Eduational Psychology Final

Induction Program for Teachers 2019 – 2020
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All rights reserved with Provincial Institute for Teacher Education (PITE), Khyber Pakhtunkhwa,
Peshawar.
Approved by: Directorate of Curriculum and Teacher Education (DCTE) Khyber Pakhtunkhwa,
Abbottabad, vide letter No. 7961-68/F.A1/Vol-I/PITE/SS-MD, dated: 20-12-2019.
Developed by:
S.No. Name Designation Institute
1 Dr. Sumaira Taj Senior Instructor PITE
2 Ms. Jamila Danyal Principal GGHSS Nowshera Cantt.
3 Ms. Uzma Kareem Principal GGHSS Kulachi D.I.Khan.
4 Ms. Rubina Qayyum Principal GGHS Urmar Miana Peshawar.
5 Mr. Qayyum Nawaz Sr. Subject specialist GHSS Ramak D.I.Khan.
6 Mr. Shakeel Ahmad SSS GHSS No.4 Kakshal Peshawar.
7 Ms. Shahida Parveen Senior Instructor RITE Abbottabad.
8 Ms. Aneela Shamim SST GGHS Sirya Haripur.
Technical Assistance by Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Education Programme:

1 Ms. Razia Mughal Induction Programme Manager KESP
2 Ms. Mussarat Shahid Consultant – STTA KESP
Developed under the supervision of:

Mr. Hakimullah Director, Provincial Institute of Teacher Education (PITE),
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Peshawar.
Reviewed by:
1 Dr. Gul Nazir Subject Specialist DCTE Abbottabad
2 Ms. Jamila Tahira Principal RITE (F) Abbottabad
Reviewed under the supervision of:

Mr. Gohar Ali Khan Director, Curriculum & Teacher Education,
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Abbottabad.
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Contents
Preface .................................................................................................................................................................... 11
Handout 1.1............................................................................................................................................................. 14
Cognition and learning: How do students think and learn? ................................................................................... 14
Handout 1.2 a .......................................................................................................................................................... 16
Using Praise to Enhance Student Resilience and Learning Outcomes .................................................................... 16
Handout 1.2 b.......................................................................................................................................................... 18
Avoid Praise for intelligence ................................................................................................................................... 18
Handout 1.3............................................................................................................................................................. 19
A routine for distilling the essence of ideas non-verbally....................................................................................... 19
HANDOUTS .............................................................................................................................................................. 23
Handout 2.1............................................................................................................................................................. 23
Definitions of Psychology ........................................................................................................................................ 23
Handout 2.2............................................................................................................................................................. 24
Types of Psychology ................................................................................................................................................ 24
Handout 2.3............................................................................................................................................................. 27
Definition, Nature and Scope of Educational Psychology ....................................................................................... 27
Worksheet 2.1 ......................................................................................................................................................... 30
Branches of Psychology ........................................................................................................................................... 30
Handout 2.4............................................................................................................................................................. 31
Zamarrud Khan’s Story ............................................................................................................................................ 31
Worksheet 2.2 ......................................................................................................................................................... 33
Zamarrud Khan’s Story ............................................................................................................................................ 33
Handout 2.5............................................................................................................................................................. 34
Sample Template: Frayer Model ............................................................................................................................. 34
Worksheet 2.3 ......................................................................................................................................................... 36
Frayer Model ........................................................................................................................................................... 36
Handout 3.1............................................................................................................................................................. 37
Advantages of Educational Psychology ................................................................................................................... 37
Handout 3.2............................................................................................................................................................. 38
Methods of Educational Psychology ....................................................................................................................... 38
Worksheet 3.1 ......................................................................................................................................................... 40
3 ways of reflective practices .................................................................................................................................. 40
Handout 3.3............................................................................................................................................................. 43
Scientific Method .................................................................................................................................................... 43
Read the brief history of the Microwave Oven and identify the scientific method ............................................... 45
Handout 3.5............................................................................................................................................................. 46
Connective of scientific method with classroom .................................................................................................... 46
Handout 3.6............................................................................................................................................................. 47
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Observation ............................................................................................................................................................. 47
Handout 3.7............................................................................................................................................................. 49
Observation as a Data Collection Method .............................................................................................................. 49
HANDOUTS .............................................................................................................................................................. 52
Handout 4.1............................................................................................................................................................. 52
HANDOUTS .............................................................................................................................................................. 53
Handout 5.1............................................................................................................................................................. 53
Stages of Child Growth and Development .............................................................................................................. 53
Handout 5.2............................................................................................................................................................. 58
Emotional Development and Its Progression.......................................................................................................... 58
HANDOUTS .............................................................................................................................................................. 60
Handout 6.1............................................................................................................................................................. 60
Definitions and details of social development ........................................................................................................ 60
Handout 6.2............................................................................................................................................................. 61
Concept of social development............................................................................................................................... 61
Handout 6.3............................................................................................................................................................. 63
Theories of social development .............................................................................................................................. 63
Handout 6.4............................................................................................................................................................. 67
Importance and characteristics of social development .......................................................................................... 67
Worksheet 6.1 ......................................................................................................................................................... 72
Trace the pattern of your own social development ............................................................................................... 72
HANDOUTS .............................................................................................................................................................. 73
Handout 7.1............................................................................................................................................................. 73
Physical Development ............................................................................................................................................. 73
Handout 7.2............................................................................................................................................................. 74
Stages of Physical Development ............................................................................................................................. 74
Handout 7.3............................................................................................................................................................. 76
Activities for Physical Development........................................................................................................................ 76
Handout 7.4............................................................................................................................................................. 80
Importance of physical development ..................................................................................................................... 80
Handout 7.5............................................................................................................................................................. 82
Effects of physical development ............................................................................................................................. 82
HANDOUTS .............................................................................................................................................................. 83
Handout 8.1............................................................................................................................................................. 83
Perspectives ............................................................................................................................................................ 83
Handout 8.2............................................................................................................................................................. 84
Definitions of Learning ............................................................................................................................................ 84
Handout 8.3 (a) ....................................................................................................................................................... 85
Abraham Lincoln's letter (to his son's teacher) ...................................................................................................... 85
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Handout 8.3(b) ........................................................................................................................................................ 86

Concept Web........................................................................................................................................................... 86
Handout 8.4............................................................................................................................................................. 87
Nature of learning ................................................................................................................................................... 87
Handout 8.5............................................................................................................................................................. 88
Types of learning styles ........................................................................................................................................... 88
Worksheet 8.1 ......................................................................................................................................................... 90
Worksheet 8.2 (a).................................................................................................................................................... 91
What's Your Learning Style? ................................................................................................................................... 91
Worksheet 8.2 (b) ................................................................................................................................................... 94
Key ........................................................................................................................................................................... 94
HANDOUTS .............................................................................................................................................................. 95
Worksheet 9.1 ......................................................................................................................................................... 95
Placement Map ....................................................................................................................................................... 95
Handout 9.1............................................................................................................................................................. 96
Higher and Lower order thinking skills.................................................................................................................... 96
Handout 9.2............................................................................................................................................................. 98
Revised Bloom’s taxonomy action verbs ................................................................................................................ 98
HANDOUTS .............................................................................................................................................................. 99
HANDOUT 10.1 ........................................................................................................................................................ 99
Can you see, What I Can’t? ..................................................................................................................................... 99
Handout 10.2 (A) ................................................................................................................................................... 100
Paradigm Shift ....................................................................................................................................................... 100
Handout 10.2 (B) ................................................................................................................................................... 101
Paradigm Shift in Education .................................................................................................................................. 101
Handout 10.3......................................................................................................................................................... 102
Physiological Factors ............................................................................................................................................. 102
Handout 10.4......................................................................................................................................................... 104
Psychological factors ............................................................................................................................................. 104
Handout 10.5......................................................................................................................................................... 106
Environmental Factors .......................................................................................................................................... 106
Handout 10.6......................................................................................................................................................... 107
Instructional Factors.............................................................................................................................................. 107
Worksheet 10.1 ..................................................................................................................................................... 108
Worksheet 10.2 ..................................................................................................................................................... 109
HANDOUTS ............................................................................................................................................................ 110
Handout 11.1 (a) ................................................................................................................................................... 110
Transfer of Learning .............................................................................................................................................. 110
Handout 11.1 (b) ................................................................................................................................................... 112
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Types of Transfer of Learning:............................................................................................................................... 112

Handout 11.2......................................................................................................................................................... 114
Another Day in Paradise (by Phil Collins) .............................................................................................................. 114
Worksheet 11.1 ..................................................................................................................................................... 115
Handout 11.3......................................................................................................................................................... 116
Instructional strategies for transfer ...................................................................................................................... 116
Handout 11.4......................................................................................................................................................... 117
Strategies for Transfer of Learning ....................................................................................................................... 117
HANDOUTS ............................................................................................................................................................ 118
Handout 12.1......................................................................................................................................................... 118
Handout 12.2......................................................................................................................................................... 122
Cognitivist/ Cognitive theory of learning: ............................................................................................................. 122
Handout 12.3......................................................................................................................................................... 124
Theory of Social Constructivism by Lev Vygotsky ................................................................................................. 124
Handout 12.4......................................................................................................................................................... 126
Activities using theories of Learning ..................................................................................................................... 126
Worksheet 12.1 ..................................................................................................................................................... 129
HANDOUTS ............................................................................................................................................................ 130
Handout 13.1......................................................................................................................................................... 130
Meaning and Purposes of Mental Hygiene: .......................................................................................................... 130
Handout 13.2......................................................................................................................................................... 131
Aims and Tips for Mental Hygiene: ....................................................................................................................... 131
Handout 13.3......................................................................................................................................................... 132
Worksheet 13.1 ..................................................................................................................................................... 133
Worksheet 13.2 ..................................................................................................................................................... 135
HANDOUTS ............................................................................................................................................................ 136
Handout 14.1......................................................................................................................................................... 136
Challenges and solutions....................................................................................................................................... 136
Handout 14.2......................................................................................................................................................... 138
Specific mental illnesses........................................................................................................................................ 138
Worksheet 14.1 ..................................................................................................................................................... 141
Worksheet 14.2 ..................................................................................................................................................... 143
Worksheet 14.3 ..................................................................................................................................................... 144
Worksheet 14.4 ..................................................................................................................................................... 145
Worksheet 14.5 ..................................................................................................................................................... 146
Reflection .............................................................................................................................................................. 146
HANDOUTS ............................................................................................................................................................ 147
Handout 15.1......................................................................................................................................................... 147
Mental Hygiene Concept and importance in Education: ...................................................................................... 147
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Handout 15.2......................................................................................................................................................... 150

Factors affecting mental health ............................................................................................................................ 150
Handout 15.3......................................................................................................................................................... 154
How does mental illness affect my school performance? .................................................................................... 154
HANDOUTS ............................................................................................................................................................ 156
Handouts 16.1 ....................................................................................................................................................... 156
Factors effecting mental health of students ......................................................................................................... 156
Handout 16.2......................................................................................................................................................... 158
School Climate: School-related factors that influence student’ performance. .................................................... 158
Worksheet 16.1 ..................................................................................................................................................... 160
(Micro Teaching Feedback Proforma) ................................................................................................................... 160
Worksheet 16.2 ..................................................................................................................................................... 161
HANDOUTS ............................................................................................................................................................ 162
Handout 17.1......................................................................................................................................................... 162
Identify the Stranger ............................................................................................................................................. 162
Handout 17.2......................................................................................................................................................... 163
Definition of Intelligence ....................................................................................................................................... 163
Handout 17.3......................................................................................................................................................... 164
Nature of Intelligence ........................................................................................................................................... 164
Handout 17.4......................................................................................................................................................... 165
Intelligence ............................................................................................................................................................ 165
Handout 17.5......................................................................................................................................................... 166
Theories of Intelligence ......................................................................................................................................... 166
Worksheet 17.1 ..................................................................................................................................................... 169
HANDOUTS ............................................................................................................................................................ 170
Handout 18.1......................................................................................................................................................... 170
Heredity and its effects upon Intelligence ............................................................................................................ 170
Handout 18.2......................................................................................................................................................... 171
What is environment? ........................................................................................................................................... 171
Handout 18.3......................................................................................................................................................... 173
Which is more effective in determining intelligence; nature or nurture? ............................................................ 173
HANDOUTS ............................................................................................................................................................ 174
Handout 19.1......................................................................................................................................................... 174
What are individual differences? .......................................................................................................................... 174
Linda Gottfredson ................................................................................................................................................. 174
Worksheet 19.1 ..................................................................................................................................................... 175
Movie Clip Wonder ............................................................................................................................................... 175
Worksheet 19.2 ..................................................................................................................................................... 176
Movie Clip Gifted................................................................................................................................................... 176
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Handout 19.2......................................................................................................................................................... 177

