failure number of lake formations etc.
of a dam containing glacial lake, are well • Regulating the land-use planning
known in Himalaya where such lakes and prohibiting the construction and
had often been formed by landslides. infrastructure development in high risk
GLOFs have immense potential of zones.
flooding in downstream areas, causing
disastrous consequences due to release
• Setting up a robust early warning
system and emergency response
of large volumes of water in a very short
teams, training and awareness among
interval of time.
the local population etc.

54
 CHAPTER - 11
INDUSTRIAL AND CHEMICAL DISASTERS
Industrial disasters
• Industrial disasters are disasters caused
by chemical, mechanical, civil, electrical
or other process failures due to
accident, negligence or incompetence,
in an industrial plant which may spill
over to the areas outside the plant or
within causing damage to life, property
and environment.
Chemical Disasters
• Chemicals are at the core of modern
industrial systems and thus, have
attained serious concern for disaster
management within government,
private sector and community at large.
• Due to chemical disasters, the industrial
plant, its employees & workers, the
residents living in nearby settlements
etc. are at highest risks. The chemical
disasters may primarily be due to
following three reasons:
» Human errors
» Technical errors
» Management errors
• These accidents are significant in
terms of loss of lives, injuries, pain,
suffering and damage to property and
environment. Even after the Bhopal
tragedy, India continued to witness a
series of chemical accidents.
• According to the National Disaster
Management Authority website, there
are about 1861 Major Accident Hazard
(MAH) units, spread across 301 districts
and 25 states & 3 Union Territories, in
all zones of the country. Also, there are
55
thousands of registered and hazardous
factories (below MAH criteria) and
unorganized sectors dealing with
numerous ranges of hazardous material
posing serious and complex levels of
disaster risks.
• Following are the various provisions
on chemical disaster management,
prevailing in country:-
Explosives Act 1884 - Petroleum Act 1934
Factories Act 1948 - Insecticides Act 1968
Environment Protection - Motor Vehicles Act
Act 1986 1988
Public Liability - Disaster Management
Insurance Act 1991 Act 2005
• The National Disaster Management
Authority (NDMA) had come out with
very specific guidelines on Chemical
Disaster Management. These guidelines
have been prepared to provide the
directions to ministries, departments
and state authorities for the preparation
of their detailed disaster management
plans.
• These guidelines provide for the
participatory, proactive, multi-
disciplinary and multi-sectoral
approach at various levels for chemical
disaster preparedness and response.
National Disaster Management
Guidelines
Following are the major highlights of
the NDMA Guidelines on Chemical
Disasters:
1. Strengthening of the present regulatory
framework in order to meet the defined
 national policies and aspirations;
augmentation of technical support
functions.
2. Providing for the supportive and
technology neutral regulation
framework.
3. Legislation on land-use policy (buffer
zone around chemical industry).
4. Standardisation of national codes and
practises.
5. Emphasis on identification and
selection of professional organisations
and their accreditation, their regular
safety audit.
6. Commissioning and decommissioning
of chemical industries.
7. Preparation of plans for On-Site and
Off-Site preparedness.
8. Regular testing of emergency plans
through exercise.
9. Need of medical first responders
and medical inventory to deal with
specialised chemical accidents at the
installation site.
10. Crisis management plans of hospitals
to manage the victims of chemical
emergencies.
11. Concept of mobile hospital and mobile
teams.
12. Issues related to public health response,
medical rehabilitation and harmful
effects on the environment.
13. Post-disaster documentation and
analysis.
Chemical terrorism
• Anti-national elements find chemical
terrorism easy to adopt and cost-
effective. They are not only adopting
newer modalities but also getting more
aggressive. The main aim of terrorists
is to intimidate the population, seek
attention, or force a legitimately
constituted government or organisation,
56
to act or abstain from doing an act.
• The chemical terrorism involves the
use of chemicals to destroy life, injure
humans and animals, and produce
panic, chaos, and disruption.
• Chemical terrorism agents are
poisonous vapors, aerosols, liquids, or
solids that have toxic effects on people,
animals or plants. They can be released
by bombs, sprayed from aircraft, boats,
or vehicles, or used as a liquid to create a
hazard to people and the environment.
• A terrorist attack involving chemical
agents may differ from a normal
terrorist attack as it results in specific
effects on health and can cause fatal
injuries, create panic, affect the morale
of the community, and lower its faith in
the government.
• Ex: In 1650, Polish artillery general
Siemenowics fired spheres filled with
the saliva of rabid dogs at his enemies.
• Disasters caused by acts of chemical
terrorism are thus a high priority area
for India. Terrorist attacks involving
chemical agents can be a highly
traumatic event. Thus, National
Disaster Management Authority has
also come out with Guidelines for
Chemical (Terrorism) Disasters: The
NDMA Guidelines lay emphasis on:
1. Security and surveillance measures
for installations manufacturing/using/
storing chemicals.
2. Strengthening intelligence regarding
the movement of chemicals.
3. Preparedness for counter-terrorism
measures:
a. Issues regarding the safety of
chemicals and risk reduction
strategies etc.
b. Strengthening of response through
rescue and emergency medical
resources.
c. Preparedness of all emergency
functionaries in terms of protection,
 detection, decontamination,
capacity building and infrastructure
development.
d. Community-centric mechanism
for the management of Chemical
(Terrorism) Disasters.
Role of Civil Society and the Private
Sector
• There is a need to promote the role of
all sectors of civil society and private
sector along with the government in
the implementation of the Guidelines
and DM Plan.
Nuclear Disaster
• Nuclear Disaster is an accident taking
place in any nuclear facility of the
nuclear fuel cycle including the nuclear
reactor, or in a facility using radioactive
sources, leading to a large-scale release
of radioactivity in the environment.
• Nuclear and Radiological Emergency
can arise in a nuclear facility at plant
level leading to plant/ site or offsite
emergency depending upon the extent
of its impact on the surroundings. It can
also take place while using radiation
sources, either at Hospitals, Industries,
Agriculture or Research Institutions due
to loss or misplacement or due to faulty
handling.
• The other events that can lead to
Nuclear or Radiological Emergency in
the public domain, include, accident
of a vehicle carrying radioactive/
nuclear material, due to an orphan
source i.e. the source which is not under
regulatory control or due to usage of
radiation source/radioactive material
in malevolent activities.
• However, the nuclear emergencies can
still arise due to factors beyond the
control of the operating agencies; e.g.,
system failure, human error, sabotage,
earthquake, cyclone, flood, etc. Such
57
failures may lead to an on-site or off-
site emergency.
I m a g e 11.1: F u k u s hi m a N u c l e a r D i s a s t e r
How to Combat Nuclear
Disaster?
• Number of system upgrades have
been planned to mitigate and prevent
such emergencies. However, in order
to achieve minimum avoidable loss of
life, livelihood, property and impact on
the environment, proper emergency
preparedness plans must be in place.
• Preparedness at Nuclear
Facilities: The probability of accident
at nuclear facilities leading to the release
of large quantities of radioactivity into
the environment is always ensured
to be negligibly small. However, the
prompt and effective implementation
of countermeasures can reduce the
radiological consequences for the
public and the environment.
• Preparedness for Nuclear
Emergencies: It requires coordination
among different service groups of the
nuclear facility. In the event of potential
radiological consequences in the public
domain, all the authorities at the three
levels, i.e., district, state and central, will
play a vital role and assist the offsite
officials in effectively responding to
and keeping the public informed on the
precautions to be taken.
• Major Responsibilities of Nuclear
