Perception Ch2-3 - The Eye and Retina

Chapter 3
The Eye and Retina
Goldstein, Sensation and Perception, Eleventh Edition. © 2022 Cengage. All Rights Reserved. May not be scanned, copied or duplicated, or
posted to a publicly accessible website, in whole or in part. 1
The Perceptual Process
https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/_video.true/my
psychlab-2018-carlson10e_0134641418-
overview_of_sensation_and_perception
Figure 1.4
Starting at the Beginning
霓
細
胞
轉換成神經訊號
Figure 3.1
Outline
Light and Focusing (3.1, 3.2)

Photoreceptors and Perception (3.1, 3.3)
Neural Convergence and Perception (3.4)
More: Early Events Are Powerful
Light: the Stimulus for Vision
What if there is no light / sound?
Light: the Stimulus for Vision
Electromagnetic spectrum ( ) m
N
A continuum of electromagnetic energy produced by electric charges.
Energy is described by wavelength.
Spectrum ranges from short wavelength gamma rays to long wavelength radio waves.
只有此範圍內 photo_reeepter才
Visible spectrum for humans ranges from 400在to 700 nanometers (10有
-9反應
meters).
One Photon ( ): the smallest possible packet of light energy.
https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/_vide
o.true/mypsychlab-2015-carlson12e_0134320832-
the_visible_spectrum_and_properties_of_light
Difference in Preferred Wavelengths
https://github.com/golanlevin/ExperimentalCapture/blob/master/docs/hyperspectral.md
The Eye
(aqueous humor)
(vitreous humor)
(ciliary muscles)
(cornea) (retina)
(fovea)
(pupil)
(optic nerve)
(iris)
(blind point)
(lens)
Biopsy Figure 6.4 Introducing Psychology, Mosslyn & Rosenbery, 4th Ed. Figure 3-4
The Eyes of Different Species
http://redwood.berkeley.edu/wiki/VS298:_Animal_Eyes
The Eye
The eye contains receptors for vision
Light enters the eye through the pupil and is focused by the cornea and lens to a sharp image on
the retina.
Rods ( ) and Cones ( ) are the visual receptors in the retina that contain visual
pigment ( ).
The optic nerve carries information from the retina toward the brain.
Figure 3.2
Light is Focused by the Eye
The cornea ( ), which is fixed
focus), accounts for about 80% of focusing.
no
The lens( ), which 會調整形狀
adjusts shape for object at
1
different distances, accounts for the other 20%.
Accommodation ( ) results when
ciliary muscles are tightened which causes the
lens to thicken.
Light rays pass through the lens more sharply
and focus near objects on retina.
睫狀肌 tightened
thicken
⽔晶体
Figure 3.9
Loss of Accommodation With Increasing Age
The near point ( ) occurs when the lens can no longer adjust
for close objects. 富体接近到某⼀
物個點時⽔晶体就無法再調適了
Presbyopia ( ) - old eye
Distance of near point increases
Due to hardening of lens and weakening of ciliary muscles
Corrective lenses are needed for close activities (reading)
Myopia
Myopia ( ) or nearsightedness - Inability to see distant
objects clearly
-- Image is focused in front of retina
-- Caused by
Refractive myopia ( )- cornea or lens bends
too much light
Axial myopia ( ) - eyeball is too long
Solutions for myopia

-- Move stimulus closer until light is focused on the retina [Distance
when light becomes focused is called the far point ( ) ].
-- Corrective lenses can also be used.
-- LASIK surgery can also be successful.
Figure 3.9
Hyperopia
Hyperopia ( ) or farsightedness - inability to see nearby objects clearly
Focus point is behind the retina.
Usually caused by an eyeball that is too short ( )
Constant accommodation for nearby objects can lead to eyestrain and headaches.
聚焦在視
網膜之後
⽪質晶片直接刺激⼤⽉
笛⽪質
⼤部分視⼒問題都是源⾃於
視網膜
LASIK surgery 形塑⾓膜
讓光線能重新聚焦 Artificial Eye
http://www.ttsh.com.sg/about-us/newsroom/news/article.aspx?id=2340 http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7va0mcSThfE
Outline

The Retina
由後往前i
為何主要消耗能量⽽視
: : :
(photoreceptors) (bipolar cells) (ganglion cells)
網上有很多微⾎管可提供養分
Biopsy Figure 6.5
outer inner
https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/_vid
eo.true/mypsychlab-2015-
carlson12e_0134320832-photoreceptors
Biopsy Figure 6.7
Rod and Cone
( )( ) i
Rods Cones
Most prevalent in the Most prevalent in the