Types of Individual Differences ............................................................................................................................. 177
Handout 19.3......................................................................................................................................................... 185
Causes of Individual Differences ........................................................................................................................... 185
Worksheet 19.3 ..................................................................................................................................................... 187
How are you different from me? .......................................................................................................................... 187
Handout 19.4......................................................................................................................................................... 188
The significance of individual differences in education ........................................................................................ 188
Handout 19.5......................................................................................................................................................... 189
For Home Assignment ........................................................................................................................................... 189
Worksheet 19.4 ..................................................................................................................................................... 191
Case Studies .......................................................................................................................................................... 191
HANDOUTS ............................................................................................................................................................ 192
Handout 20.1......................................................................................................................................................... 192
(LMS) ..................................................................................................................................................................... 192
Handout 20.2......................................................................................................................................................... 193
Some application/ideas for using the MI in classroom ......................................................................................... 193
Handout 20.3......................................................................................................................................................... 195
Extra material for facilitator .................................................................................................................................. 195
HANDOUTS ............................................................................................................................................................ 199
Handout 21.1......................................................................................................................................................... 199
Meaning of Guidance for Different Persons ......................................................................................................... 199
Handout 21.2......................................................................................................................................................... 200
Definitions of Guidance......................................................................................................................................... 200
Handout 21.3......................................................................................................................................................... 202
Needs of Guidance ................................................................................................................................................ 202
Handout 21.4......................................................................................................................................................... 204
Principles of guidance ........................................................................................................................................... 204
Handout 21.5......................................................................................................................................................... 207
Deference between guidance and counseling ...................................................................................................... 207
Worksheet 21.1 ..................................................................................................................................................... 209
Nature of Guidance ............................................................................................................................................... 209
Worksheet 21.2 ..................................................................................................................................................... 211
Case studies........................................................................................................................................................... 211
Worksheet 21.3 ..................................................................................................................................................... 212
Comparison between Guidance and Counselling ................................................................................................. 212
HANDOUTS ............................................................................................................................................................ 213
Handout 22.1......................................................................................................................................................... 213
The Role of Guidance in Schools ........................................................................................................................... 213
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Worksheet 22.1 ..................................................................................................................................................... 218

The Role of Guidance in Schools ........................................................................................................................... 218
HANDOUTS ............................................................................................................................................................ 220
Handout 23.1......................................................................................................................................................... 220
Group A. The meaning of Counseling ................................................................................................................... 220
Handout 23.2......................................................................................................................................................... 223
Principles of Counseling ........................................................................................................................................ 223
Handout 23.3......................................................................................................................................................... 224
Guidelines for teachers ......................................................................................................................................... 224
Worksheet 23.1 (A) ............................................................................................................................................... 226
Worksheet 23.1 (B) ............................................................................................................................................... 227
Worksheet 23.1 (C) ............................................................................................................................................... 228
HANDOUTS ............................................................................................................................................................ 229
Handout 24.1......................................................................................................................................................... 229
Organization of Guidance services in Schools....................................................................................................... 229
Worksheet 24.1 ..................................................................................................................................................... 231
Organization of Guidance services in Schools....................................................................................................... 231
Handout 24.2......................................................................................................................................................... 233
Role, Need, objectives and importance of Guidance Services in School .............................................................. 233
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Acronyms
E&SED Elementary and Secondary Education Department

DCTE Directorate of Curriculum and Teacher Education
PITE Provincial Institute of Teacher Education
RITE Regional Institute for Teacher Education
FITE FATA Institute for Teacher Education
DFID Department for International Development
ASI Adam Smith International
DE&SE Directorate of Elementary & Secondary Education
A.V. Aids Audio Visual Aid
IP Induction Program
AY Academic Year
EU-TA European Union Technical Assistance
FY Financial Year
KESP-TA Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Education Sector Program-Technical Assistance
LMT Lead Master Trainers
LMS Learning Management System
SE Subject Experts
SP Session Plan
SLOs Student Learning Outcomes
TNA Training Need Assessment
TPD Teacher Professional Development
ToT Training of Trainer
ADE Associate Degree of Education
B.Ed Bachelor of Education
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Preface
The government of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Elementary and Secondary Education Department (E&SED)
successfully launched and completed Phase-1 of the Induction Programme in 2018-19 for newly
recruited teachers. Positive feedback from the stakeholders encouraged E&SED to continue the
practice of offering induction programme to newly hired teachers.
The quality education issues that were identified before IP-phase-1 and the assumption that the
beginning teachers were likely to lack significant professional competencies and content knowledge
were confirmed in pre-test. Moreover, after completion it was evident in the results of the trainee
teachers that the identified gaps were, to a greater extent, bridged. Hence, it was safely concluded
that the Induction Program proved instrumental in addressing the newly recruited teachers’
challenges in terms of their content clarity and pedagogical skills.
In-depth analyses of the data from IP-Phase-1 highlighted that trainee teachers still lacked pedagogical
underpinnings of the teaching and learning process. The learnings from phase-1 were incorporated in
designing IP-Phase-2. Consequently, content and design were amended to adapt to the emerged
requirements. One of them was insertion of a 50-day face-to-face sessions of Foundational Courses
including Curriculum and Instructions, Educational Psychology, Classroom Assessment, School
Organization, Classroom Management and Assessment, Use of ICT in Education and Teaching of
subjects. These courses are selected due to their importance and proximity to teaching and learning.
It is important for you to understand the concept of Educational psychology as it will help you to learn
that how children learn and progress in schools. This course module has been designed for you to
understand the concepts on individual differences and different types of learners. Through reflective
practice and variety of teaching strategies, it is hoped that you will be in better position to apply the
concepts of educational psychology with fidelity. This module consists of 24 session plans of 2 hours
each. So, in total there will be 48 hours of instruction time.
I truly appreciate the content developers whose untiring efforts resulted in a quality document, which
certainly will prove to be a stepping-stone towards the improvement in the training of teachers.
Furthermore, I would like to thank Director DCTE and his review team for their valuable input in
helping us improve and finalize this important resource for your professional development.
This document has been made possible with the support of Department of International Development
– DFID through Technical Assistance from Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Education Sector Program (KESP)
managed by Adam Smith International (ASI).
I sincerely hope that this module will give you required skills and knowledge necessary to teach
effectively. I wish you good luck!
Hakimullah
Director, PITE, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
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About Course Module
Educational psychology is the study of how people learn. It is the branch of psychology concerned with
schools, teaching psychology, educational issues and student concerns. It uses psychological concepts
and research methods to understand teaching, learning, and human development (Berliner,2006). Guy
Lefrancois (1994) describes it as a study of human behavior in an education setting. This course is an
introduction to educational psychology that covers the basic concepts, theories, and principles of
human development, learning, learning behaviors, motivation, individual differences, intelligence,
memory, thinking, creativity and teaching strategies. Additionally, it relates how these concepts are
applied to classroom teaching. In an educational setting, it is essential for you to know about human
development and how students learn and allow them to learn according to their own pace and ability.
Where this course covers the concepts on individual differences and different types of learners, it also
includes topics around emotional, social and physical growth in children. To facilitate you, the course is
designed not only to equip you with essential knowledge about the various theories on ‘child as a
developing organism,’ ‘intellectual development,’ ‘mental health and classroom,’ but it also ensures
that you are provided with innovative and creative teaching strategies that make teaching and
learning a meaningful and an enriching experience.
In addition to the areas mentioned above the Educational Psychology course also includes the topics
of ‘Guidance and Counselling,’ thus providing a holistic vision of the breadth and scope of this area of
study. From the role and function of guidance and counselling to the nature and scope of educational
psychology, the teaching and learning process cannot be complete without teachers and head
teachers having a researcher’s mindset since their work centres around ‘how students learn’. Keeping
this crucial aspect in mind, the course introduces you to the basics of educational research McMillan
(2004), which is geared to help you determine strategies and teaching practices that will lead to
effective learning outcomes (Creswell, 2005; Zemelman,Daniels, & Hyde, 2005).
This 50 days Educational Psychology module details the concept of educational psychology, learning
and its application in the classroom.
At the end of this course, you will be able to:
 Identify the types of Psychological questions a teacher can ask and problem s he/ she attempts
to resolve.
 Trace the development of a child from birth to adolescence.
 Measure the development of human learning and adapt teaching to these differences.
 Explore the development of human learning and factors influencing learning.
 Identify practical problems related to teaching and learning both in and out of the classroom.
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 Outline briefly different theories of personality and their relationship to schooling.

 Demonstrate how the effective use of Psychological principles can great a more enlightened
curriculum process in schools.
This course module covers six instructional units over the span of eight weeks. Each unit is further
divided into topics and subtopics. Variety of teaching strategies are employed to help you to become
critical thinkers and problem solvers. In this manual, session wise Worksheets and Handouts are
provided to you for your easy use and ready reference.
Following are some of the instructions for you:
 Please read all the Handouts, Worksheets and video resources according to the designed
activities.
 You will be given reflection questions at the end of each session. Make sure to write/ prepare
oral reflections before start of the session.
 Start preparing your portfolio at the beginning of this 50 days course and keep all your
reflections, learning logs, handouts and worksheets in this portfolio for future use and
reference.
 It is expected that this module will be helpful for you to further implement all the learnt
strategies in your classroom.
Wish you good luck!
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HANDOUTS
Handout 1.1
Cognition and learning: How do students think and learn?
A great deal of research from cognitive and educational psychology has discovered how thinking and
learning can be improved in the classroom. Growth mindset has been identified as the most important
principle that impacts student learning positively. Below is a review of the first principle, ‘Growth
mindset,’ and potential applications for their use in teaching practices.
Growth mindset: Students’ beliefs or perceptions about intelligence and ability affect their cognitive
functioning and learning.
Research shows that learners who hold the growth mindset that intelligence is malleable, and success
is related to effort level are more likely to remain focused on goals and persist despite setbacks. A
great way to start off the year in a psychology class is with a discussion of growth versus fixed
mindsets because it helps students understand how their beliefs about intelligence can influence their
own academic success.
Fixed versus Growth Mindset
These findings are also related to achievement gaps. Students drop out of challenging programs or do
not hold appropriately high educational aspirations for themselves because they believe or fear that
they "don't have what it takes" to succeed. In fact, the problem may be that these students need only
to apply more effort or use different strategies in order to succeed.
You may remember from an introductory psychology course that in the 1960s, Albert Bandura began
his work on social cognition. He introduced us to the fundamental idea of human "agency" (making
purposeful decisions and exercising one's capacity to make a difference) and to the practical
importance of feeling and being in control of your life. Bandura's theories and research (see, for
example, Bandura, 1997) have been highly influential throughout psychology and education.
Then, in the mid-1970s, Carol Dweck (research psychologist at Stanford University) began to build on
Bandura's work and focused directly on educational settings. Dweck's work addressed how people
generate beliefs about their own abilities, and the effects of those beliefs on their schoolwork. It is
primarily the work of Dweck and her colleagues that is discussed here.
Dweck and others (1999) have shown that when students hold the belief that intelligence is
unchangeable (called the "fixed mindset"), it leads them to worry about whether their intelligence is
high or low. As a result, they want to avoid looking or feeling dumb. And when they do meet with
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challenges or setbacks, students with a fixed mindset are more likely to exhibit academic withdrawal
and alienation, and decreased engagement with learning — all of which lead to lower achievement.
In contrast, when students believe that intelligence can be increased through their own efforts, good
strategies and help from others (called the "growth mindset"), it leads to increased effort and the
desire to seek out challenges. The growth mindset is associated with the development of self-efficacy
and resilience, which are important in all facets of life. Because those with a growth mindset believe
that their intelligence can be developed, they show increased resilience in the face of difficulties and
setbacks. All of this leads to higher academic achievement.
How we talk to our students about their performances and work products affects their
mindsets. Feedback for intelligence increases fixed mindset thinking; feedback for effort and
strategies decreases it.
Fortunately, Dweck and her colleagues have also found that fixed mindsets are susceptible to change
with relatively straightforward interventions, such as how praise is given for learning outcomes (e.g.,
Dweck, 2000; Dweck & Molden, 2005, Kamins & Dweck, 1999; Mueller & Dweck, 1998).
Dweck's research has shown that it is more constructive to attribute successes and failures to effort
and to successful selection and use of problem solving strategies that are under one's own control,
rather than to attribute successes to an unchangeable entity labeled "intelligence," which would not
be under one's own control.
Reference:
http://psychlearningcurve.org/these-psychological-principles-will-help-your-students-learn-more-
effectively/
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Handout 1.2 a
Using Praise to Enhance Student Resilience and Learning Outcomes
Helping students 'bounce back' in the face of difficulties