 Power Plant Operators: This includes
the arrangements required to promptly
classify an emergency, mitigate the
emergency, notify and recommend
protective actions off the site consistent
with international guidelines, protect
those on site, obtain off-site assistance,
conduct environmental monitoring of
the affected area and assist off-site
officials in keeping the public informed.
• Nuclear facilities in India adopt
internationally accepted guidelines for
ensuring their safe operation and safety
to the public and the environment.
• Major Responsibilities of Off-
Site Officials: This includes the
arrangements required to promptly
implement protective actions and
countermeasures in the affected area.
• Emergency Preparedness for
Nuclear Power Plants: Prior to the
issuance of a license for the operation
of a nuclear facility, the authority must
ensure:
• That the facility has the Emergency
Response Manuals for the following
main types of emergencies, viz., plant
emergency, on-site emergency and
off-site emergency.
• The plans are in place to handle these
types of emergencies.
• Plant Emergency: This type of
emergency occurs when the radiological
consequences of an abnormal situation
are expected to remain confined to
the plant boundary or a section of the
plant.
• A plant emergency is a sudden,
unforeseen situation that potentially
threatens employees, customers, or
the public; disrupts or shuts down the
operations; and causes physical or
environmental damage that requires
immediate action.
» Formation of emergency operating
58
procedures for the assessment of an
emergency condition in a plant and its
mitigation.
» Pre-identification of any facility-specific,
abnormal situation for classification of
a plant and site emergency.
» Formation of rescue teams, immediate
activation of a treatment area and
decontamination centre.
» Radiation survey around the plant and
outside the plant and site boundaries.
» Assessment of wind speed, wind
direction and the affected sector
around the nuclear facility.
» Equipment and materials for handling
a nuclear emergency are kept at a
designated place of the nuclear facility
and ERC (Emergency Response Centre).
• On-Site Emergencies: If an
accident/incident takes place in a
factory, its effects are confined to the
factory premises, involving only the
persons working in the factory and the
property inside the factory it is called
as On-site Emergency.
• In this emergency along with the
provisions applicable in a plant
emergency, the following additional
provisions should be ensured.
» Assessment of the radiological
conditions within the site boundary of
the nuclear facility through extensive
radiological survey.
» Suitable prophylaxis to be made
available at all assembly areas for
administration to plant personnel, in
case the situation demands.
» Identification of temporary shelters
within the facility/site for shifting plant
personnel, in case required.
» Provision of a fleet of vehicles for
evacuation of plant personnel from the
site to a safer place.
» On sensing the potential of release
 of radioactivity which can transgress
into the public domain, the concerned
district authorities are alerted to be on
standby for emergency operations in
the public domain.
• Off-Site Emergencies: If the
accident is such that its affects inside the
factory are uncontrollable and it may
spread outside the factory premises it
is called as Off-site Emergency.
• On recognising the potential for an
uncontrolled release of radioactivity
into the public domain, the concerned
district authorities are alerted
to be on standby for emergency
response operations. In addition to
all the provisions applicable in plant
emergency and site emergency, the
following additional provisions are to
be ensured:
» Pre-identification of plant conditions
which can lead to an emergency in the
public domain.
» Type of emergency facilities/ actions
required from outside bodies:
1. Firefighting facilities required:
Factory will have its own fire fighting
facilities but during an emergency,
fire brigade may be called.
2. Police help required during
emergency for evacuation of the
people, traffic control security
arrangements etc. will be available.
3. Medical help required: seriously
injured personnel may be referred
to the local Hospital/Nursing Home/
ESI Hospital depending upon the
gravity and type of injuries.
» An assessment of the radiological
status at the site boundary and in the
public domain.
» All the activities pertaining to the
handling of an off-site emergency are
guided and coordinated from a pre-
designated emergency response centre
59
located outside the boundary of the
nuclear facility.
Case Study
• Fukushima accident is also called
Fukushima nuclear accident or
Fukushima Daiichi nuclear accident.
• A magnitude 9.0 earthquake struck
Japan at 2:46 p.m. on March 11, 2011.
It was the largest in recorded history
to strike the country. This earthquake,
the Great East Japan Earthquake,
produced a large-scale tsunami. The
tsunami caused the cooling of the
reactors and the cooling of the spent
fuel pools of the Fukushima Daiichi
nuclear plants to fail. A non-stoppable
nuclear disaster unveiled.
• It was the second worst nuclear
accident in the history of nuclear
power generation.
• About 1.5 million people of Fukushima
were severely affected by this event.
More than 15000 people died in this
incidence and thousands are still
missing.
• The report of the World Health
Organisation on the Disaster state
that residents of Fukushima region
received between 1 to 20 millisievert
(mSv) of radiation even after 1 year
of incident. Even today children are
found suffering from Thyroid cancer.
Role of International Atomic Energy
Agency (IAEA):
• IAEA was set up as the world’s “Atoms
for Peace” organization in 1957 within
the United Nations family. Safeguards
are activities by which the IAEA can
verify that a State is living up to its
international commitments not to
use nuclear programmes for nuclear-
weapons purposes.
• Today, the IAEA safeguards nuclear
material and activities under
agreements with more than 140 States.
• The IAEA helps Member States meet
this responsibility by establishing
international safety standards and
providing for their application in all
types of nuclear installations (power
reactors, research reactors and fuel
cycle facilities) throughout their
total life cycle – from design through
decommission.
• Within the world’s nuclear non-
proliferation regime, the IAEA’s
safeguards system functions as a
confidence-building measure, an early
warning mechanism, and the trigger
that sets in motion other responses
by the international community if and
when the need arises.
• India is one of the founding members of
the IAEA. And as of 2019, India has put
26 reactors under the IAEA safeguards.
• India has also become the 35th
country to join the IAEA Response and
Assistance Network (RANET), a group
of states which offer assistance to
mitigate the consequences of nuclear
or radiological emergencies.
Oil Spills
• An oil spill refers to any uncontrolled
release of crude oil, gasoline, fuels,
or other oil by-products into the
environment. Oil spills can pollute land,
air, or water.
Impact of Oil Spills:
1. Oil spill negatively impacts the coral
ecosystem,
2. It leads to death of flora and fauna
which affects the aquatic life.
60
3. It causes bio-magnification and bio-
accumulation.
4. It also has an impact in tourism, fishing,
other economic activities like water
sports and cultural activities of the
region.
Methods to clean oil spills:
1. Containment booms-floating barriers
called booms are used to stop spreading
of oil which could be retrieved.
2. Skimmers- they are used to physically
retrieve oil by separating them from
water.
3. Sorbents- they are used to absorb oil
from the surface e.g. volcanic ash.
4. Chemical surfactants can be used to
dissociate oil into smaller particles to
accelerate their dispersion.
5. Biological agents such as
microorganisms are used to speed up
natural bio degradation.
Case Study- Chennai oil spill accident:
• A big oil spill hit Chennai on January
28th, 2017. The spill occurred when
two container ships collided about
two miles off the coast of Chennai.
Approximately 75 metric tonnes of
heavy fuel oil were spilled into the Bay
of Bengal as a result of the accident.
• A substantial amount of oil was
trapped in the relatively stagnant
zone near the seawall-groin inter-
section. The initial clean-up efforts
focused on manual methods to skim
the trapped oil, and these efforts were
successful in recovering a consider-
able amount of oil.
• The INCOIS report had mentioned
that the spillage has polluted 24.06km
of the city’s shoreline.
 CHAPTER - 12