周圍
peripheral retina; not 中央 retina; found
central
found in the fovea in the fovea
Sensitive to low levels Sensitive to moderate
of light to high levels of light
Provide only Provide information
monochromatic about hue
information ⾊彩知覺
Provide poor acuity Provide excellent
acuity
Figure 3.3 Biopsy Table 6.1
Distribution of Rods and Cones
Differences between rods and cones Rods cones 20 1
-- Shape -- Distribution on retina
Rods - large and cylindrical
Cones - small and tapered
Fovea ( ) consists solely of cones.
Peripheral retina has both rods and cones.
o
More rods than cones (20:1) in periphery.
in50間⾼密度
photoreceptor
I
密度
0
o
籲 ii 的訊息由視神 Figure 3.4
ing
Fovea ( )
https://foundationsofvision.stanford.edu/chapter-5-the-retinal-representation/
Differences between rods and cones
-- Number: about 120 million rods and 6 million cones
20 1
Blind spot - place where optic nerve leaves the eye
[Demonstration] wnnnn
We don t see it because:

one eye covers the blind spot of the other.
it is located at edge of the visual field.
the brain fills in the spot.
opticnerves
Figure 3.6
Macular degeneration ( )
Fovea and small surrounding area are
destroyed 中央⼩被破壞
窩
Creates a blind spot on retina
Most common in older individuals
Retinitis pigmentosa ( )
Genetic disease
Rods are destroyed first
Foveal cones can also be attacked
Severe cases result in complete blindness
Figure 3.5 http://www.kmuh.org.tw/www/kmcj/data/9505/6.htm
Telescopic Eye
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wE3uxUjC7tE
Transforming of Light Energy Into Electrical Energy
Photoreceptors: inner and outer segments
內
Inner segments: nucleus
外 segments: visual pigment
Outer visual
molecules , which have two pigment
components:
Opsin ( ) - a large protein nucleus
Retinal ( ) - a light sensitive

molecule
Visual transduction occurs when the retinal absorbs one photon
Transduction: Process by which energy from the environment is converted to a
i
change in membrane potential in a neuron. [first step in visual perception]
Retinal changes it shape (from been bent to straight), called isomerization ( ).
Figure 3.10
Isomerization triggers an enzyme cascade ( ).
A cascade means that a single reaction leads to increasing
numbers of chemical reactions.
Isomerizing one visual pigment molecule triggers a chain of
chemical reactions that releases as many as a million
charged molecule (1 1 million) activation of the receptor.
Figure 3.11
: Adapting to the Dark
Visual Pigments also shape specific aspects
of our perceptions. Ex: adjustment to the
darkness (Dark Adaptation ).
Dark adaption is the process of increasing
sensitivity in the dark (mainly because cones
and rods adapt to the dark at different rates).
Dark Adaptation Curve :
Sensitivity increases in two stages.
cone
Stage one takes place for 3-4 minutes.
Then sensitivity levels off for 7-10
minutes - the rod-cone break.
vod
Stage two shows increased sensitivity
for another 20 to 30 minutes.
Measuring the Dark Adaptation Curve
Measuring the dark adaptation curve
Observer is looking directly at the fixation
point but pays attention to a test light to the
side (image falls on the peripheral retina).
Light is ON, adjusts the intensity of a test light
until he/she can just see it (light-adapted
sensitivity)
Figure 3.12
Light is then turned OFF
Once the observer is dark adapted, she
adjusts the intensity of a test light until she
can just see it (dark-adapted sensitivity).
[Threshold vs. Sensitivity ]
Figure 3.4
c
Dark Adaptation Curve
-
Experiment for cone adaptation
Test light only stimulates cones [HOW?]. Sensitivity = 1/ threhold
Results show that sensitivity increases for

3-4 minutes and then levels off. ( )
Experiment for rod adaptation
較久
Must use a rod monochromat (no cones)
Results show that sensitivity increases for
~25 minutes and then levels off. ( )
Question: ~100,000 times greater