Teachers are often puzzled about what to do when students don't make an effort to learn, or when
they become discouraged by setbacks or with material, they perceive to be too difficult. One cause of
this behavior is the mindset that many students have about their own intelligence. Research has
clearly demonstrated that having the mindset that you are either smart or not smart has serious
negative consequences for learning. Fortunately, one powerful way that you can intervene as a
teacher is by being careful about how you give students praise. Offering praise for students' work and
efforts can alter this mindset so that students can begin to view their own intelligence as something
that can be developed. This mindset of developing intelligence will increase students' ability to
"bounce back" in the face of academic setbacks and other difficulties.
Provide Feedback to Encourage Growth mindset
How we talk to our students about their performances and work products affects their
mindsets. Constructive Feedback for intelligence increases fixed mindset thinking destructive;
feedback for effort and strategies decreases it.
Fortunately, Dweck and her colleagues have also found that fixed mindsets are susceptible to change
with relatively straightforward interventions, such as how praise is given for learning outcomes (e.g.,
Dweck, 2000; Dweck & Molden, 2005, Kamins & Dweck, 1999; Mueller & Dweck, 1998).
Dweck's research has shown that it is more constructive to attribute successes and failures to effort
and to successful selection and use of problem solving strategies that are under one's own control,
rather than to attribute successes to an unchangeable entity labeled "intelligence," which would not
be under one's own control.
An important finding of this line of research has been that fixed mindsets about intelligence are more
harmful for women and under-represented minorities that is, for those laboring under negative ability
stereotypes. This has been found to be true for a wide range of ages and academic achievement levels.
Strategy to provide feedback
How does the strategy of praising students for effort and effective strategies work?
 A person's beliefs about why successes and failures occur are very powerful predictors of their
behavior in the face of difficulties.
 Belief that intelligence is unchangeable (fixed mindset) leads to withdrawal of effort when
difficulties that challenge a person's view of his or her own intelligence are encountered.
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 These beliefs have been measured by Dweck and colleagues (Dweck, 1999) by asking people
how much they agree or disagree with statements such as, "Your intelligence is something
basic about you that you can't really change" (fixed mindset statement) or "No matter who you
are, you can substantially change your level of intelligence" (growth mindset statement).
 Belief that intelligence can be increased through effort — staying with the task and finding the
right strategy ("growth mindset") — leads to increased effort and challenge-seeking.
 Growth mindsets lead to resilience and higher academic achievement.
 Fixed mindsets lead to increased probability of academic withdrawal and alienation, and
decreased engagement — all of which lead to lower achievement.
 Praise for intelligence increases fixed-mindset thinking. Praise for effort and strategies
decreases it
Reference:
http://www.apa.org/education/k12/using-praise
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Handout 1.2 b
Avoid Praise for intelligence
Teachers are often puzzled about what to do when students don't make an effort to learn, or when
they become discouraged by setbacks or with material, they perceive to be too difficult. One cause of
this behavior is the mindset that many students have about their own intelligence. Research has
clearly demonstrated that having the mindset that you are either smart or not smart has serious
negative consequences for learning. Fortunately, one powerful way that you can intervene as a
teacher is by being careful about how you give students praise. Offering praise for students' work and
efforts can alter this mindset so that students can begin to view their own intelligence as something
that can be developed. This mindset of developing intelligence will increase students' ability to
"bounce back" in the face of academic setbacks and other difficulties.
The key to this strategy is the well-established psychological concept of attributions — what a person
thinks causes his or her successes and failures. Are your successes and failures due to things you have
control over? Or, do you relinquish responsibility for directing your life decisions because you believe
that your successes and failures are due to forces beyond your control, such as bad luck, poor
teaching, or just being too "dumb"?
Although praise for intelligence is usually well-intentioned and can be motivating when students are
doing well, it backfires when students eventually face work that is difficult for them. When this
happens, the failure is a threat to the person's sense of his or her own intelligence — a situation to
avoid. Thus, praise for intelligence is a short-term strategy that makes successful students feel good at
the moment, but one that is detrimental to students in the longer run.
Does this apply to your own children? Most people believe that it is good for children's learning to
praise their intelligence. Praise for intelligence might be conducive to learning only as long as the work
is easy for the child; otherwise such praise has many unfortunate side effects. Mueller and Dweck
(1996) reported that 85% of parents hold the erroneous belief that praising children's intelligence
when they do well is necessary for children's self-esteem and academic development. On the surface,
this may be intuitively appealing and is endorsed by many parents and educators because it seems to
be ego boosting and encouraging. However, this well-intentioned but erroneous belief is clearly
contradicted by extensive research.
Reference:
https://www.apa.org/education/k12/using-praise
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Handout 1.3
A routine for distilling the essence of ideas non-verbally
Are you reading/listening/watching, make note of things that you find interesting, important, or
insightful. When you finish, choose 3 of these items that most stand out for you.
For one of these, choose a colour that you feel best represents or captures the essence of that idea.
For another one, choose a symbol that you feel best represents or captures the essence of that idea.
For the other one, choose an image that you feel best represents or captures the essence of that idea.
With a partner or group first share your colour and then share the item from your reading that it
represents. Tell why you chose that colour as a representation of that idea. Repeat the sharing process
until every member of the group has shared his or her Colour, Symbol, and Image.
Purpose: What kind of thinking does this routine encourage?
This routine asks students to identify and distill the essence of ideas from reading, watching
or listening in non-verbal ways by using a colour, symbol, or image to represent the ideas.
Application: When and where can I use it?
This routine can be used to enhance comprehension of reading, watching or listening. It can also be
used as a reflection on previous events or learnings. It is helpful if students have had some previous
experience with highlighting texts for important ideas, connections, or events. The synthesis happens
as students select a colour, symbol, and image to represent three important ideas. This routine also
facilitates the discussion of a text or event as students share their colours, symbols, and images.
Launch: What are some tips for starting and using this routine?
After the class has read a text, you might ask the class to identify some of the interesting, important,
or insightful ideas from the text and list these on the board. Write CSI: Colour, Symbol, Image on the
board. Select one of the ideas the class has identified. Ask students what colour might they use to
represent the essence of that idea? What colour captures something about that idea, maybe it is the
mood or tone. Select another idea and ask the class what symbol they could use to represent that
idea. You might define a symbol as a simple line representation or uncomplicated drawing, such as
two crossed lines to denote an intersection of ideas, or a circle to represent wholeness or
completeness. Then pick another idea from the list and ask students what image they might use to
represent that idea. You might define an image as a visual image or metaphor that is more complex
and fully developed than just a symbol.
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Following is the Visible Thinking Routine to demonstrate understanding on the concept of ‘Bullying’
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Worksheet 1.1
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HANDOUTS
Handout 2.1
Definitions of Psychology
Defined By: Definition Significant Ideas
Merriam Dictionary The science of mind and a: the mental or behavioral characteristics of
definition behavior an individual or group
Sultan Muhammad The word “psychology” b: the study of mind and behavior in relation
comes from the Greek to a particular field of knowledge or activity
word (Psyche mean Soul,
Logos mean Science), thus
the meaning of Psychology
is the science of soul.
Saul McLead, (2019) Psychology is the scientific Psychology is a multifaceted discipline and
study of the mind and includes many sub-fields of study such areas as
behavior. human development, sports, health, clinical,
social behavior and cognitive processes.
Eric Pettifor An art which presents itself Personality psychology
as science
H. D. Hamm Scientific study of the There are many areas of psychology, each
behavior of humans and attempting to explain behavior from a slightly
animals different perspectives
Tom Bolling A science of description and Psychology was originally a branch of
application used for the philosophy
interpretation, prediction,
development, and
improvement of human
behavior
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Handout 2.2
Types of Psychology
Psychology is always evolving and new fields and branches continue to emerge. These are the types or
branches of psychology. It is important to remember that no single branch of psychology is more
important or better than any other. Each specific area contributes to our understanding of the many
different psychological factors that influence who you are, how you behave, and how you think.
By conducting research and developing new applications for psychological knowledge, professionals
working in every branch of psychology are able to help people better understand themselves, confront
the problems they may face, and live better lives.
There are different types of psychology that serve different purposes. There is no fixed way of
classifying them, but here are some common types.
S.No Name Description
1 Behavioral Behavioral psychology, also known as behaviorism, is a theory of learning
Psychology based on the idea that all behaviors are acquired through conditioning.
While this branch of psychology dominated the field during the first part
of the twentieth century, it became less prominent during the 1950s.
However, behavioral techniques remain a mainstay in therapy, education,
and many other areas.
People often utilize behavioral strategies such as classical
conditioning and operant conditioning to teach or modify behaviors. For
example, a teacher might use a system of rewards in order to teach
students to behave during class. When students are good, they receive
gold stars which can then be turned in for some sort of special privilege.
2 Cognitive Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on internal
Psychology mental states. This area of psychology has continued to grow since it
emerged in the 1960s. This area of psychology is centered on the science
of how people think, learn, and remember.
Psychologists who work in this field often study things such as
perception, motivation, emotion, language, learning,
memory, attention, decision-making, and problem-solving. Cognitive
psychologists often use an information-processing model to describe how
the mind works, suggesting that the brain stores and processes
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information much like a computer.

3 Developmental Developmental psychology focuses on how people change and grow
Psychology throughout the entire lifespan. The scientific study of human
development seeks to understand and explain how and why people
change throughout life. Developmental psychologists often study things
such as physical growth, intellectual development, emotional changes,
social growth, and perceptual changes that occur over the course of the
lifespan.
These psychologists generally specialize in an area such as infant, child,
adolescent, or geriatric development, while others may study the effects
of developmental delays. This field covers a huge range of topics including
everything from prenatal development to Alzheimer's disease.
4 Educational Educational psychology is the branch of psychology concerned with
Psychology schools, teaching psychology, educational issues, and student concerns.
Educational psychologists often study how students learn or work directly
with students, parents, teachers, and administrators to improve student
outcomes. They might study how different variables influence individual
student outcomes. They also study topics such as learning disabilities,
giftedness, the instructional process, and individual differences.
5 Experimental Experimental psychology is the branch of psychology that utilizes scientific
Psychology methods to research the brain and behavior. Many of these techniques
are also used by other areas in psychology to conduct research on
everything from childhood development to social issues. Experimental
psychologists work in a wide variety of settings including colleges,
universities, research centers, government, and private businesses.
Experimental psychologists utilize the scientific method to study a whole
range of human behaviors and psychological phenomena. This branch of
psychology is often viewed as a distinct subfield within psychology, but
experimental techniques and methods are actually used extensively
throughout every subfield of psychology. Some of the methods used in
experimental psychology include experiments, correlational studies, case
studies, and naturalistic observation.
6 Personality Personality psychology is the branch of psychology that focuses on the
Psychology study of the thought patterns, feelings, and behaviors that make each
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individual unique. Classic theories of personality include

Freud's psychoanalytic theory of personality and Erikson's theory of
psychosocial development. Personality psychologists might study how
different factors such as genetics, parenting, and social experiences
influence how personality develops and changes.
7 School Psychology School Psychology is a field that involves working in schools to help kids
deal with academic, emotional, and social issues. School psychologists
also collaborate with teachers, students, and parents to help create a
healthy learning environment.
Most school psychologists work in elementary and secondary schools, but
others work in private clinics, hospitals, state agencies, and universities.
98 Social Psychology Social psychology seeks to explain and understand social behavior and
looks at diverse topics including group behavior, social
interactions, leadership, nonverbal communication, and social influences
on decision-making.
This field of psychology is focused on the study of topics such as group
behavior, social perception, nonverbal behavior, conformity, aggression,
and prejudice. Social influences on behavior are a major interest in social
psychology, but social psychologists are also focused on how people
perceive and interact with others.
9 Sports Psychology Sports psychology is the study of how psychology influences sports,
athletic performance, exercise, and physical activity.
10 Clinical Clinical psychology is the psychological specialty that provides continuing
Psychology and comprehensive mental and behavioral health care for individuals and
families; consultation to agencies and communities; training, education
and supervision; and research-based practice. It is a specialty in breadth
— one that is broadly inclusive of severe psychopathology — and marked
by comprehensiveness and integration of knowledge and skill from a
broad array of disciplines within and outside of psychology proper. The
scope of clinical psychology encompasses all ages, multiple diversities and
varied systems.
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Handout 2.3
Definition, Nature and Scope of Educational Psychology
Definition of Educational Psychology
The following are definitions of education psychology by well-known psychologists:

1. “Educational psychology is that branch of psychology which deals with teaching and learning and
also covers the entire range and behavior of the personality as related to education.” Skinner
2. “While general psychology is pure science, educational psychology is its application in the field of
education with the aim of socializing an individual and modifying his behavior.” Anderson
3. "It is the systematic study of the educational growth and development of a child.” Stephen
4. “It is the science of education.” E.A. Peel
5. “It is the study of those facts and principles of psychology which helps to explains and improves
the process of education.” Walter B. Kolesink
6. Educational psychology is the application of psychological findings in the field of education.
Educational psychology is the systematic study of the development of the individual within the
educational settings. It helps the teacher to understand the students and enhance their skills.
Educational psychology involves the study of how people learn. It includes not just the learning
process of early childhood and adolescence but the social, emotional, and cognitive processes that are
involved in learning throughout the entire lifespan. The field of educational psychology incorporates a
number of other disciplines, including developmental psychology, behavioral psychology,
and cognitive psychology.
Eminent Educational Psychologist
Throughout history, a number of figures have played an important role in the development of
educational psychology. Some of these well-known individuals include:
 John Locke: An English philosopher who suggested the concept of tabula rasa, or the idea that
the mind is essentially a blank slate at birth that knowledge is then developed through
experience and learning.
 William James: An American psychologist who was also known for his series of lectures titled
"Talks to Teachers on Psychology," which focused on how teachers could help students learn.
 Alfred Binet: A French psychologist who developed the first intelligence tests.
 John Dewey: An influential American psychologist and educational reformer who wrote
extensively about progressive education and the importance of learning through doing.
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 Jean Piaget: A Swiss psychologist who is best-known for his highly influential theory of
cognitive development.
 B.F. Skinner: An American behaviorist who introduced the concept of operational conditioning.
His research on reinforcement and punishment continue to play an important role in education
today.
Major Perspectives in Educational Psychology
As with other areas of psychology, researchers within educational psychology tend to take on different
perspectives when considering a problem.
 The behavioral perspective suggests that all behaviors are learned through conditioning. Psychologists
who take this perspective rely firmly on the principles of operant conditioning to explain how learning
happens. For example, teachers might give out tokens that can be exchanged for desirable items such
as candy and toys to reward good behavior. While such methods can be useful in some cases, the
behavioral approach has been criticized for failing to account for such things as attitudes, cognitions,
and intrinsic motivations for learning.
 The developmental perspective focuses on how children acquire new skills and knowledge as they
develop. Jean Piaget's famous stages of cognitive development are one example of an important
developmental theory looking at how children grow intellectually. By understanding how children
think at different stages of development, educational psychologists can better understand what
children are capable of at each point of their growth. This can help educators create instructional
methods and materials best aimed at certain age groups.
 The cognitive perspective has become much more widespread in recent decades, mainly because it
accounts for how things such as memories, beliefs, emotions, and motivations contribute to the
learning process. Cognitive psychology focuses on understanding how people think, learn, remember,
and process information. Educational psychologists who take a cognitive perspective are interested in
understanding how kids become motivated to learn, how they remember the things that they learn,
and how they solve problems, among other things.
 The constructivist approach is one of the most recent learning theories that focus on how children
actively construct their knowledge of the world. Constructivism tends to account more for the social
and cultural influences that impact how children learn. This perspective is heavily influenced by the
work of psychologist Lev Vygotsky, who proposed ideas such as the zone of proximal development and
instructional scaffolding.
While educational psychology may be a relatively young discipline, it will continue to grow as people
become more interested in understanding how people learn. APA Division 15, devoted to the subject
of educational psychology, currently lists more than 2,000 members.
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Nature and Scope of Educational Psychology
S.S Chanhan has given detail and comprehensive statements about the nature and scope of
educational psychology, which are as follows:
1. It applies psychological findings in education.
2. Educational Psychology studies systematically an individual development in educational set
up.
3. It enables a teacher to perform his/her role in very effective manner in order to make the
learning & teaching process productive one.
4. Educational Psychology is the scientific study of an individual life stages development from
birth to death and so on.
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Worksheet 2.1
Branches of Psychology
Select any one branch of psychology from the given list and fill the table below:
Branch of Psychology Goes Here:
The Benefits of this Branch The Purpose of this branch Practicesspecific to this
of Psychology for Schools of psychology in Schools is: branch of psychology in
are:
Schools may be:
Schools that focus on this branch of psychology will likely produce students who are:
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Handout 2.4
Zamarrud Khan’s Story
“Assalamo Alaikum” Zamurrad Khan was quite upset and refused to have his breakfast.
“But you must go…” the mother was quite upset, as Zamurrad remained adamant not to go to school.
“They all make fun of me…” Zamurrad was almost in tears, “they laugh at my weight,” he moaned,
“call me names like fatso, and elephant…”
“Oh please Beta…” the mother seemed desperate now, “I will talk to your Teacher, I am sure she will
find a solution.”
“No Ami!” Zamarrud was not ready to listen, “if she will help me then it will be equally bad, as then my
classmates will call me ‘teacher’s pet.”
Right at this time, the phone bell shrieked, “Assalamo Alaikum, who is this?” Zamarrud’s mother
picked up the phone.
“Assalamo Alaikum Madam, this is Zamarrud’s Class Teacher, I hope he’s coming to school today.”
“No Teacher, he is upset and refuses to listen.” It was the mother’s turn to cry.
“Please can I talk to him?” The teacher requested.
“Zamarrud, your teacher wishes to talk to you.” Mother handed the phone over to the reluctant
Zamarrud.
“Morning Teacher,” Zamarrud was despondent.
“Really! Okay teacher, I will come but will they allow me in, I am late?”
“Are you sure, Teacher, you will be at the gate to receive me?” Suddenly Zamarrud blossomed, his
eyes sparkled.
“Thank you, teacher, I am coming.” He rushed to his room, calling out to his mother to get his
breakfast ready.
Ask Trainee teachers what Zamarrud’s teacher may have said that made him change his mind and
brought a smile to his face.
“Okay, you get into your uniform, bachhay, I will get your breakfast ready,” the mother was as excited
as the kid.
“But what did your teacher say?” She was curious to know what had made Zamarrud change his mind.
“My teacher told me that I have received the award of the ‘Best Student of the Month, and I will be
getting a golden star in the assembly today.” Zamarrud was by now over the Moon.
“Oh Wow! That’s great Zamarrud, I am so proud of you!” The mother was super excited to hear of her
son’s achievement.
“But how do they decide the ‘student of the month award,” the mother now serving breakfast, asked.
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“Oh Ami, that’s the thing,” Zamarrud’s voice was trembling with excitement. “It is based on the
grades, teachers’ and classmates’ recommendations and behaviour inside and outside of the class and
also participation in co-curricular activities.”
“I see, that’s super cool, did you participate in sports too?” the mother was genuinely inquisitive.
“No… but my teacher told me to volunteer as a referee for some of the sports, which I had done, I
guess they must have counted this, as well.” Zamrrud said thoughtfully and shrugged his shoulders as
if it didn’t really matter what he had done, as long as he had earned such a prestigious award.
“Oh and Ami, my teacher also told me my classmates have prepared a surprise for me, I am so excited
about the surprise”
The mother, her eyes filled with tears and her heart filled with gratitude, looked up and silently
thanked God for such caring teachers.
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Worksheet 2.2
Zamarrud Khan’s Story
1. Working in your groups, discuss the following questions in light of Zamarrud’s Story.
2. Identify any three branches of Psychology that are at play in this story? Give reasons for your
choices.
3. Identify the traits that make Zamarrud’s teacher effective in dealing with a difficult case?
4. How often have you come across a situation similar to the one mentioned in the Story? Everyone
in the group to share a similar story and select the one that appeals to all. Be prepared to share
one story per group with the whole class mentioning the branches of psychology that were
involved in the story you share.
5. What can you deduce about the School from this story? What features make this school a ‘good
‘school?
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Handout 2.5
Sample Template: Frayer Model
Step 1 & Step 2 fill in the middle block and any one block before handing over Worksheet 2.3 to the
trainee teachers.
Step 1: In the middle block of the Worksheet 2.3, write the word ‘Psychology.’
Step 2: Select anyone of the four blocks on Worksheet 2.3 and fill in ONE block. For example: in the
block NON-Examples of Psychology list down: it’s not reading minds, it’s not controlling minds, it’s not
common sense, it’s not some mysterious or magical aspect of the mind etc.
Step 3 & 4 to be done by the trainee teachers in groups.
Step 3: Ask trainee teachers to fill out the rest of the blocks, giving examples, characteristics of
psychology and develop their own definition of ‘psychology.’
Step 4: Ask trainee teachers to open ‘worksheet 2.3,’ in their tablets and copy it on their notebooks.
A Sample filled in Frayer Model template:
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Worksheet 2.3
Frayer Model
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HANDOUTS
Handout 3.1
Advantages of Educational Psychology
Advantages of Educational Psychology.

Understanding educational psychology is important because it helps the teachers to:
1. Understand changes in children behaviors /characteristics during different developmental
stages and hence treat them accordingly during teaching and learning process.
2. Apply the knowledge of personality traits in developmental stages to help students better in
their learning process.
3. Appreciate individual differences and creates teaching strategies to accommodate maximum
students’ learning needs.
4. Select context based appropriate and effective teaching methods to address students’ needs
5. Understand mental health of the students. In case of sever issues s/he is knowledgeable of the
responsible factors to support the affected students in teaching learning process.
6. Use relevant Psychological tools to evaluate the learning out-come of the students.
7. Understand, Guide, and treat special children to mainstream them in general education
Reference:
 https://www.edb.gov.hk/attachment/tc/curriculum-development/kla/pshe/references-and-
resources/ethics-and-religious-studies/experiential_learning_2.pdf
 http://cei.ust.hk/teaching-resources/action-research/observation-techniques
 https://research-education-edu.blogspot.com/2008/11/education-psychology-method-of.html
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Handout 3.2
Methods of Educational Psychology
Methods of Educational Psychology

Different types of techniques are used by researchers to collect data and conduct research studies.
With the increasing use of educational technology in education, psychology and other social sciences,
new research strategies have evolved.
Following are some important methods and techniques of collecting data:
1. Introspection
2. Observation
3. Case study
4. Scientific or experimental method
Introspection
Historically introspection is the oldest method of all, which was formerly used in philosophy, and then
in psychology to collect data about the conscious experience of the subject. Introspection means to
see within oneself or self-observation. Self-reflection or introspection means self-observation and
report of one’s thoughts, desires, and feelings. It is a conscious mental process relying on thinking,
reasoning, and examining one’s own thoughts, feelings, and, ideas. It is contrasted with extrospection,
the observation of things external to one’s self.
In the past years, there has been a growing interest in introspective or self-reflecting methods, such as
the “thinking-aloud” interview or stimulated recall, in which a subject engaged in a task, speaks
his/her thoughts aloud. This allows studying thoughts without influencing the subject to think too long
of what he/she is asked, for example, in questionnaires.
Reflective practice as an introspective tool for teaching:
Schon (1993) suggested that reflective teaching practice is a continuous process and involves learner
thoughtfully considering one’s own experience in applying knowledge to practice while being taught
by professionals. It helps the individuals to develop their own personality. Gibbs’ (1988) reflective
practice suggests that individuals develop analysis of feelings, evaluation of experience etc. Jasper
(2003) associated reflective teaching practice with lifelong learning resulting in the development of
autonomous, qualified and self-directed professionals. Engaging in reflective practice is associated
with the improvement of the quality of care, stimulating personal and professional growth and closing
the gap between theory and practice. Bartlett (1990) points out that becoming a reflective teacher
involves moving beyond a primary concern with instructional techniques and “how to” questions and
asking “what” and “why” questions that regard instructions and managerial techniques not as ends in
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themselves, but as part of broader educational purposes. Asking questions “what and why” gives
certain power over individual’s teaching resulting in the emergence of autonomy and responsibility in
the work of teachers. (Lieberman & Miller, 2000) pointed out that the practice of reflective teaching,
reflective inquiry, and reflection-on practice, results in gaining of the personal and professional
knowledge that is so important to be \an effective teacher and in shaping children's learning. Han
(1995) stated that:
 The process element of reflection emphasizes how teachers make decisions
 Content stresses the substance that drives the thinking
 Reflective inquiry may set the stage for learning how to be a good teacher.
To engage in reflective practice, education psychologists such as Dewey, Schon, Yang and Bartlett have
stressed that teachers must frequently ask themselves the following questions:
 What am I doing?
 Why am I doing it?
 How effective is it?
 How are the students responding?
 How can I do it better?
Reference:
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Worksheet 3.1
3 ways of reflective practices
SAMPLE 1
Following are three different ways for reflective practice. You are encouraged to use these ideas to
explore self- reflection and introspection.
Introspection, anyone?
A personal manifesto describes your core values and beliefs, the specific ideas and priorities that you
stand for, and how you plan to live your life. This acts as both a statement of personal principles and a
call to action. A personal manifesto can help frame your life, point you in the right direction to help
achieve your goals, and act as a tool to remind you of your primary concerns.
MY Personal Manifesto
I stand for…
My strongest belief is…
I want to live my life…
What distinguishes me from others is…
The words I live by are…
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SAMPLE 2
This exercise was made popular by Stephen Covey in his book, The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People.
To do this, write your own eulogy and answer questions such as:
Do the funeral test
How do I want people to