BIOLOGICAL DISASTERS

Introduction Family Welfare is (MoHFW) is the

nodal ministry for handling epidemics,
decision-making, advisory body and
• Biological disasters are defined as emergency Medical Relief provider.
the devastating effects caused by an
enormous spread of a certain kind of
• According to the Constitution,
health is a state subject. So, the
living organism – that may spread a
primary responsibility of dealing with
disease, virus, or infestations of plant,
biological disasters rests with the state
animal or insect life on an epidemic or
governments.
pandemic level.
• Cholera and influenza H1N1(Swine-flu) • The National Institute of Communicable
Diseases (NICD) is the nodal agency for
outbreaks are examples of biological
investigating outbreaks in the country.
disasters.
• Form of Biological disasters: • The NICD/Indian Council of Medical
Research (ICMR) provides teaching/
» Epidemic: It affects the training, research and laboratory support.
disproportionately large number

of individuals within a population,
community, or region at the same
time, examples being Cholera, Plague,
Japanese Encephalitis (JE)/Acute
Encephalitis Syndrome (AES).
» Pandemic: It is an epidemic that
spreads across a large region, that is, a
continent, or even worldwide of existing,
emerging or reemerging diseases and
pestilences, example being Influenza
H1N1 (Swine Flu).
• In India the Ministry of Health and
Biological Hazards
• It refers to the biological substances or
organic matters produced by parasites,
bacteria, fungi, viruses, and protein that
pose a threat to the health of living
organisms, primarily that of humans.
Also known as Biohazards.
• This includes the medical waste and
samples of a microorganism, virus or
toxin from various biological sources
that can affect human health.