Why do the rods take longer to reach their than the light-adapted
sensitivity
maximum sensitivity? -
Figure 3.13
Mythbusters - Pirates Eye Patch
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z-hMnPREi1w l
Visual Pigment Regeneration
Process needed for transduction: Pigment bleaching
視黃醛molecule changes shape and
Retinal
separates from Opsin 視蛋⽩
異構70
The retina shows pigment bleaching.
Retinal and Opsin must recombine
(regeneration) to respond to light.
Regenerations: Cone in 6 minutes and Rod
takes over 30 minutes.
Sensitivity to light depends on the
concentration of the visual pigment.
The speed at which our sensitivity increases in
the dark depends on the regeneration of the High Low
visual pigment. sensitivity sensitivity
Pigment epithelium is needed for
the regeneration. mww
(detached) Figure 3.14
Spectral Sensitivity
Visual Pigments also shape specific aspects of our perceptions.
Ex: Spectrum Sensitivity
Sensitivity of rods and cones to different parts of the visual spectrum
Use monochromatic light to determine threshold at different
wavelengths
Threshold for light is lowest in the middle of the spectrum
I
對中波長最敏1
感1開值最
1/threshold = sensitivity, which produces the spectral
sensitivity curve 戚
f
敏程度是開值的倒數
Figure 3.15
Spectral Sensitivity - continued
暗5oonm 飅燈光 Figure 3.16
Rod spectral sensitivity shows:

more sensitive to short-wavelength light.
most sensitivity at 500 nm.
Cone spectral sensitivity shows:
most sensitivity at 560 nm.
Purkinje shift - enhanced sensitivity to short
wavelengths during dark adaptation when the shift
from cone to rod vision occurs
在⽇ it ⾊的敏感程度會增加
因為rodcell對暗處和短波長的光敏感度較佳
Figure 3.17
Spectral Sensitivity - continued
Difference in spectral sensitivity is due to absorption spectra of visual pigments ( )
Rod pigment absorbs best at 500 nm.
Cone pigments absorb best at 419nm(S), 531nm(M), and 558nm(L)
Absorption of all cones equals the peak of 560nm in the spectral sensitivity curve [Color Vision
in chapter 9] vision evision L M i 1
Rid 1 4
nl 三種不同cones in
㖙
主要 Dominate的波長 Roorda & Williams 1999
Figure 3.16
Thought Question
People who try to see faint, distant lights, or stars at night
nnnnn
are often advised to look just to the side of the location
where they expect to see the lights. Is this food advice?
Explain the rationale for why this advice is helpful (or not
helpful)
環境下看燈光or 星星
在暗的
直接注視不會覺得很亮
in 遮槽比較
澔嘛吐
Outline

Neural Convergence and
Perception
photoreceptors rods cones bipolar cells ganglioncells
Rods and cones send signals vertically through
bipolar cells .
ganglion cells .
ganglion axons. photoreceptor
Signals are sent horizontally

bipolarcen
between receptors by horizontal cells .
between bipolar and between ganglion cells by
amacrine cells .
gangliacen
Figure 3.19
Rods n
Convergence in the Retina
126 million rods and cones converge to 1 million ganglion Biopsy Figure 6.9 Foveal vs. Peripheral Acuity
cells.
從多細胞傳到
Higher convergence
少細胞than cones
of rods
Average of 120 rods to one ganglion cell
Average of 6 cones to one ganglion cell convergence程度低
Cones in fovea have one to one relation to ganglion i
cells
在Periphery 有⾼程度的
cry
convergence
Ganglion cells in the fovea receive input from

a smaller number of photoreceptors than
those in the periphery and provide more acute
Figure 3.20
n visual information.
Convergence Causes the Rods to Be
More Sensitive Than the Cones
Rods are more sensitive than cones.
Rods take less light to respond
Rods have greater convergence, increase the likelihood
of ganglion-cell response.
Trade-off: rods cannot distinguish detail
All-cone foveal vision results in high visual acuity

One-to-one wiring leads to ability to discriminate details
Trade-off: cones need more light to respond than rods
Figure 3.22
Cone
vision
Rod
vision
Figure 3.21
none有3類 rod只有⼀類
視覺
⽩天 1
1
視覺受域⼩
42
Ganglion Cell Receptive Fields