speak of me at my funeral?
What kind of person will people think I was when I’m What should they
gone? remember me for? Which of
my actions will leave a
lasting impression once I am
gone?
MY EULOGY
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________________________
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SAMPLE 3
Create a Bucket list.
What is Bucket List Activity?
It is a list of personal wishes and desires that one would want to fulfil before one passes on to the
greener pastures (before death).
Importance
Having a bucket list focuses your efforts in a set direction. Also, it makes you aware of your inner
intents and priorities in life.
Use a bucket list to keep yourself focused, and make an effort every day to accomplish at least one
small task that will lead you towards crossing things off of your bucket list.
My Bucket List
1. __________________________________________________________________
2. __________________________________________________________________
3. __________________________________________________________________
4. __________________________________________________________________
5. __________________________________________________________________
6. __________________________________________________________________
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Handout 3.3
Scientific Method
This method has been developed in psychology by the continuous efforts by psychologists to make
objective and scientific study of human behaviour. One of the major contributions of the behaviorism
is the development of experimental method to understand, control and predict behaviour. It is the
most precise, planned systematic observation. The experimental method uses a systematic procedure
called experimental design. Experimental design provides important guidelines to the researcher to
carry out his research systematically. The lay out of the design depends on the nature of the problem
that an investigator wants to investigate. The lay out or design of the experimental method is as
follows:
1. Make an observation/select a research topic
2. Make a Hypothesis
3. Test the Hypothesis
4. Collect data
5. Analyze & interpret data.
6. Make conclusions
Experiments may be conducted in a laboratory or in the classroom or anywhere else in the
community. Experimentation involves comparison between behaviour of a control group and that of
an experimental group.
Hypotheses have a rational base, or they emerge from a framework of theory or preliminary
experimentation. An experiment involves two or more variables for example; incentives have a
measurable impact on learning. The variables whose effects are being studied are called ‘independent
variable’.
Merits:
1. This method is the most systematic procedure of solving problems. It provides reliable
information.
2. It is a revisable method
3. It makes psychology a scientific study
4. It provides objective and precise information about the problems.
5. It gives observer an easy approach to the mind of an individual
6. It provides innovative ideas for the further experimentation.
7. It enables us to control and direct human behaviour
8. It is applicable in educational, individual and social problems
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Demerits:
1. It is arranged in a laboratory like situation. This situation is artificially arranged. Behaviour is a
natural phenomenon and it may change under artificial environment.
2. This method is time consuming and costly. Moreover, it requires specialized knowledge and
skills.
3. Psychologists have criticized the fact that mostly the experiments have conducted on rats, cats
and dogs. The results are conducted and then applied on human beings.
4. It sometimes interferes with the very thing that we are trying to observe.
Reference:
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Handout 3.4
Read the brief history of the Microwave Oven and identify the scientific method
Like many of today's great inventions, the microwave oven was a by-product of another technology. It
was during a radar-related research project around 1946 that Dr. Percy Spencer, a self-taught engineer
with the Raytheon Corporation, noticed something very unusual. He was testing a new vacuum tube
called a magnetron when he observed that the candy bar in his pocket had melted. This intrigued Dr.
Spencer, so he tried another experiment. This time he placed some popcorn kernels near the tube
and, perhaps standing a little farther away, he watched with an inventive sparkle in his eye as the
popcorn sputtered, cracked and popped all over his lab.
The next morning, Scientist Spencer decided to put the magnetron tube near an egg. Spencer was
joined by a curious colleague, and they both watched as the egg began to tremor and quake. The rapid
temperature rise within the egg was causing tremendous internal pressure. Evidently the curious
colleague moved in for a closer look just as the egg exploded and splattered hot yolk all over his
amazed face. The face of Spencer lit up with a logical scientific conclusion: the melted candy bar, the
popcorn, and now the exploding egg, were all attributable to exposure to low-density microwave
energy. Thus, if an egg can be cooked that quickly, why not other foods? Experimentation began...
Dr. Spencer fashioned a metal box with an opening into which he fed microwave power. The energy
entering the box was unable to escape, thereby creating a higher density electromagnetic field. When
food was placed in the box and microwave energy fed in, the temperature of the food rose very
rapidly. Dr. Spencer had invented what was to revolutionize cooking and form the basis of a
multimillion-dollar industry, the microwave oven.
Reference:
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Handout 3.5
Connective of scientific method with classroom
Following is an example of how the scientific method can be used to identify and draw conclusions
about a child’s behaviour.
1. Make an observation: A child in your class starts coming late to school, she/he doesn’t have
books according to the timetable, she/he doesn’t have lunch, starts showing signs of irritability,
has lost interest in studies, is sleepy and tired on most days.
2. Make a hypothesis: The child is: unwell/being bullied/undernourished/going through a
phase/experiencing hormonal changes
3. Test Hypothesis: consult with other teachers to see if they’ve also noticed similar behaviours
4. Collect Data: check her/his results, notice her/his behaviour during breaks games and lessons,
call her/his parents for a meeting, consult with the school management, talk to the child and
ask if he is facing a difficulty in learning/ with friends
5. Analyze Data: Derive from the data possible reasons for the child’s behaviour
6. Draw Conclusions: draw and share conclusions with relevant people: colleagues, head of
section, coordinator.
Reference:
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Handout 3.6
Observation
With the development of psychology as an objective science of behaviour, the method of
introspection was replaced by careful observation of human and animal behaviour. Observation
literally means looking outside oneself. It is a very important method for collecting data in almost all
type of research studies. Different type of Observation used in research, direct or indirect, scheduled
or unscheduled, natural or artificial, participant and non-participant. But there are two basic types of
observation. They are;
Natural observation
In natural observation the observer observes the specific behavioral and characteristics of subjects in
natural settings and the subject does not aware of the fact that their behaviour is being observed by
someone. The teacher can observe the behaviour of his student in the playground or in any other
social gathering without making him conscious. Natural observation can be done anywhere without
any tools.
Participant observation
In participant observation the observer became the part of the group which he wants to observe.
Observational study is particularly very important and produces significant results on developmental
characteristics of children. No doubt that observation is a scientific technique of collecting data, whose
results can be verified and relied upon to locate behavioral problems
Merits:
1. This type of observation is a natural and normal way of knowing the external world but also the
mind of the subject
2. This method is objective in nature and free form personal bias and prejudice.
3. Through this method we can observe as many children as we like
4. This method id quite suitable for children and abnormal person who cannot be examined
through introspection.
5. this can be used anytime and anywhere
Demerits:
1. Observation is useful only for collecting data about overt behaviour which is manifested in a
number of activities. This overt behaviour does not provide reliable information regarding the
internal mental process. We can only guess about the mental state of the individual on the basis of
overt behaviour which may or may not be true. It becomes very difficult to draw any conclusion in
case of adults who can hide their actual behaviour in the presence of the observer.
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2. Subjectivity of interpretation is another limitation of this method. The observer may interpret his
sensation of external stimulus on the bias of his past experience. He may be biased in his
interpretation. It has also been found in some studies that strong personal interests tend to make
researcher see only those things which he wants to see.
3. Observation is subject to two types of errors, sampling error and observer error. The first error
occurs because of inadequacies of selecting situation to be observed. The observer error may be
due to knowledge and background of the situation to be observed. Because some time the
observer is not familiar with the total situation and hence, he may commit error.
Reference:
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Handout 3.7
Observation as a Data Collection Method
Teachers may use observation to improve teaching and learning processes in their classrooms, on the
one hand, and enhance their pedagogical skills on the other hand. Observation is watching
something/phenomenon/ situation/ condition so closely that clear pattern appears. The following are
some of the techniques which can be utilized for the said purpose.
S.No Method Description
1 Student Tests, examinations and continuous assessment can provide valuable data
Assessment for further improvement action.
2 Closed Ended This technique is more suitable for action research in the classroom
Questionnaires however, for professional development a team observer may use it. At
students’ level observation of closed ended questionnaires may depict
picture of knowledge and understanding of any specific topic.
3 Diary/Journal It is a record of students’ progress. It includes everything that shows
portfolio his/her performance.
4 Supporting A record of all documents that can be used as evidence of the decision
Documents made about him/her by the teacher.
5 Interaction Interaction schedules are methods for analyzing and recording what takes
Schedules place during a class. A common approach is to note down at regular
intervals (say every minute) who is talking, and to categorize what they
were saying or doing. An alternative to time sampling is event sampling in
which behaviour is noted every time a particular event occurs. Examples of
categories could be; tutor asking question, tutor giving explanation, tutor
giving instruction, student answering question or student asking question.
The analysis can be made by an observer at the class or can be made
subsequently from a tape or video recording.
6 Interviews Interviews can provide even more opportunity for respondents to raise
their own issues and concerns, but are correspondingly more time-
consuming and can raise difficulties in the collation and interpretation of
information. The format can be on a spectrum from completely open
discussion to tightly structured questions. Semi-structured interviews have
a small schedule of questions to point the interviewee towards an area of
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interest to the researcher, but then allow interviewees to raise any items
they like within the general topic area. Since interviews give an
opportunity for students to raise their own agenda they are useful when
issues are open, or at an exploratory stage. A small number of interviews
can be useful to define issues for subsequent more tightly structured
questionnaires.
Interviews are normally tape recorded. If analysis, rather than just
impression is required, then transcripts have to be produced. The
transcripts are normally analysed by searching for responses or themes
which commonly occur. Quotations from the transcripts can be used to
illuminate or illustrate findings reported in reports and papers.
7 Learning Student learning inventories are examples of empirically derived
Inventories measuring instruments. There are many number inventories which
purport to measure a wide range of characteristics. Student learning
inventories have been highlighted because they examine the quality of
learning. In particular they look at the categories of deep and surface
learning. The inventories can be used to compare groups of students,
examine approaches before and after changes to teaching methods, and
to examine correlations with other variables.
8 Open Ended Open questionnaires have a series of specific questions but leave space for
Questionnaires respondents to answer as they see fit. Teachers are therefore more likely
to find out the views of students but replies are more difficult to analyse
and collate.
9 Diagnosis of A good basis for improving teaching is to diagnose students'
Student understanding of key concepts in a course. It is often surprising how
Conceptions students can pass examinations but still have fundamental
misunderstandings of key concepts. The usual method of diagnosing
student conceptions is to ask a question which applies the concept to an
every-day situation: one which cannot be answered by reproduction or by
substitution into formulae. Answers are drawn from the students in
interviews or in written form.
The student’s answers can usually be classified into a small number
(usually two to five) of conceptions or misconceptions about the
phenomenon. As with the analysis of interview data care needs to be
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taken when deriving classifications. These do not automatically emerge