Biological
Disaster

Primary Secondary
Disaster Disaster

Natural Manmade Natural Manmade

Epidemics Infestations Biological Disease after Disaster Disease after Disaster Lack of Bio-safety
Disaster Disaster weapon E.g. flood, earthquake E.g. conflict and bio-security

I m a g e 12.1: B i o l o g ic a l D i s a s t e r s

61

Biological Warfare
(BW)
• Also known as Germ Warfare, is the use
of biological toxins or infectious agents
such as bacteria, viruses, and fungi with
the intent to kill or incapacitate humans,
animals or plants as an act of war.
• Biological weapons(often termed “bio-
weapons”, “biological threat agents”,
or “bioagents”) are living organisms or
replicating entities (viruses, which are
not universally considered “alive”) that
reproduce or replicate within their host
victims.
• Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA) is the
nodal ministry for Biological Warfares
and partners with the Ministry of Health
& Family Welfare in its management.
• MHA is responsible for assessing threat
perceptions, setting up of deterrent
mechanisms and providing intelligence
inputs.
Prevention of
Biological Disasters
• Following are the important means for
prevention of biological disasters:
» Vulnerability Analysis and Risk
Assessment.
» Environmental Management
− Proper maintenance of sewage
pipelines and safe water supply can
go a long way in the prevention of
biological disasters and epidemics
of waterborne origin such as cholera,
hepatitis, diarrhoea and dysentery.
− Mass awareness about personal
hygiene can be created in the
community about the importance
of personal hygiene.
62
− Vector
control measures like
elimination of breeding places by
water management, keeping a
watch on the rodent population.
− Integrated Disease Surveillance
Systems.
− Pharmaceutical Interventions in
the form of Chemoprophylaxis,
Immunisation and Other Preventive
Measures.
NDMA guidelines
on Management of
Biological Disasters
• Vulnerability analysis and risk
assessment needs to be carried out at
the macro and micro levels for existing
diseases with epidemic potential,
emerging and re-emerging diseases,
and zoonotic diseases with potential to
cause human diseases, etc.
• Important buildings and those housing
vital installations need to be protected
against biological agents wherever
deemed necessary.
• When exposure is suspected, the
affected persons shall be quarantined
and put under observation for any
atypical or typical signs and symptoms
appearing during the period of
observation.
• Health professionals who are
associated with such investigations will
have adequate protection and adopt
recognised universal precautions.
• Health care workers shall be equipped
with gloves, impermeable gowns,
N-95 masks or powered air-purifying
respirators. They must clean their
hands prior to donning PPE for patient
contact.
• With due consideration to the social,
ethnic and religious issues involved,
 utmost care will be exercised in the
disposal of dead bodies.
• Necessary awareness regarding the
importance of personal hygiene,
and measures to achieve this will be
created in the community. This includes
the provision of washing, cleaning
and bathing facilities, and avoiding
overcrowding in sleeping quarters, etc.
• All manufacturers of antibiotics,
chemotherapeutics and antivirals
shall be listed and their installed
capacity ascertained. The centre/state
governments will ensure availability of
all such drugs and anti-toxins that are
needed to combat a biological disaster.
• Attention is to be given to the
development of infrastructural facilities
in terms of trained manpower, mobility,
connectivity, knowledge enhancement
and scientific upgradation for all
stakeholders concerned with the
management of biological disasters.
63
• Biological disaster related education
shall be given in various vernacular
languages. Simple exercise models
for creating awareness will also be
formulated at the district level.
• Toll-free numbers and a reward system
for providing vital information about
any oncoming biological disaster by
an early responder or the public will be
helpful.
• Those families subjected to
bereavement of their near and dear
ones would also reflect in higher psycho-
social morbidity. MoH & FW through its
mental health institutions and NGOs
would provide adequate psycho-social
care.
• The management of pandemics also
requires a transparent and collaborative
approach wherein the affected
countries will make a combined effort
to mitigate the impact.
 CHAPTER - 13

LIGHTNING

Introduction trees and water bodies.

• Lightning is no more a mystery. It’s a
sudden and short term phenomenon.
It is direct and extreme backlash of
global warming and climate Change. It
needs close monitoring and proactive
collective action to reduce its adverse
impacts.
• Lightning is a high-energy luminous
electrical discharge from a thundercloud
to the ground accompanied by
thunder. Lightning is a very rapid and
massive discharge of electricity in the
atmosphere. Some of it is directed
towards the Earth.
• It is result of the difference in electrical
charge between the top and bottom
of a cloud. The lightning-generating
clouds are typically about 10-12 km in
height, with their base about 1-2 km
from the Earth’s surface.
• Majority of the lightning victims are
the people working on the field in rural
areas. For example, a study of lightning
deaths over Maharashtra has shown
that 86% of the total deaths (IITM,
Pune: 2004-2009) are from people
working on the field.
• Lightning is a major cause of electrical
power breakdowns, and forest fires.
• It can cause damage to communication
and computer equipment, and aircrafts.
Case Studies:
During Cyclone Fani, Odisha had more
than one lakh intense lightning strikes
on 3rd and 4th of May 2019. More than
1.2 million people were evacuated to
cyclone shelters. The Lightning risk pre-
pared Odisha had zero casualty main-
ly due to all 891 cyclone shelters were
fitted with Lightning Arresters.