視網膜上Field
Receptive
的區域
I( )
i
efied
: Fovea and periphery
ogni ⼤ my 低
Hartline (1938, 1940)
greater area than a single rod and cone receptor,

indicating that a single fiber is receiving converging
signals from many receptors.
The receptive fields of many neighboring fibers
overlap a single photoreceptors is sending diverging Figure 3.24
arecommoninput
csn
signals to several bipolar cells!
鄰近細胞敀視覺受域有重疊⼆㻜上遊來的訊
息不只傳送到⼀個細胞 diverging
中央周圍區域
-Surround Receptive Fields
Receptive field: The stimulus region and features that affect the activity of a cell in a sensory system.
The receptive field in the retina (bipolar and ganglion cells) is organized in two concentric areas: the
center and the surround.
The center and its surround are always antagonistic .[ ]
富在兩個區域中呈現相同刺激作⽤相反
On-center Off-center
Off-surround On-surround
Figure 3.25 Figure 3.26
44 i
Center-Surround
Antagonism
On-center Off-center
Off-surround On-surround
Figure 3.25 抑制
刺激
同時
center surround
Lateral Inhibition Underlies Center-Surround Antagonism
為何會抑制
複眼
照A
只
Figure 3-29
上
A和B都照
抑制側抑制
Figure 3-28
越強反應越弱
Photoreceptors Dark Current
ffi 膜
鬢
iiěarization釋放
光線舜神經物質少
When light activates rhodopsin, Retinal

dissociates and the Opsin is activated.
A cascade of events produces a
hyperpolarization of rods or cones
(dark current).
The magnitude of the
hyperpolarization determines the
暗多
變 i Fix reduction in neurotransmitter release
明⾯N He (glutamate).
Biopsy Figure 6.8 Neural Circuitry in the Retina
47
ON and OFF Center

Photoreceptor : glutamate
Bipolar Cell
On-center bipolar cells turning on light excites them neuraltransmitter
Off-center bipolar cells turning off light excites them
ON- and OFF-center cells differ in their postsynaptic receptors:
抑制嚻
ON-center: mGluR6 glutamate recepten
OFF-center: AMPA glutamate 裝Ǘten

Ganglion Cell
l
i若glutamate
On-center bipolar cells excite on-center ganglion cells. 釋放得少
效果
Off-center bipolar cells excite off-center ganglion cells. 則抑制
越不明顯
班吼被
Both ON- and OFF-center cells have AMPA receptor. 銒
Center
Response
polarized
hyper
相反y 致
函
Surround Horizontal cells are depolarized by the
release of glutamate from
photoreceptors, which happens in the
absence of light.
In the DARK
Depolarization
release more GABA (inhibitory)
接收麩胺酸 inhibits this center photoreceptor
release less glutamate
excite On-center bipolar cell
Conversely, in the LIGHT

Hyperpolarization
releases less GABA
disinhibits the center photoreceptor
release more glutamate
inhibit ON-center bipolar cell
Surround
Response
興奮時抑制周圍
的photoreceptor
Visual Processing in the Retina
Click on the screenshot to view this video.
https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/_video.true/mypsychla
b-2015-carlson12e_0134320832-visual_processing_in_retina
Center-Surround Receptive Field and Edge Enhancement
很重要界定邊界 object recognition
對偵測 edge
Mach Bands
Figure 3.30
Figure 3-31
People see an illusion of enhanced lightness and light dark
darkness at borders of light and dark areas.
Actual physical intensities indicate that this is
not in the stimulus itself.
Receptors responding to low intensity (dark)
area have smallest output. 光線
Receptors responding to high intensity (light) 強度
i
area have largest output.
All receptors are receiving lateral inhibition ynonzaiu
from neighbors
刺激強更
ǖ Ii
抑制強亮暗
In low and high intensity areas amount of 更
inhibition is equal for all receptors
Receptors on the border receive differential
inhibition
iiii
55

On the low intensity side, there is additional
inhibition resulting in an enhanced dark band.
On the high intensity side, there is less inhibition 抑制弱
受到
Di 較暗
光線
resulting in an enhanced light band.
TO
視網膜癥
Color Opponent Ganglion Cells
偵測帳漲
Ǘie ⼼⼼
ni
對此
再 L in 接收
基於
到哪⼀類
iii
Biopsy Figure 6.18
T組成我們的⾊彩知覺
Role of the Retina in Color Perception
缠硐啾以
Photoreceptors: Trichromatic Coding
Eye detects different colors because it contains three types of receptors, each對於某波長的
sensitive to光線
a 敏感
single hue
最⾼
缺少某⼀
Genetic defects incone
color vision result from anomalies in one or more of the three types of cone
Protanopia: 紅⾊的cone
沒有
辨䟙賏
⾊盲 Deuteranopia: opsin
Tritanopia:
Monochromatic vision 沒有⾊彩知覺
Retinal Ganglion Cells: Opponent-Process Coding 如何combine不同cone 的訊息形成了
channels
Retinal ganglion cells use an opponent-color system
Neurons respond to opposing pairs of primary colors
Retina contains two kinds of color-sensitive ganglion cells:①red-green and②yellow-blue
③black-and-white detectors
Other ganglion cells are
Biopsy Figure 6.17
Testing for Color Vision
Special images are used to assess protanopia, 對比
中長波長
deuteranopia, and tritanopia. The tester shows the
individual the images and asks them to identify the
number in the circle.
In protanopia, people have difficulty seeing
In deuteranopia, people have difficulty
In tritanopia, people have difficulty seeing
cones.
Biopsy Figure 6.19
Color Coding in the Retina
(a)
causes excitation of a red-green ganglion cell.
(b)
causes inhibition of a red-green ganglion cell.
(c)
causes excitation of a yellow-blue ganglion

