SOME FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

A- THE HORIZONTAL PRESSURE GRADIENT FORCE

B- THE CORIOLIS FORCE AND THE GEOSTROPHIC EQUILIBRIUM

B- THE CORIOLIS FORCE AND THE GEOSTROPHIC
EQUILIBRIUM
THE CORIOLIS FORCE

It is a secondary force that appears when water is

moving, because its magnitude is proportional to
velocity. Its is an apparent force only observed when
motion is described relative to axes fixed on the rotating
Earth. This is our point of view, the way we see the
world and our natural reference to explain it.

The Coriolis force acts perpendicular to the motion, so

that it does not increase or decrease the magnitude of
the water current, but makes it to deviate.
THE CORIOLIS FORCE

The way the rotation of the Earth is felt on the Surface

of the planet depends on geographical latitude.

We will see now why...

 W

This is our spinning world!

W is the angular velocity of rotation
Let’s put someone on the Earth.
0 On the pole

on the equator.
0

UP

DOWN

DOWN

UP
0

UP

DOWN
DOWN
UP
0 Start rotation!
1/8
2/8
3/8
4/8
5/8
6/8
7/8
8/8 One day elapsed

vertical
 one gyre every day
around his vertical axis

no gyre around his

vertical axis

vertical
 W W sen f
At 30º of latitude one
gyre every two days
f
W

f
f = 30º
 Earth’s Angular velocity

Let’s now imagine we have superpower, (we can fly too), and we throw a
ball to the Sun... What is the movement we will observe?

(This idea was taken from Mann K. and J. Lazier’s book: Dynamics of Marine Ecosystems:
Biological-Physical Interactions in the Oceans. 2005, Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN: 978-1-4051-
21
1118-8)
Lets put a building on the horizon for reference... 22
 Y

If our reference is the Sun... (maybe because we are standing

weightless at some height above ground), we see...
23
If our reference is the Sun... (maybe because we are standing
weightless at some height above ground), we see...
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If our reference is the Sun... (maybe because we are standing
weightless at some height above ground), we see...
25
If our reference is the Sun... (maybe because we are standing
weightless at some height above ground), we see...
26
 Y

X
The house moves with
the Earth, while the
ball is going directly
into the sun ...

27
 t0 t1 t2
Y

But, if our feet are on the soil, the horizontal axes (X and Y) are fixed on
earth and we will see the sun to rise while travelling to the west
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 t0 t1 t2
Y

east to the south

X NORTHERN HEMISPHERE

But, if our feet are on the soil, the horizontal axes (X and Y) are fixed on
earth and we will see the sun to rise while travelling to the west
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 Y
t0

With our feet on the ground, we will see... 30

 Y
t1

With our feet on the ground, we will see... 31

 Y
t2

With our feet on the ground, we will see... 32

 t0 t1 t2
Y

.. the ball flying after the sun, while the house keeps on place
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For a time = t

d = radius . angle
f
d
Deviation d d = 1/2 . a t2

angle = t W sen f a = u 2 W sen f

radius = u t

a=u f

The acceleration (force per unit mass) that

causes the deviation, a , is perpendicular to u,
so that it does’nt make to increase nor
decrease u, ....
34
a is the Coriolis acceleration (force per unit
mass) that depends on the object’s velocity
u and on the latitude f.

acoriolis = u . [2 W sen f] = u . f

f is the Coriolis parameter, and has the

same units as W , the reverse of time [T-1].

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 Pole
f=2W

f = 2 W senj

Equator
f=0
For a latitude of f = 45 º

The Coriolis parameter is f = 0,0001 s-1

For a current speed of u = 1 m s-1

The acceleration is (ac = f .u ) ac = 0,0001 m s-2

37
The Coriolis acceleration is really very small,
equivalent in magnitude to gravity divided by 100,000
(= g .10-5)

....and yet it drives ocean currents.

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B- THE CORIOLIS FORCE and THE PRESSURE
GRADIENT FORCE

The topography of the ocean surface describes the

distribution of horizontal pressure forces associated to
hills and valleys, while the circulation along level lines
reveals the presence of the horizontal Coriolis forces
that balance the pressure ones.

This topography is the result of many processes that

build up the distribution of densities: changing
temperature and salinity, or introducing mechanical
energy that feeds ocean currents.
With CTD profiling, it is possible to obtain good descriptions
of the 3D distribution of mass (densities) over large regions.

One observes, through the analysis of the data, that there

are inclined isobars (not only the surface one), and that the
inclination of isobars is often maintained over time. This
means that an equilibrium has been reached in which the
PGF is balanced by the Coriolis force. In other words, there
exists a circulation associated to the distribution of mass
balancing the tendency of water to flow down hill.