» Cloud to Ground Lightning: Lightning

that happens between opposite
charges in a cloud and on the ground. NDMA guidelines to
» In-Cloud Lightning: Lightning that
occurs between opposite charges
prevent loss of life
within a thunderstorm.
due to lightning
Lightning in India: • Mapping of major lightning affected
zones. It can be done on the basis
• In India, every year more than 2500
of availability of data of numbers of
people die due to lightning (Annual
lightning incidence, deaths occurred
Report, NCRB).
and injured persons data.
• Eight states of North East comprising
the 2.4% of geographical area of India
• Sharing of data between different
agencies for preparation of mitigation
with 3.86% of national population fall
plans for mitigation.
in the most hot lightning rod zone.
• Maharashtra has the highest deaths • Lightning strike warning system that
would inform people of impending
due to lightning in India. Mostly, Rural
disaster.
and forest areas are vulnerable with tall

64
 MOST STRIKES IN ODISHA, MOST DEATHS IN UP

900
Lighting deaths PRIMARY CAUSES OF
Nooflighting strikes in thousands and no of deaths actual

(actual)
800
Lighting strikes
LIGHTNING DEATHS
700
(in thousands) 4
Indirect
600 hit

500

400 71
Standing 25
undertree Direct hit
300
DEATHS, URBAN VS RURAL
200
4% 96%
100 Urban Rural

0
Uttar Pradesh

Gujarat
Odisha
Maharashtra

Himachal Pradesh
West Bengal

Jharkhand
Puducherry

Tamil Nadu
Telangana
Bihar

Rajasthan
Kerala
Meghalaya
Assam
Tripura
Chhattisgarh

Mizoram
Karnataka

Haryana

Uttarakhand
Jammu & Kashmir
Andra Pradesh

Madhya Pradesh

65% 35%
Male Female

Source: Mid-Monsoon 2019 Lightning Report

• Structural protection measures like and State Government Departments,

Lightening Shields for buildings and
other structures.
• Promote installations of high grade
lightning arresters and Doppler Radars
of subsidized rates by the government.
• Improved wiring with trip-boxes and
good earthing.
• Educating and creating mass awareness
on how to safely respond to lightning
storms.
• Use of social media to effectively deliver
the warnings.
• Lightning Resilient India Campaign
2019-2021: This is a joint initiative
and has support from many Central
academia, INGOs, Local NGOs, media
and communities with an aim to reduce
lightning deaths by 80% in next 3 years.
• The focus on Lightning protection and
awareness is the need of the hour. 100%
Safety can be assured with installation
of Lightning protection devices only.
• Essence of 100% safety from Lightning
is possible only on installation of
standard Lightning protection devices.
Ex: Lightning Safe Grid at Babadham
Deoghar and Lightning safe Cyclone
Shelters of Odisha. Results have been
very evident as Odisha had zero
lightning casualty during Cyclone Fani.

65
 CHAPTER - 14

DESERT LOCUST
Introduction
• Locust are short-horned grasshoppers.
These species under favourable climatic
conditions congregate, that move
together as bands and swarm over long
distances crossing over countries and
continents rapidly, stripping fields and
enormously damaging crops.
• Adult locust swarms can fly up to 150
km a day with the wind and they can
consume roughly their own weight in
fresh food per day.
• Even a very small swarm can eat as
much in one day as about 35,000
people.
• If allowed to breed unchecked in
favourable conditions, locusts can form
huge swarms that can strip trees and
crops over vast areas.
• The
unprecedented behaviour of
desert locusts has become the cause
of concern, for India. Recently, India
faced the worst locust attack in about
27 years.
Case Study:
Swarms of locusts have invaded vast
swathes of land in India since April 11th
2020. They entered several districts of
Rajasthan via Sindh province Pakistan.
Favourable rain-bearing winds aided
their transport towards India. This lo-
cust attack has affected about 90,000
hectares across 20 districts in Rajasthan.
Locust Warning
Organisation (LWO)
• The Locust Control and Research
(LC&R) scheme is responsible for control

The Locust cycle

Under optimal conditions The female locust lays
the Desert Locust changes her eggs directly into
both colour and behaviour the soil that hatch
as it becomes more after two weeks
gregarious
GREGARIO
US
SWARM

Increasing
multiplication and
concentration
BAND

SO
Adults mature and L I TA RY
are ready to lay
eggs after at least The hopper moults
3 weeks 5-6 times and
becomes an adult in
about 4-6 weeks