from the transcript but are subject to the experiences and knowledge of
the researcher.
An example of the type of question, and categories of student conceptions
which it uncovered is given below (Dahlgren, 1984).
10 Tape Recording Making tape recordings is a way of collecting a complete, accurate and
detailed record of discussions in class, conversations in interviews or
arguments and decisions at meetings. It is easy to obtain the recording;
you simply take along cassettes and a portable recorder, and switch it on.
However, the presence of a tape recorder can inhibit discussion or
influence people's behaviour.
There are a number of ethical issues which need to be addressed over the
use of tape recordings. The group being taped should establish the
purpose of making the recording and the way in which the tapes will be
used. If any quotations are made in subsequent reports it is customary to
maintain the anonymity of the source.
If you need to do a detailed analysis of the conversations, then it will be
necessary to produce a transcript. This is a time-consuming and
painstaking process, so limit the use of tape recordings to situations where
it is really necessary.
11 Triangulation Triangulation is not a specific observation technique but is the process of
comparing and justifying data from one source to another.
Reference:
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HANDOUTS
Handout 4.1
ERA Model is one of the Reflective Practice Models. Following figure shows the three components of
ERA model.
https://www.google.com/search?q=era+reflective+model&sxsrf=ACYBGNSRGS1-g-7kdgGL6D-EBEl-
This simple cycle summarizes the three main components of reflective practice –
 Experience – what happens to us
 Reflection – the process which helps us think through the experience
 Action – what we do as a result of reflection.
Example:
 Chatting with a friend over coffee:
 Experience: it was great to have coffee with my best friend after a long time
 Reflection: I realized that we had missed out on a lot of things, as we had met after at least
three months
 Action: We decided that we will make an effort to meet more often so that we can keep in
touch and can keep our friendship revived
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HANDOUTS
Handout 5.1
Stages of Child Growth and Development
Definitions of stages of growth in childhood come from many sources. Theorists such as Jean Piaget,
Lev Vygotsky, Lawrence Kohlberg, and Erik Erikson have provided ways to understand development,
and recent research has provided important information regarding the nature of development. In
addition, stages of childhood are defined culturally by the social institutions, customs, and laws that
make up a society. For example, while researchers and professionals usually define the period of early
childhood as birth to eight years of age, others in the United States might consider age five a better
end point because it coincides with entry into the cultural practice of formal schooling.
There are three broad stages of development: early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence.
The definitions of these stages are organized around the primary tasks of development in each stage,
though the boundaries of these stages are malleable. Society's ideas about childhood shift over time,
and research has led to new understandings of the development that takes place in each stage.
A. Early Childhood (Birth to Eight Years)
Early childhood is a time of tremendous growth across all areas of development. The dependent
newborn grows into a young person who can take care of his or her own body and interact effectively
with others. For these reasons, the primary developmental task of this stage is skill development.
Physically, between birth and age three a child typically doubles in height and quadruples in weight.
Bodily proportions also shift, so that the infant, whose head accounts for almost one-fourth of total
body length, becomes a toddler with a more balanced, adult-like appearance. Despite these rapid
physical changes, the typical three-year-old has mastered many skills, including sitting, walking, toilet
training, using a spoon, scribbling, and sufficient hand-eye coordination to catch and throw a ball.
Between three and five years of age, children continue to grow rapidly and begin to develop fine-
motor skills. By age five most children demonstrate fairly good control of pencils, crayons, and
scissors. Gross motor accomplishments may include the ability to skip and balance on one foot.
Physical growth slows down between five and eight years of age, while body proportions and motor
skills become more refined.
Physical changes in early childhood are accompanied by rapid changes in the child's cognitive and
language development. From the moment they are born, children use all their senses to attend to
their environment, and they begin to develop a sense of cause and effect from their actions and the
responses of caregivers.
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Over the first three years of life, children develop a spoken vocabulary of between 300 and 1,000
words, and they are able to use language to learn about and describe the world around them. By age
five, a child's vocabulary will grow to approximately 1,500 words. Five-year-olds are also able to
produce five-to seven-word sentences, learn to use the past tense, and tell familiar stories using
pictures as cues.
Language is a powerful tool to enhance cognitive development. Using language allows the child to
communicate with others and solve problems. By age eight, children are able to demonstrate some
basic understanding of less concrete concepts, including time and money. However, the eight-year old
still reasons in concrete ways and has difficulty understanding abstract ideas.
A key moment in early childhood socio-emotional development occurs around one year of age. This is
the time when attachment formation becomes critical. Attachment theory suggests that individual
differences in later life functioning and personality are shaped by a child's early experiences with their
caregivers. The quality of emotional attachment, or lack of attachment, formed early in life may serve
as a model for later relationships.
From ages three to five, growth in socio-emotional skills includes the formation of peer relationships,
gender identification, and the development of a sense of right and wrong. Taking the perspective of
another individual is difficult for young children, and events are often interpreted in all-or-nothing
terms, with the impact on the child being the fore-most concern. For example, at age five a child may
expect others to share their possessions freely but still be extremely possessive of a favorite toy. This
creates no conflict of conscience, because fairness is determined relative to the child's own interests.
Between ages five and eight, children enter into a broader peer context and develop enduring
friendships. Social comparison is heightened at this time, and taking other people's perspective begins
to play a role in how children relate to people, including peers.
Implications for in-school learning: The time from birth to eight years is a critical period in the
development of many foundational skills in all areas of development. Increased awareness of, and
ability to detect, developmental delays in very young children has led to the creation of early
intervention services that can reduce the need for special education placements when children reach
school age. For example, earlier detection of hearing deficits sometimes leads to correction of
problems before serious language impairments occur. Also, developmental delays caused by
premature birth can be addressed through appropriate therapies to help children function at the level
of their typically developing peers before they begin school.
B. Middle Childhood (Eight to Twelve Years)
Historically, middle childhood has not been considered an important stage in human development.
Sigmund Freud's psychoanalytic theory labeled this period of life the latency stage, a time when sexual
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and aggressive urges are repressed. Freud suggested that no significant contributions to personality
development were made during this period. However, more recent theorists have recognized the
importance of middle childhood for the development of cognitive skills, personality, motivation, and
inter-personal relationships. During middle childhood children learn the values of their societies. Thus,
the primary developmental task of middle childhood could be called integration, both in terms of
development within the individual and of the individual within the social context.
Perhaps supporting the image of middle childhood as a latency stage, physical development during
middle childhood is less dramatic than in early childhood or adolescence. Growth is slow and steady
until the onset of puberty, when individuals begin to develop at a much quicker pace. The age at which
individuals enter puberty varies, but there is evidence of a secular trend–the age at which puberty
begins has been decreasing over time. In some individuals, puberty may start as early as age eight or
nine. Onset of puberty differs across gender and begins earlier in females.
As with physical development, the cognitive development of middle childhood is slow and steady.
Children in this stage are building upon skills gained in early childhood and preparing for the next
phase of their cognitive development. Children's reasoning is very rule based. Children are learning
skills such as classification and forming hypotheses. While they are cognitively more mature now than
a few years ago, children in this stage still require concrete, hands-on learning activities. Middle
childhood is a time when children can gain enthusiasm for learning and work, for achievement can
become a motivating factor as children work toward building competence and self-esteem.
Middle childhood is also a time when children develop competence in interpersonal and social
relationships. Children have a growing peer orientation, yet they are strongly influenced by their
family. The social skills learned through peer and family relationships, and children's increasing ability
to participate in meaningful interpersonal communication, provide a necessary foundation for the
challenges of adolescence. Best friends are important at this age, and the skills gained in these
relationships may provide the building blocks for healthy adult relationships.
Implications for in-school learning: For many children, middle childhood is a joyful time of increased
independence, broader friendships, and developing interests, such as sports, art, or music. However, a
widely recognized shift in school performance begins for many children in third or fourth grade (age
eight or nine). The skills required for academic success become more complex. Those students who
successfully meet the academic challenges during this period go on to do well, while those who fail to
build the necessary skills may fall further behind in later grades.
Recent social trends, including the increased prevalence of school violence, eating disorders, drug use,
and depression, affect many upper elementary school students. Thus, there is more pressure on
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schools to recognize problems in eight-to eleven-year-olds, and to teach children the social and life
skills that will help them continue to develop into healthy adolescents.
C. Adolescence (Twelve to Eighteen Years)
Adolescence can be defined in a variety of ways: physiologically, culturally, cognitively; each way
suggests a slightly different definition. For the purpose of this discussion adolescence is defined as a
culturally constructed period that generally begins as individuals reach sexual maturity and ends when
the individual has established an identity as an adult within his or her social context. In many cultures
adolescence may not exist, or may be very short, because the attainment of sexual maturity coincides
with entry into the adult world. In the current culture of the United States, however, adolescence may
last well into the early twenties. The primary developmental task of adolescence is identity formation.
The adolescent years are another period of accelerated growth. Individuals can grow up to four inches
and gain eight to ten pounds per year. This growth spurt is most often characterized by two years of
fast growth, followed by three or more years of slow, steady growth. By the end of adolescence,
individuals may gain a total of seven to nine inches in height and as much as forty or fifty pounds in
weight. The timing of this growth spurt is not highly predictable; it varies across both individuals and
gender. In general, females begin to develop earlier than do males.
Adolescence is an important period for cognitive development as well, as it marks a transition in the
way in which individuals think and reason about problems and ideas. In early adolescence, individuals
can classify and order objects, reverse processes, think logically about concrete objects, and consider
more than one perspective at a time. However, at this level of development, adolescents benefit more
from direct experiences than from abstract ideas and principles. As adolescents develop more complex
cognitive skills, they gain the ability to solve more abstract and hypothetical problems. Elements of
this type of thinking may include an increased ability to think in hypothetical ways about abstract
ideas, the ability to generate and test hypotheses systematically, the ability to think and plan about
the future, and meta-cognition (the ability to reflect on one's thoughts).
As individuals enter adolescence, they are confronted by a diverse number of changes all at one time.
Not only are they undergoing significant physical and cognitive growth, but they are also encountering
new situations, responsibilities, and people.
Entry into middle school and high school thrusts students into environments with many new people,
responsibilities, and expectations. While this transition can be frightening, it also represents an
exciting step toward independence. Adolescents are trying on new roles, new ways of thinking and
behaving, and they are exploring different ideas and values. Erikson addresses the search for identity
and independence in his framework of life-span development. Adolescence is characterized by a
conflict between identity and role confusion. During this period, individuals evolve their own self-
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concepts within the peer context. In their attempts to become more independent adolescents often
rely on their peer group for direction regarding what is normal and accepted. They begin to pull away
from reliance on their family as a source of identity and may encounter conflicts between their family
and their growing peer-group affiliation.
With so many intense experiences, adolescence is also an important time in emotional development.
Mood swings are a characteristic of adolescence. While often attributed to hormones, mood swings
can also be understood as a logical reaction to the social, physical, and cognitive changes facing
adolescents, and there is often a struggle with issues of self-esteem. As individuals search for identity,
they confront the challenge of matching who they want to become with what is socially desirable. In
this context, adolescents often exhibit bizarre and/or contradictory behaviors. The search for identity,
the concern adolescents have about whether they are normal and variable moods and low self-esteem
all work together to produce wildly fluctuating behavior.
The impact of the media and societal expectations on adolescent development has been far reaching.
Young people are bombarded by images of violence, and unattainable standards of beauty. This
exposure, combined with the social, emotional, and physical changes facing adolescents, has
contributed to an increase in school violence, teen abuse, and eating disorders. The onset of many
psychological disorders, such as depression, other mood disorders, and schizophrenia, is also common
at this time of life.
Implications for in-school learning: The implications of development during this period for education
are numerous. Teachers must be aware of the shifts in cognitive development that are occurring and
provide appropriate learning opportunities to support individual students and facilitate growth.
Teachers must also be aware of the challenges facing their students in order to identify and help to
correct problems if they arise. Teachers often play an important role in identifying behaviors that
could become problematic, and they can be mentors to students in need.
Reference:
 https://www.pgpedia.com/e/emotional-development
 https://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1826/Child-Development-Stages-Growth.html
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4od2iiWoyRw
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Handout 5.2
Emotional Development and Its Progression
EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Definition:
Emotional development refers to the ability to recognize, express, and manage feelings at different
stages of life and to have empathy for the feelings of others.
The development of these emotions, which include both positive and negative emotions, is largely
affected by relationships with parents, siblings, and peers.
Emotional Development at Different Stages of Life
S.
AGE EMOTIONS INFLUENCED BY TO SHOW DEMONSTRATION
no
01 06-10 Smile accompanied Caregivers’ smile Pleasure Response to
weeks by actions and and interactions caregivers’ actions
sounds
02 03-04 Laugh Others’ actions Happiness/ Recognition of
months strangeness variance in normal
actions (which is
considered as normal
according to the
norms)
03 06-12 Fear, disgust, anger, Caregivers’ Discomfort/ Expression of
months sadness etc. actions displeasure or emotions,
need attention Promotion of social
skills
04 Second Shame, Self and Others’ Affections, Communication of
year embarrassment, actions distress, pain, verbal expressions of
pride etc. fatigue emotions.
Progression toward
cultural intelligence
(emotion regulation)
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05 Third They begin to Teaching and Emotional Controlled emotional

year express their training by the reactions to behavior in the
emotions caregivers different presence of adults
appropriately situations
06 Fourth They start to alter Learning of social Realization of Development of
year their emotional and cultural the need to complex skills of
expressions norms change their understanding
emotional
expressions to
match them
with the
requirement of
the situations
07 07- Start to exhibit a Learning emotion That decisions Implementation of
11years wide array of self- management and are the self-regulation skills
regulation skills decision making function of
their own
emotional
experiences
and the type of
relationship
with others
How they feel
other view
them
Reference:
 https://www.pgpedia.com/e/emotional-development
 https://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/1826/Child-Development-Stages-Growth.html
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4od2iiWoyRw
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HANDOUTS
Handout 6.1
Definitions and details of social development
Definitions:
1) Social development refers to the process by which a child learns to interact with others around
them. As they develop and perceive their own individuality within their community, they also gain
skills to communicate with other people and process their actions.
https://www.scanva.org/support-for-parents/parent-resource-center-2/social-development-in-
children/
2) According to Bilance “social development is the promotion of a sustainable society that is worthy
of human dignity by empowering marginalized groups, women and men to undertake their own
development to improve their social and economic position and to acquire their rightful place in
the society.
3) Child Social Development defined as:
 It is a process to attain maturity in social relationship
 A learning process to confirm to a group standard, morals, traditions
 A process where new types of behavior is learnt, change in interests occurs and new
friendships are developed and an adjustment to a new environment
 The speed and nature of social development vary from age to age and mental abilities of
students / persons. Social development is a learning process which must be very carefully
monitored and guided by all those who are in charges or guardians of a child.
http://www.studylecturenotes.com/social-sciences/education/202-social-development-a-
educational-psychology
4) Social and emotional development is a child’s ability to understand the feelings of others, control
his or her own feelings and behaviors, get along with other children, and build relationships with
adults. In order for children to develop the basic skills they need such as cooperation, following
directions, demonstrating self-control and paying attention, they must have social- emotional
skills.
https://dmh.mo.gov/healthykids/parents/social-emotional-development
5) Social-emotional development includes the child’s experience, expression, and management of
emotions and the ability to establish positive and rewarding relationships with others (Cohen and
others 2005). It en-compasses both intra- and interpersonal processes.
https://www.cde.ca.gov/sp/cd/re/itf09socemodev.asp.
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Handout 6.2
Concept of social development
The concept of social development lies in the concept of socialization. It refers to the process by which
a child learns to interact with others around them. To understand that, we have to understand
socialization at the time of his birth, a child is very selfish. He does not know about sharing his joys and
toys with others.
Social development involves learning the values, knowledge, and skills that enable children to relate to
others effectively and to contribute in positive ways to family, school and the community. Round the
age of two, he realizes that he is just a little man in the complex order. Others also matter and that he
alone does not matter. Giving and taking starts.
Various authorities have also defined social development. Few are quoted below:
 Freeman and Showel, “By social growth and development we mean increasing ability to get
along well with one and others.”
 Hurlock, “It is attaining of social relationship.”
In nutshell, socialization means:
a) Contact with people-its beginning,
b) Dealing with people and learning from them,
c) It is a conscious activity. It does not take place automatically
1. Early Childhood (2-6 YEARS)
Baby deals with adults in his/her immediate environment. According to Mrs. E. B. Hurlock, the
important patterns of his social development during this age are:
1. 2nd month on hearing a voice, the baby turns his head.
2. 4th month Stops crying when talked to and makes movements in anticipation of being lifted.
3. 6th month in touch with the adult ‘talks’ to the adult.
4. 2 years. The baby likes to do things independently and runs around for the adults-he can bring
the newspaper lying at a gate when asked to and when the baby is in the mood. Learns to
imitate adults
5. Becomes an active member of the group. He participates in group activities.
6. ‘Parallel play’ activity is no longer there.
7. Social development during this stage depends much on his relationship with his parents. He
can become a likable individual, however, if a relationship is not cordial, he will become
assertive.
8. He has many friends and shows preferences for friends.
9. His patterns of social behavior are-(i) Aggression, (ii) Quarrels, and (iii) Selfishness.
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2. Later childhood (6-12 YEARS)