izfi M 被combined
訊息 (d)
cell.
ě
causes inhibition of a yellow-blue ganglion cell.
The arrows labeled E and I represent neural
circuitry within the retina that translates excitation
of a cone into excitation or inhibition of a ganglion
cell. For clarity, only some of the circuits are
shown.
60
盯住⼗字會看⾒綠⾊圈圈因為當紅⾊

的刺激消失綠⾊的抑制效果也會下降藍黃channel 當黃⾊刺激消失時對
藍⾊的抑制效果下降
視覺後像
Biopsy Figure 6.20 A Negative Afterimage
Stare for approximately 30 seconds at the plus sign in the center of the left figure; then quickly
transfer your gaze to the plus sign in the center of the right figure. You will see colors that are
complementary to the originals.
62
視網膜上有多少細胞的形式
Different Cell Types in the Retina
魡的視網膜較懶複雜
horizontal
cell
Dendrite bipolarcen
有鍬⾖
Amacrinecen
a 樹突靠近photorecep
位置不同
有些較
Ganglion
cell
Masland 2001 Nat Neurosci, 4

Neural Network of Early Visual Processing
photoreceptors
bipuarcenganqnun
cen
Outline

視覺系統在出⽣後仍⼀直在發展並受到環境的影響
Early Events Are Powerful
Figure 3.34
Figure 3.33
https://plus.google.com/+ChrisRobinson1/posts/WZ17JVD6TAM?pid=5730518909393261170&oid=102370347732140106252
Infant Visual Acuity
Preferential looking (PL) technique
iii
ADULT
Visual evoked potential (VEP)
䲜 VEP
PL
的龘
Figure 3.35
若能偵測到越多
cycles visualacuity
越好
Figure 3.36
Infant Visual Acuity
長度影響範圍改變
Figure 3.37
Infants & Vision
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aLWMFRvVed0
Summary
Light and Focusing
Photoreceptors and Perception
- photoreceptors: rods and cones
- dark adaptation
- spectral sensitivity
Neural Convergence and Perception
- differences between rod and cone pathways
- center-surround receptive field (ON-center and OFF-center)
- edge enhancement by center-surround organization

Perception Ch2-3 - The Eye and Retina

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Perception Ch2-3 - The Eye and Retina

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Chapter 3

The Eye and Retina

Light and Focusing (3.1, 3.2)

What if there is no light / sound?

Solutions for myopia

Light and Focusing (3.1, 3.2)

Biopsy Figure 6.5

Most prevalent in the Most prevalent in the

Figure 3.3 Biopsy Table 6.1

We don t see it because:

Retinal ( ) - a light sensitive

Results show that sensitivity increases for

Question: ~100,000 times greater

Rod spectral sensitivity shows:

Light and Focusing (3.1, 3.2)

Signals are sent horizontally

Ganglion cells in the fovea receive input from

All-cone foveal vision results in high visual acuity

Ganglion Cell Receptive Fields

Hartline (1938, 1940)

greater area than a single rod and cone receptor,

Figure 3.25 Figure 3.26

When light activates rhodopsin, Retinal

ON and OFF Center

OFF-center: AMPA glutamate 裝Ǘten

Conversely, in the LIGHT

Click on the screenshot to view this video.

Center-Surround Receptive Field and Edge Enhancement

In deuteranopia, people have difficulty

In tritanopia, people have difficulty seeing

causes excitation of a yellow-blue ganglion

盯住⼗字 會看⾒綠⾊圈圈 因為當紅⾊

Masland 2001 Nat Neurosci, 4

Light and Focusing (3.1, 3.2)

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盯住⼗字會看⾒綠⾊圈圈因為當紅⾊