I m a g e 14.1: D e s e r t L o c u s t C yc l e

66
 of Desert Locust in India.
• Which is being implemented through
Organisation known as Locust Warning
Organisation (LWO) established in 1939.
• LWO is responsible to monitor and
control the locust situation in the
Scheduled Desert Area (SDA) mainly
in the States of Rajasthan and Gujarat
while partly in the States of Punjab and
Haryana.
• It keeps itself abreast with the
prevailing locust situation at National
and International level through monthly
Desert Locust Bulletins of FAO.
Control Measures
• A robust approach is required by the
Union Government agencies and
various departments of states for the
effective desert locust control.
• The mitigation at the hopper stage can
be most effective. Because locusts are
most vulnerable at this stage.
• When the adult locusts emerge from
the fifth-instar hoppers and mature;
I m a g e 14.2: L o c u s t A f f e c t e d R e g i o n s
67
they form swarms and fly away. So, it
gets difficult to control them.
• The pesticides, which are active for a
short time, should be used to minimise
environmental damages.
• Drones can also be used to spray
pesticides on tall trees and inaccessible
places for effective control of locusts.
• Directives from the United Nations Food
and Agriculture Organisation, which is
monitoring the situation on a global
scale, should be followed diligently for
effective locust control.
• India has also proposed a trilateral
initiative with Pakistan and Iran for
effective locust control. The Indian
Meteorological Department should
provide the wind pattern data for
proper tracking of the movement of
locust swarms.
• Safeguarding livelihoods and
promoting recovery through cash
interventions, supplementary livestock
feed, and livelihood recovery and
farming packages.
 CHAPTER - 15
SLOW ONSET DISASTERS
• Based on the speed of occurrence,
disasters can also be classified as
‘slow onset’ disasters and ‘rapid onset’
disasters. Speed of onset has important
consequences for action that can be
taken.
• Earthquakes, cyclones, floods, tsunamis
would fall under the category of rapid
onset disasters.
• A slow-onset disaster is defined as one
that does not emerge from a single,
distinct event but one that emerges
gradually over time, often based on a
confluence of different events.
• Disasters like global warming,
climate change, soil degradation,
desertification, and droughts, would
fall under the category of slow onset
disasters.
• Slow onset disasters are also termed as
‘Creeping Emergencies’.
• Unlike the rapid onset disasters, their
impact is not felt immediately; however,
societies lose their ability to derive
sustenance from their surroundings,
over a period of time.
• Disaster assessments reveal that, as
compared to sudden-onset disasters
the elusive and slow-onset disasters
affect more people on aggregate.
• In reality, it is unfortunate that hazards
with a slow-onset are often ignored,
left smouldering in the background,
while their impacts gradually build up
and strengthen over time - sometimes
irreversibly so – until eventually
becoming critical emergencies.
• The negative impacts of slow onset
disasters are already affecting
developing countries badly. The
resulting loss and damage associated
68
with slow onset events is likely to
increase significantly in coming times
even when appropriate mitigation and
adaptation action is undertaken.
• Following are the key aspects which are
also the major obstacles in dealing with
the Slow Onset Disasters:
1. Early warning technologies
generally used do not necessarily
secure proactive response to slow-
onset disasters due to political and
practical obstacles in the way of
timely action.
2. Generic Disaster Risk Reduction
Strategies, which work well in the
context of sudden-onset disasters,
are generally inappropriate for
the management of slow-onset
disasters.
3. The slow-onset disasters often fall
outside the mandate of specialized
disaster management agencies.
So, the measures of preparedness,
prevention, and early warning are
much less developed for sudden
onset disasters.
4. The slow-onset disasters are
generally geographically dispersed
in nature. This impacts and reduces
their perceived severity and political
salience.
5. The vast majority of theories and
research on disaster revolves around
sudden- onset disasters, generally
the largest and most destructive
historical events.
• Gaps in relevant policy frameworks
might fail to address slow onset
disasters and leave whole communities
vulnerable and exposed to slow onset
disasters. Addressing these obstacles
head on, following are the major steps
in recent times.
1. The Sendai Framework for Disaster
Risk Reduction (SFDRR) goes
beyond the Hyogo framework in
expanding the scope of DRR work
to also include slow- onset disasters.
69
2. The United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change
secretariat (UNFCCC) also makes
provisions for increased attention
to climate change-induced slow-
onset hazards, which it refers to as
slow-onset events.
 CHAPTER - 16
URBAN FLOODING
Introduction
• As compared to the rural flooding
the urban flooding is significantly
different. Because urbanisation leads to
developed catchments which increases
the flood peaks from 1.8 to 8 times and
flood volumes by up to 6 times.
• As the consequence of faster flow
times, the flooding occurs very quickly,
sometimes in a matter of minutes.
• Nowadays the increasing trend of urban
flooding is a universal phenomenon
and poses a great challenge to urban
planners the world over.
• Over the past several years there has
been an increasing trend of urban flood
disasters in India whereby, major cities
in India have been severely affected.
• Some of the most notable amongst them
are Hyderabad in 2000, Ahmedabad in
2001, Delhi in 2002 and 2003, Chennai
in 2004, Mumbai in 2005, Surat in 2006,
Kolkata in 2007, Jamshedpur in 2008,
Delhi in 2009 and Guwahati and Delhi
in 2010.
I m a g e 16.1: U r b a n F l o o di n g
70
Issues in Urban
Flooding:
• In India, the average annual rainfall
dramatically varies among the
important cities. On the higher side
varies from 2932 mm in Goa and 2401
mm in Mumbai, to 669 mm in Jaipur on
the lower side.
• Due to ongoing climate change and
global warming phenomenons, the
urban flooding becomes more and
more common.
• India receives the maximum rainfall
from the south-west monsoons. So,
the pattern and temporal duration of
rainfall is almost similar in all these
cities.
• The capacity of storm water drainage
systems were designed for rainfall
intensity of 12 - 20 mm in the past. But
whenever rainfall of higher intensity has
been experienced these capacities have
been getting very easily overwhelmed.
• Ideally, the natural drains should have
been widened (similar to road widening
for increased traffic) to accommodate
the higher flows of storm water. But
on the contrary, there have been large
scale encroachments on the natural
drains and the river floodplains.
• Improper disposal of solid waste
(commercial, domestic, and industrial
waste) and dumping of construction
debris into the drains also contributes
significantly to reducing their capacities.
• Overburdened drainage, no regard
to the natural topography and hydro-
geomorphology all make urban floods
a man-made disaster. This increasing
 trend of urban flooding is a universal
phenomenon and posing a great
challenge to urban planners in India
and all over the world.
• Being the centres of economic
activities, the Urban areas are also with
vital infrastructure which needs to be
protected 24x7. In some cities, damage
to vital infrastructure has a bearing not
only for the state and the country but
it could even have global implications.
Ex: Mumbai, the financial capital of
country.
• According to the report published
by World Bank, there has been a 217
percent increase in the incidence of
malaria during the last decade. It
identified unhygienic living conditions
in slums and water accumulation during
and after monsoons as the leading
factors.
Case study:
• The secondary runway of Chennai In-
ternational Airport was also built right
over the Adyar river. Most of the air-
port was constructed on the riverine
floodplains, leading to massive flood-
ing during the 2015 Chennai floods.
• Andhra Pradesh’s Amarava-
ti Capital City Project, had ma-
jor areas proposed to be built on
the floodplains of Krishna river.
NDMA Guidelines on
Urban Flooding
• CWC should maximize the real-time
hydro-meteorological network to cover
all the urban centres in support of the
emerging priorities in dealing with
urban flooding.
71
• It is essential to design and strengthen
local hydro-meteorological data
networks to cater for the needs of urban
flooding holistically.
• State-of-the-art automatic water level
recorders must be installed throughout
the drainage network of the watershed,
which may sometimes extend beyond
the administrative boundary of the
ULB.
• Efforts shall be made to restore water
bodies by de-silting and taking other
measures. Efforts shall also be made to
revive water bodies that have been put
to other uses.
• Local scale emergency medical
response systems will be established
to deal with medical preparedness,
emergency treatment, mortuary
facilities and disposal of bodies and
carcasses, public health issues including
trauma and control of epidemics.
• Encourage local residents to constitute
Community Level First Responder
Support consisting of ex-servicemen,
retired police personnel, paramilitary
forces and Resident Welfare Association
(RWA).
• Suitable hedging mechanisms, like
insurance of life and property, need
to be evolved to reduce urban flood
vulnerability.
• Public awareness will be created about
the need to keep safety kits containing
medicines, torch, identity cards, ration
card, important documents and
non-perishable edibles ready before
commencement of monsoon so that,
they can carry the same with them, in
case they have to be evacuated.
• Media companies shall be motivated to
launch/expand awareness generation
programmes as a part of their CSR.
 CHAPTER - 17
EPIDEMIC / PANDEMIC
Introduction
• An epidemic is the phenomenon of
rapid spread of disease to a large
number of people in a given population
within a short period of time.
• When a new disease spreads over a
vast geographical area covering several
countries and continents, and most
people do not have immunity against
it, the outbreak is termed a pandemic.
• Pandemic implies a higher level of concern
than an epidemic, which the US Centers
of Disease and Control Prevention (CDC)
defines as the spread of a disease in a
localised area or country.
• WHO declared the COVID-19 outbreak
a pandemic. India declared
pandemic as a ‘notified disaster’.
the
Provisions of the
1897 Epidemic
Diseases Act
• The act empowers state governments
and UTs to take special measures and
formulate regulations for containing
the outbreak.
• It empowers the state to prescribe
temporary regulations for the public
or any person or class of persons as
it shall deem necessary to prevent the
outbreak of such disease or the spread
thereof.
• The manner of expenses and by whom
any expenses incurred (including
compensation) shall be defrayed can
be determined by the state.
72
• It provides for penalties in case of
disobeying any regulation or order
made under this Act. These are
according to section 188 of the Indian
Penal Code (Disobedience to order duly
promulgated by a public servant).
• It also gives legal protection to the
implementing officers acting under the
Act.
• The Act specifies that the central
government may regulate: (i) the
inspection of any ship or vessel leaving
or arriving at any port, and (ii) the
detention of any person intending to
travel from the port, during an outbreak.
2nd ARC
recommendations
on epidemics
• To more effectively prevent outbreak/
spread of epidemics, it is imperative
that a comprehensive revised ‘model’
legislation on public health is finalized at
an early date. The Ministry of Health and
Family Welfare should systematically
pursue its enactment by the states
with adaptations necessitated by local
requirements.
• The Ministry of Health and Family
Welfare has to ensure that requisite
plans envisaged under the Disaster
Management Act, 2005, are drawn up
in respect of epidemics also and that
the role of the district administration
finds explicit mention in the Public
Health Emergency Bill.
• The structure created by the Disaster
Management Act, 2005, should be
utilized for managing epidemics also.
• While surveillance and management
of epidemics are the responsibility of
public health professionals, it is clear
that a particularly severe outbreak
could overwhelm the capacities of
the ‘line organizations’. The Ministry
of Health and Family Welfare and
the State Governments must ensure
that ‘standard operating procedures’
are devised to assign roles and
responsibilities of agencies and
personnel outside the line organisations
wherever a situation so warrants.
73
• State level handbooks and manuals
concerning disaster management
should have a chapter on “epidemics-
related emergencies”. A model chapter
may be circulated by the Ministry
of Health and Family Welfare for
guidance of states. It may be useful
to document the past handling of
epidemics like the Plague (Surat) and
Japanese encephalitis (Eastern UP) to
facilitate standardization of response
mechanisms.
 PREVIOUS
YEAR
QUESTIONS