a) This is called school going age.
b) The number of friend’s increases manifold-permanent associations are formed. Social
interaction is at its maximum.
c) The child is capable of dealing with many social situations.
3. Group/ Gang Age
Later childhood, social development-wise is also known as gang age. Formation of gangs is the peculiar
feature of social development in this age.
Gang means a small group or a spontaneous local group. It is formed by children themselves. It is not
authorized from outside.
 Gang has a leader who issues commands.
 Gang has a code of ethics.
 Gang has a secret language.
 Girl’s gangs are smaller and firmer.
 Gangs meet at a secret place or hideout.
The activities of the gang are mostly anti-social- teasing old men, bullying small children-stealing
fruit from neighbor’s garden, fights with other gangs, tearing posters, throwing stones in
neighbor’s co.
Reference:
https://www.assignmentpoint.com/arts/sociology/social-development-of-a-child.html
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Handout 6.3
Theories of social development
The following are the child development theories that are among some of the most recognized and utilized
by the experts.
 Erikson's Psychosocial Developmental Theory.
 Bowlby's Attachment Theory.
 Freud's Psychosexual Developmental Theory.
 Bandura's Social Learning Theory.
 Bowlby’s Attachment Theory
John Bowlby was another groundbreaking psychologist and theorist in matters of development. He
also crafted one of the earliest known child development theories which still sees prominent use and
citation today. In Bowlby’s Attachment Theory, he asserted that much of child development is based
on the innate need of children to form attachments. These attachments may involve any number of
people, places, or things and ultimately have a substantial effect on onward development patterns
throughout life.
 Freud’s Psychosexual Developmental Theory
According to Encyclopedia Britannica, Sigmund Freud “may justly be called the most influential
intellectual legislator of his age.” While creating the modern field of psychoanalytic, Freud also went
on to make many other significant contributions to the sciences including the assertion of multiple,
important theories. Freud’s Psychosexual Developmental Theory was one of these important products
in which Freud explained that child experiences, experienced at different ages in childhood, directly go
on to dictate personality and behavior patterns in the later adult. This general theory has since birthed
virtually countless studies, disciplines, and other academic and business establishments.
 Bandura’s Social Learning Theory
Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory is commonly relied upon today across many industries and
professions. This theory states that while much child learning and development does come from direct
experience, much also comes from modeling and simple observations. Bandura himself is another
important and very pioneering figure in psychology who is currently the Professor Emeritus at Stanford
University.
Reference:
https://www.onlinepsychologydegree.info/lists/5-theories-of-child-development/
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 Erikson’s stages of social development
Introduction
Erikson’s Theory: Erik Erikson (1902–1994) was a stage theorist who took Freud’s controversial theory
of psychosexual development and modified it as a psychosocial theory. Erikson emphasized that the
ego makes positive contributions to development by mastering attitudes, ideas, and skills at each
stage of development. This mastery helps children grow into successful, contributing members of
society. During each of Erikson’s eight stages, there is a psychological conflict that must be successfully
overcome in order for a child to develop into a healthy, well-adjusted adult.
Erikson’s 8 Stages of Psychosocial Development
Erikson developed his eight stages of psychosocial development based on Freud’s psychosexual
theory.
Stages of Psychosocial Development
Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development are based on (and expand upon) Freud’s psychosexual
theory. Erikson proposed that we are motivated by the need to achieve competence in certain areas
of our lives. According to psychosocial theory, we experience eight stages of development over our
lifespan, from infancy through late adulthood. At each stage there is a crisis or task that we need to
resolve. Successful completion of each developmental task results in a sense of competence and a
healthy personality. Failure to master these tasks leads to feelings of inadequacy.
Erikson also added to Freud’s stages by discussing the cultural implications of development; certain
cultures may need to resolve the stages in different ways based upon their cultural and survival needs.
1. Trust vs. Mistrust
From birth to 12 months of age, infants must learn that adults can be trusted. This occurs when adults
meet a child’s basic needs for survival. Infants are dependent upon their caregivers, so caregivers who
are responsive and sensitive to their infant’s needs help their baby to develop a sense of trust; their
baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers who do not meet their
baby’s needs can engender feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their baby may see the world as
unpredictable. If infants are treated cruelly or their needs are not met appropriately, they will likely
grow up with a sense of mistrust for people in the world.
2. Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt
As toddlers (ages 1–3 years) begin to explore their world, they learn that they can control their actions
and act on their environment to get results. They begin to show clear preferences for certain elements
of the environment, such as food, toys, and clothing. A toddler’s main task is to resolve the issue
of autonomy vs. shame and doubt by working to establish independence. This is the “me do it” stage.
For example, we might observe a budding sense of autonomy in a 2-year-old child who wants to
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choose her clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits might not be appropriate for the situation,
her input in such basic decisions has an effect on her sense of independence. If denied the
opportunity to act on her environment, she may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to
low self-esteem and feelings of shame.
3. Initiative vs. Guilt
Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3–6 years), they are capable of initiating activities and
asserting control over their world through social interactions and play. According to Erikson, preschool
children must resolve the task of initiative vs. guilt. By learning to plan and achieve goals while
interacting with others, preschool children can master this task. Initiative, a sense of ambition and
responsibility, occurs when parents allow a child to explore within limits and then support the child’s
choice. These children will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are
unsuccessful at this stage—with their initiative misfiring or stifled by over-controlling parents—may
develop feelings of guilt.
4. Industry vs. Inferiority
During the elementary school stage (ages 6–12), children face the task of industry vs.
inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves with their peers to see how they measure up. They
either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their schoolwork, sports, social activities, and
family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate because they feel that they don’t measure up. If
children do not learn to get along with others or have negative experiences at home or with peers, an
inferiority complex might develop into adolescence and adulthood.
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion
In adolescence (ages 12–18), children face the task of identity vs. role confusion. According to Erikson,
an adolescent’s main task is developing a sense of self. Adolescents struggle with questions such as
“Who am I?” and “What do I want to do with my life?” Along the way, most adolescents try on many
different selves to see which ones fit; they explore various roles and ideas, set goals, and attempt to
discover their “adult” selves. Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of
identity and are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face of problems and other
people’s perspectives. When adolescents are apathetic, do not make a conscious search for identity,
or are pressured to conform to their parents’ ideas for the future, they may develop a weak sense of
self and experience role confusion. They will be unsure of their identity and confused about the
future. Teenagers who struggle to adopt a positive role will likely struggle to “find” themselves as
adults.
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6. Intimacy vs. Isolation

People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are concerned with intimacy vs. isolation. After we
have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share our life with others. However, if
other stages have not been successfully resolved, young adults may have trouble developing and
maintaining successful relationships with others. Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self
before we can develop successful intimate relationships. Adults who do not develop a positive self-
concept in adolescence may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation.
7. Generativity vs. Stagnation
When people reach their 40s, they enter the time known as middle adulthood, which extends to the
mid-60s. The social task of middle adulthood is generativity vs. stagnation. Generativity involves
finding your life’s work and contributing to the development of others through activities such as
volunteering, mentoring, and raising children. During this stage, middle-aged adults begin contributing
to the next generation, often through childbirth and caring for others; they also engage in meaningful
and productive work which contributes positively to society. Those who do not master this task may
experience stagnation and feel as though they are not leaving a mark on the world in a meaningful
way; they may have little connection with others and little interest in productivity and self-
improvement.
8. Integrity vs. Despair
From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development known as late adulthood.
Erikson’s task at this stage is called integrity vs. despair. He said that people in late adulthood reflect
on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of failure. People who feel proud of
their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they can look back on their lives with few regrets.
However, people who are not successful at this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. They
focus on what “would have,” “should have,” and “could have” been. They face the end of their lives
with feelings of bitterness, depression, and despair.
Reference:
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/teachereducationx92x1/chapter/eriksons-stages-of-psychosocial-
development/
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Handout 6.4
Importance and characteristics of social development
A. Characteristics of social development theory of a child:
The characteristics of social development are often associated by the skill of cooperation, rotation,
initiative / leadership, sharing, discipline and participation.
Social Development in Children
Ask any parent about their child’s development, and they’ll often talk about speech and language
development, gross motor skills or even physical growth. But a child’s social development—her ability
to interact with other children and adults—is a critical piece of the development puzzle.
What is social development?
Social development refers to the process by which a child learns to interact with others around them.
As they develop and perceive their own individuality within their community, they also gain skills to
communicate with other people and process their actions. Social development most often refers to
how a child develops friendships and other relationships, as well how a child handles conflict with
peers.
Why is social development so important?
Social development can actually impact many of the other forms of development a child experience. A
child’s ability to interact in a healthy way with the people around her can impact everything from
learning new words as a toddler, to being able to resist peer pressure as a high school student, to
successfully navigating the challenges of adulthood. Healthy social development can help your child:
Develop language skills. An ability to interact with other children allows for more opportunities to
practice and learn speech and language skills. This is a positive cycle, because as communication skills
improve, a child is better able to relate to and react to the people around him.
Build self-esteem. Other children provide a child with some of her most exciting and fun experiences.
When a young child is unable to make friends, it can be frustrating or even painful. A healthy circle of
friends reinforces a child’s comfort level with her own individuality.
Strengthen learning skills. In addition to the impact social development can have on general
communication skills, many researchers believe that having healthy relationships with peers (from
preschool on up) allows for adjustment to different school settings and challenges. Studies show that
children who have a hard time getting along with classmates as early as preschool are more likely to
experience later academic difficulties.
Resolve conflicts. Stronger self-esteem and better language skills can ultimately lead to a better ability
to resolve differences with peers.
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Establish positive attitude. A positive attitude ultimately leads to better relationships with others and
higher levels of self-confidence.
B. How can parents make a difference when it comes to social development?
Studies show that everyday experiences with parents are fundamental to a child’s developing social
skill set. Parents provide a child with their very first opportunities to develop a relationship,
communicate and interact. As a parent, you also model for your child every day how to interact with
the people around you.
Because social development is not talked about as much as some other developmental measures, it
can be hard for parents to understand the process AND to evaluate how their child is developing in
this area. There are some basic developmental milestones at every age, as well as some helpful tips a
parent can use to support their child.
1. Infants & Toddlers: During the first 2 years of life, huge amounts of development are rapidly
occurring. You can expect your child to:
 Smile and react positively to you and other caregivers
 Develop stranger anxiety—though it can be frustrating, this is a normal step in development
 Develop an attachment to a comfort object such as a blanket or animal
 Begin to show anxiety around other children
 Imitate adults and children—just as a child develops in other ways, many social skills are
learned simply through copying what a parent or sibling does
 Already be affected by emotions of parents and others around them
As a parent, you can:
 Respond to your baby’s needs promptly—your child is learning how to trust someone
 Make eye contact with your baby—get down to their level and connect visually when you
interact with them
 Babble and talk to your baby, always pausing to allow them to respond
 Play copycat with words and actions
 Play “peekaboo”—this teaches your child that even if you “disappear” you will come back, and
sets the stage for less stranger anxiety in the future
 Involve your baby in daily activities such as running errands or visiting friends—this shows
them how you interact with others in a respectful, positive way
 Begin to arrange playdates so that your child can interact with peers
2. Preschoolers:
 By this age, the stage has been set in the earliest years (mostly by parental and other family
interactions) for a child to branch out. As preschool begins your child can:
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 Explore independently
 Express affection openly, though not always accurately—there can still be much frustration for
your child as language development is still happening
 Still show some stranger anxiety
 Perfect the temper tantrum—it can be stressful, but tantrums are a normal part of child
development
 Learn how to soothe themselves
 Be more aware of others’ emotions
 Cooperate with other children
 Express fear or anxiety before an upcoming event (such as a doctor visit)
 Demonstrate your own love through words and physical affection—which is a great way to
begin teaching a child how to express other emotions as well
 Help your child express their emotions by talking through what they are feeling
 Play with your child in a “peer-like” way to encourage cooperative play—this is helpful when
they are in a group environment and have to share toys and cooperate
 Continue to provide play dates and opportunities to interact with other children
 Provide examples of your trust in others, such as your own friendships or other relationships
3. School children:
By 5 and older, a child’s social development begins to reach new levels. This is a point in time when
most children will spend more hours in a day with other children than with their parents. It is normal
for them to:
 Thrive on friendships
 Want to please friends, as well as be more like their friends
 Begin to recognize power in relationships, as well as the larger community
 Recognize and fear bullies or display bully-like behavior themselves
 As early as 10, children may begin to reject parents’ opinion of friends and certain behaviors—
this is a normal step, but can be especially frustrating for parents
 Talk with your child about social relationships and values by asking them about school and
friends every day
 Allow children the opportunity to discuss social conflicts and problem-solve their
reactions/actions
 Discuss the subject of bullying and harassment, both in person and on the Internet
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 Allow older children to work out everyday problems on their own