This geostrophic circulation can be computed from the 3D

distribution of densities.
 A geostrophic equilibrium is reached when

Gradient Pressure Force Current velocity

Coriolis force

The current velocity depends on the PGF and the latitude. On

the Equator, the Coriolis parameter is zero, so there is no
possibility of geostrophic ajdustment in the latitudinal zonal
band between aprox. 5º north and south of the equator. 41
 g . sin q

q1
horizontal

q2 horizontal

ac. Coriolis = f u = g . sin q

in the geosotrophic equilibrium the Coriolis acceleration and

the down hill force cancel out ...
42
 0,10m
q
horizontal
100 km = 105m

f u = g sin q = g tang q

At mid latitudes, 10 cm in 100 km, can be maintained by

a current of 10 cm/s:

u = ( g/f ) . ( tang q) = (10/10-4 ) . (10-1/105 ) = 0,1 m s-1

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 STATION B

STATION A
q1
horizontal

DFB
DFA g

PRESSURE WHERE ISOBAR IS HORIZONTAL

same pressure PA = PB

The distance between the two isobars (= geopotential

difference D F ) in A and B, are computed from CTD data.
44
 STATION B

STATION A
p600
p700
(D F B ) of every pressure slice
p800
(D F A) of every pressure slice
p900
p1000
reference isobar, p.e. 1000 decibar
which we take as horizontal, so
theres is no PGF and no motion.

In each station we take equal pressure slices, and compute their distances,
which we finally add up to get the total geopotential distance
45
Doing this for all the stations we can draw the so called dynamic topography
 STATION B

STATION A

p700
Dh
D F slice = (P800 – P700)/ rslice = g D h
p800

D F slice = (g D h)slice
The pressure difference between two given isobars is the same in A and B,
so the slice must weight the same in A and B. Using the known specific
volume (a = 1/r) of every level we compute the thickness of every slice in A
and B. We compute the thickness as the product of gravity x distance, which
gives as units m2 s-2, corresponding to the geopotential difference. 46
 CSW

MAW

Simplified circulation in the NW Mediterranean associated to the lighter, less saline waters, on the
continental shelf and around and south of Balearic Islands. CSW: Continental Shelf Water; MAW:
Modified Atlantic Water . Red dashed line is the section of stations shown in the other figures.
47
The general circulation is associated to horizontal density
gradients which almost permanent features of the region
(with seasonal or interanual intensity fluctuations).

Posició estacions PEP-87

41.0 E221
E220
40.8

latitud N(º)
E219
40.6

E218
Barcelona 40.4

E217
40.2

E216
40.0
2.2 2.4 2.6 2.8 3.0 3.2 3.4

longitud E (º)

Section of oceanographic stations from cruise PEP-87.. Data in :. Datos

Informativos del Instituto de Ciencias del Mar, 24, 1-83
 est-221 est-220 est-219 est-218 est-217 est-216
0

-50

-100

-150
Depth (m) (m)
PROFUNDITAT

-200

-250

-300

-350

-400

Temperature
TEMPERATURA
-450
May1987
maig 1987
-500
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130

Distance (km)
DISTANCIA (km)

PEP-87 data in :. Datos Informativos del Instituto de Ciencias del Mar, 24, 1-83
 est-221 est-220 est-219 est-218 est-217 est-216
0

-50

-100

-150
Depth (m) (m)
PROFUNDITAT

-200

-250

-300

-350

-400

Salinity
SALINITAT
-450
May1987
maig 1987
-500
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130

Distance (km)
DISTANCIA (km)

PEP-87 data in :. Datos Informativos del Instituto de Ciencias del Mar, 24, 1-83
 est-221 est-220 est-219 est-218 est-217 est-216
0

-50
PGF PGF Coriolis F
Coriolis F -100

-150
Depth (m) (m)
PROFUNDITAT

-200

-250

-300

-350

-400

Sigma-q
SIGMA-T
-450
May1987
maig 1987
-500
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130

Distance (km)
DISTANCIA (km)

Distribution of density anomaly (Sigma q). PEP-87 data in :.Datos Informativos del
Instituto de Ciencias del Mar, 24, 1-83
Geopotential topography of 500 decibar relative to 1000 decibar in winter. Small open
circles indicate convergence and crosses divergence. Arrows indicate the direction of
gestrophic current, which is proportional to the density of isogeopotential lines
52
From: Ovchinnikov, (1966)