74
1. How important are vulnerability
and risk assessment for pre-disaster
management? As an administrator,
what are key areas that you would
focus in a disaster management. (2013)
2. Drought has been recognized as a
disaster in view of its party expense,
temporal duration, slow onset and
lasting effect on various vulnerable
sections. With a focus on the
September 2010 guidelines from
the National disaster management
authority, discuss the mechanism for
preparedness to deal with the El Nino
and La Nina fallouts in India. (2014)
3. The frequency of earthquakes
appears to have increased in the
Indian subcontinent. However,
India’s preparedness for mitigating
their impact has significant gaps.
Discuss various aspects. (2015)
4. With reference to National Disaster
Management Authority (NDMA)
guidelines, discuss the measures to
be adopted to mitigate the impact of
the recent incidents of cloudbursts in
many places of Uttarakhand. (2016)
5. The frequency of urban floods due
to high intensity rainfall is increasing
over the years. Discussing the reasons
for urban floods. Highlight the
mechanisms for preparedness to reduce
the risk during such events. (2016)
75
6. On December 2004, Tsumani brought
havoc on 14 countries including India.
Discuss the factors responsible for
occurrence of Tsunami and its effects
on life and economy. In the light of
guidelines of NDMA (2010) describe the
mechanisms for preparedness to reduce
the risk during such events. (2017)
7. Describe various measures taken
in India for Disaster Risk Reduction
(DRR) before and after signing ‘Sendai
Framework for DRR (2015-2030)’. How
is this framework different from ‘Hyogo
Framework for Action, 2005? (2018)
8. Vulnerability is an essential element
for defining disaster impacts and
its threat to people. How and in
what ways can vulnerability to
disasters be characterized? Discuss
different types of vulnerability
with reference to disasters. (2019)
9. Disaster preparedness is the first
step in any disaster management
process. Explain how Hazard Zonation
mapping will help in disaster mitigation
in the case of landslides. (2019)
10. Discuss the recent measures initiated
in disaster management by the
Government of India departing from
the earlier reactive approach. (2020)
 REFERENCES
1. NCERT India Physical
2. IGNOU: MPA-018 Disaster
Management - http://egyankosh.ac.in/
handle/123456789/25233
3. 2nd ARC REPORT (Crisis Management)
4. Disaster Management Division - Ministry of
Home Affairs: https://ndmindia.mha.gov.in/
5. National Disaster Management Authority
- https://ndma.gov.in/Governance/
Guidelines
6. http://www.undp.org/content/dam/india/
docs/disaster_management_in_india.pdf
7. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/
blogs/social-strings/reflections-on-the-xv-
finance-commission-recommendations-
on-disaster-risk-management-majuli-in-
perspective/
8. https://www.undrr.org/
9. https://pmnrf.gov.in/en/
10. https://www.pmcares.gov.in/en/
11. https://www.undp.org/content/undp/en/
home/sustainable-development-goals.html
76
Images
Cover Page Image
CHAPTER 1
Image 1.1:
h t t p : //d m . m c g m . g o v . i n /d i a s t e r -
management-cycle
CHAPTER 2
Image 2.1:
https://www.allerin.com/blog/big-data-in-
disaster-management
CHAPTER 3
Image 3.1:
https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Legal-
And-Institutional-Framework-Under-
Disaster-Management-Act-2005-Source-
Disaster_fig27_330872343
CHAPTER 4
Image 4.1:
h t t p s : // w w w . g o o g l e . c o m /
url?sa=i&url=http%3A%2F%2Funece.
org%2Fsendai-framework&psig=AOvV
aw3eLOkCUFM5GBS_5jbuf2Gx&ust=1
610530239919000&source=images&c
d=vfe&ved=0CAIQjRxqFwoTCOCP8e-
Klu4CFQAAAAAdAAAAABAX
Image 4.2:
h t t p s : // w w w . g o o g l e . c o m /
url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Ftwitter.co
m%2Fundrr%2Fstatus%2F9206140783343
32928&psig=AOvVaw3eLOkCUFM5GBS_5
jbuf2Gx&ust=1610530239919000&source=i
mages&cd=vfe&ved=0CAIQjRxqFwoTCOC
P8e-Klu4CFQAAAAAdAAAAABAd
CHAPTER 5 CHAPTER 9
Image 5.1: Image 9.1:
h t t p s : //g k s c i e n t i s t . c o m /d i s a s t e r - h t t p s : //g k s c i e n t i s t . c o m /d i s a s t e r -
management-for-cse-exam/ management-for-cse-exam/#Droughts

CHAPTER 6 CHAPTER 10
Image 6.1: Image 10.1:
h t t p s : // w w w . g o o g l e . c o m / https://www.researchgate.net/figure/
url?sa=i&url=http%3A%2F%2Fffden-2. Landslides-hazard-zones-of-India-Source-
phys.uaf.edu%2F212 BMTPC_fig6_292251177

CHAPTER 7 CHAPTER 14
Image 7.1: Image 14.1:
h t t p s : //g k s c i e n t i s t . c o m /d i s a s t e r - h t t p s : //s t a t i c 1 . s q u a r e s p a c e . c o m /
management-for-cse-exam/#Cyclones static/5af1629f12b13f5ce97ca0b5/t/5e1e
90d3181fbc46dccf6db0/1579061468427/
Desert+Locust+Factsheet.pdf
CHAPTER 8
Image 8.1:
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management-for-cse-exam/#Floods

77
 AUTHOR'S NOTE
This book tries to exhaustively cover the complete syllabus of UPSC CSE Preliminary &
Mains examination in an integrated approach for “Disaster Management”. The purpose
is to enable the learners to correctly approach and solve the questions asked and thereby
achieve top ranks in UPSC CSE Examination.

Despite being exhaustive, we have tried to be as precise and accurate as we can to

supplement your smart study. We have tried to include recent events within and outside
India relevant for the CSE examination and present it in a manner in which UPSC
examination demands. The current issues have been linked with the static portion of the
syllabus (wherever possible) so as to develop a better understanding and have a better
grasp over the subject. The aim is to ensure that learners develop a knack of identifying
important subjects and topics from newspapers and magazines thereby saving their
precious time that usually gets wasted in reading the irrelevant stuff.

All this will not only prepare learners for the examination but also give a better
understanding of events happening around us in the society, polity, economy, global
affairs and prepare them for the challenges that they will have to tackle after clearing
the examination.

However, there is always scope for further improvement. It may so happen that learners
might have some suggestions about further improving the quality of the book. Such
suggestions would not only help us in assisting better but also the future learners to
do well. Any such suggestions would be welcome and can be communicated at
upscnotessuggestions@unacademy.com

Prakhar Srivastava, Prashant Bhule, Yogesh Joshi, Abhineet Marandi and Suraj Singh have
contributed to the creation of the content in the book. With their profound experience in
the field of UPSC and in the field, they were responsible for selection of topics, content
creation and editing of the content in the notes.

We wish you all the success in your efforts towards UPSC CSE Examination.

Team UNACADEMY

UPSC | Disaster Management

78
UPSC | Disaster Management