 Keep the lines of communication open—as a parent, you want to make yourself available to
listen and support your child in non-judgmental ways
Your child’s social development is a complex issue that is constantly changing. But the good news is
that parents can have a big impact on how it progresses. By modeling healthy relationships and
staying connected with your child, you can help them relate to the people around them in positive,
beneficial ways. By encouraging them to engage with other children and adults, you’re setting them
up to enjoy the benefits of social health—from good self-esteem to strong communication skills to the
ability to trust and connect with those around them.
Reference:
https://www.scanva.org/support-for-parents/parent-resource-center-2/social-development-in-
children/
4. Why is social development so important?
Newborn babies are highly dependent on their caregivers and the people in their environment. They
need protection, nutrition and comfort. So, it is not surprising that babies look for guidance from
adults from birth onward. Developmental psychological research has shown that already hours after
birth, babies look longer at human faces compared to objects. They can even distinguish their
mother’s face from the faces of other women and have a preference for looking at their mother.
A few weeks after birth, the caregiving of trusted and familiar people is rewarded by babies: social
smiling begins. The smile no longer simply signals, I’m fine “but also, I’m glad you’re here “. A
wonderful moment for parents.
We are particularly interested in how infants and children perceive other people and learn from them.
„Social learning “enables children to acquire languages, learn about opportunities and risks in the
environment, about the functions of objects, and much more. So, in the first years of life, babies turn
from newcomers with still limited visual acuity and little motoric abilities into alert young explorers
who manage remarkably well to find their ways in the world!
We want to contribute to a better understanding of this fascinating development. The more we know
about healthy development, the sooner we can find ways to help children with difficulties inform
parents and educators about developmental processes and create optimal learning environments for
children!
Reference:
https://www.kinderstudien.at/en/information-for-parents/the-importance-of-social-development/
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Eventually, the preeminence of Gesell’s ideas gave way to theories that stressed the importance of
environmental rather than internal elements in child development, as the ideas of Jerome S. Bruner
and Jean Piaget gained prominence. Gesell’s writings have been criticized by other psychologists
because he did not readily acknowledge that there are individual and cultural differences in child
development, and his focus on developmental norms implied that what is typical for each age is also
what is desirable.
Although the developmental quotient is no longer accepted as a valid measure of intellectual ability,
Gesell remains an important pioneer in child development, and is recognized for his advances in the
methodology of carefully observing and measuring behavior, and describing child development. He
created a foundation for subsequent research that described both average developmental trends and
individual differences in development. He also inaugurated the use of photography and observation
through one-way mirrors as research tools.
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Worksheet 6.1
Trace the pattern of your own social development
At what stage did you drop the ‘E ‘and allow your EGO to GO?
CHILDHOOD: ADULTHOOD:
What was the crisis/task that you were faced What was the crisis/task that you were faced
with? with?
Was the crisis resolved? If yes, how were you Was the crisis resolved? If yes, how were you able
able to resolve it? If not, what reasons do you to resolve it? If not, what reasons do you think
think were responsible for the crisis to persist? were responsible for the crisis to persist?
ADOLESCENCE: NOW:
What was the crisis/task that you were faced What was the crisis/task that you were faced
with? with?
Was the crisis resolved? If yes, how were you Was the crisis resolved? If yes, how were you able
able to resolve it? If not, what reasons do you to resolve it? If not, what reasons do you think
think were responsible for the crisis to persist? were responsible for the crisis to persist?
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HANDOUTS
Handout 7.1
Physical Development
 Physical development in children refers to the development of their motor skills, which
involves using their bodies. According to North Dakota State University, physical
development is defined by a child's gross motor, fine motor and balance or coordination skills.
 Physical development is an important area of child development that includes children’s
physical growth, as well as their increasing ability to control the muscles of their bodies.
Children’s physical development follows a predictable pattern, but each child grows at his or
her own rate
 Physical development is the process that starts in human infancy and continues into late
adolescent concentrating on gross and fine motor skills as well as puberty. (Kimberly Thomas)
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Handout 7.2
Stages of Physical Development
Physical development is divided broadly into three age groups
1. Early childhood (3-5 years)
2. Middle childhood (5-7years)
3. Adolescence(7-12)
Part-I
Stages of physical development;
Physical development: Gross motor skills
The term "gross motor" development refers to physical skills that use large body movements, normally
involving the entire body. In the sense used here, gross means "large" rather than "disgusting.
Between ages 2 and 3 years, young children stop "toddling," or using the awkward, wide-legged robot-
like stance that is the hallmark of new walkers. As they develop a smoother gait, they also develop the
ability to run, jump, and hop. Children of this age can participate in throwing and catching games with
larger balls. They can also push themselves around with their feet while sitting on a riding toy.
Children who are 3 to 4 years old can climb up stairs using a method of bringing both feet together on
each step before proceeding to the next step (in contrast, adults place one foot on each step-in
sequence). However, young children may still need some "back-up" assistance to prevent falls in case
they become unsteady in this new skill. Children of this age will also be stumped when it's time to go
back down the stairs; they tend to turn around and scoot down the stairs backwards. 3 to 4-year old
can jump and hop higher as their leg muscles grow stronger. Many can even hop on one foot for short
periods of time.
Also, at this age (3 to 4 years), children develop better upper body mobility. As a result, their catching
and throwing abilities improve in speed and accuracy. In addition, they can typically hit a stationary
ball from a tee with a bat. As whole-body coordination improves, children of this age can now peddle
and steer a tricycle. They can also kick a larger ball placed directly in front of their bodies.
By ages 4 to 5, children can go up and down the stairs alone in the adult fashion (i.e., taking one step
at a time). Their running continues to smooth out and increase in speed. Children of this age can also
skip and add spin to their throws. They also have more control when riding their tricycles (or bicycles)
and can drive them faster.
During ages 5 to 6, young children continue to refine earlier skills. They're running even faster and can
start to ride bicycles with training wheels for added stability. In addition, they can step sideways.
Children of this age begin mastering new forms of physical play such as the jungle gym, and begin to
use the see-saw, slide, and swing on their own. They often start jumping rope, skating, hitting balls
with bats, and so on. Many children of this age enjoy learning to play organized sports such as soccer,
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basketball, t-ball or swimming. In addition, 5 to 6-year old often like to participate in physical
extracurricular activities such as karate, gymnastics, or dance. Children continue to refine and improve
their gross motor skills through age 7 and beyond.
Part-II
Physical Development: Fine Motor Skills
Fine motor skills are necessary to engage in smaller, more precise movements, normally using the
hands and fingers. Fine motor skills are different than gross motor skills which require less precision to
perform.
By ages 2 to 3 years, children can create things with their hands. They can build towers out of blocks,
meld clay into rough shapes, and scribble with a crayon or pen. Children of this age can also insert
objects into matching spaces, such as placing round pegs into round holes. 2 to 3-year-olds often begin
showing a preference for using one hand more often than the other, which is the beginning of
becoming left or right-handed.
Around ages 3 to 4 years, children start to manipulate clothing fasteners, like zippers and snaps, and
continue to gain independence in dressing and undressing themselves. Before they enter school, most
children will gain the ability to completely dress and undress themselves (even though they may take a
long time to finish the task). At this age, children can also begin using scissors to cut paper. Caregivers
should be sure to give children blunt, round-edged "kid" scissors for safety reasons!
3 to 4 year old continue to refine their eating skills and can use utensils like forks and spoons. Young
children at this age can also use larger writing instruments, like fat crayons, in a writing hold rather
than just grasping them with their fist. They can also use a twisting motion with their hands, useful for
opening doorknobs or twisting lids off containers. Because children can now open containers with lids,
caregivers should make certain that harmful substances such as cleaners and medications are stored
out of reach in a locked area to prevent accidental poisonings.
During ages 4 to 5 years, children continue to refine fine motor skills and build upon earlier skills. For
instance, they can now button and unbutton their clothes by themselves. Their artistic skills improve,
and they can draw simple stick figures and copy shapes such as circles, squares, and large letters.
Drawing more complex shapes, however, may take longer.
5-7-year-olds begin to show the skills necessary for starting or succeeding in school, such as printing
letters and numbers and creating shapes such as triangles. They are able to use paints, pencils and
crayons with better control. Children can also complete other self-care tasks beyond dressing and
undressing, such as brushing their teeth and combing their hair. Children of this age can also
independently feed themselves without an adult's immediate supervision or help.
Reference:
https://www.gracepointwellness.org/462-child-development-parenting-early-3-7/article/12755-early-
childhood-physical-development-gross-and-fine-motor-development
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Handout 7.3
Activities for Physical Development
GROUP I: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=59BvEm-yB8Y
GROUP II: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PC6vKh3bhTI
Children develop in a holistic manner. Physical development should be seen as being important in
young children’s development as intellectual development. Research has shown that physical activity
in young children can enhance concentration, motivation, learning and well-being. Generally, our lives
have become more inactive and our children have less opportunity for physical activity each day. The
reasons for our increased inactivity include:
 Excessive television viewing
 Fewer family members to play with
 Fewer safe outside play areas.
 Preschools can provide many opportunities for physical play to promote fine and gross motor
skills and hand / eye coordination. Children enjoy physical play, indoors and outdoors. They
revel in freedom of movement and in play that is inventive, adventurous and stimulating.
Children also learn social skills as they cooperate with one another and show consideration for
one another. Large Muscle Development – gross motor and locomotor skills.
 Walk forwards, backwards and sideways
 Walk on tip-toes (balance)
 Running, stopping and starting
 Climb up steps or a ladder with one foot leading
 Pivot around and around on feet
 Jump up and down on the spot on both feet
 Jump a distance
 Balance along a plank 18cms from the ground
 Balance on one leg for 4 seconds
 Crawl through a barrel or tunnel
These basic activities develop body management, balance, bodily co-ordination, strength, agility and
confidence.
Learning Through Physical Play Fine Motor Skills
 Building blocks
 Assembling construction materials – Duplo etc.
 Putting Jigsaws together
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 Grip a pencil or paintbrush

 Hammer shapes into a pegboard
 Pour water or dry sand from one container to another
 Thread beads
 Manipulate Playdough
These activities promote hand-eye coordination, spatial awareness, fi ne motor control, accuracy, two
handed coordination and manipulative strength. Eye – Hand & Eye – Foot Coordination Skills
 Catch a large ball between extended arms
 Kick a ball
 Pedal a tricycle along a straight line
 Push a large ball away towards a target
 Pull an empty truck around obstacles
These activities promote spatial awareness, hand – eye coordination, strength and foot & leg
coordination. Paint & Junk
 Holding Brushes, pencils (fi ne motor skills)
 Cutting
 Spreading glue and paint
 Sprinkling glitter (fi ne finger movement) Imaginative Play
 Manipulating fastenings on dressing up clothes and dolls (fi ne manipulative skills)
 Pressing telephone buttons
 Writing shopping lists
 Wrapping parcels
 Using dustpan and brush
 Coordination in pretend cooking – setting the table Sand and Water
 Pouring, filling, stirring, pushing, pulling, moulding, digging, patting (developing fi ne motor
skills)
 Manipulating tools
 Pouring into containers (Hand – eye co-ordination)
 Use equipment with skill Physical and Outdoor Play
 Throwing and catching
 Rolling
 Carrying and passing
 Climbing
 Swinging
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 Sliding
 Cycling / driving wheeled toys
 Dancing
 Moving to action rhymes Small World
 Manipulating play people, farm animals, vehicles (fi ne motor skills and coordination)
 Threading beads
 Cars into the garage (hand – eye coordination)
 Putting furniture in the house Construction Play
 Manipulate a range of construction equipment (fi ne and large motor skills)
 Lifting, carrying
 Develop skills in fitting together and taking apart materials (develop hand – eye coordination
and spatial awareness Practical Play ideas to use at Home with young children Young children’s
joy in movement leads to healthy growth by encouraging them to challenge and exercise their
own bodies. Physical play is fun! A healthy child has lots of energy. He/she needs opportunities
to crawl, run, dance, climb, balance and these skills help his/her bones and muscels develop.
What we need for physical play is:-
 SPACE. This could be a park or garden, the beach or field or a playground. Space is run freely.
 Safe equipment and safe surfaces
 Large equipment such as climbing frames, see saws, planks, tyres and stepping stones.
 Small equipment such as balloons, balls, bean bags, hoops, skipping ropes, streamers, trikes,
bikes and cars.
 Lots of enthusiasm and energy Physical activities should not be beyond a child’s capability. We
can play simple games of catch with our children – Hop-Scotch, Follow the Leader, Statues,
Skipping, Ring-A-Ring-A-Rosie, Throwing and Catching games and Hide-and-Seek. A great deal
rests on the acquisition of fi ne motor skills. Children need these skills in order to become
competent in many areas of life:
 Writing
 Handling tools
 Craft skills
 Using cutlery
 Holding brushes
 Handling delicate things, including living things
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 Turning the pages of books In order to accomplish these tasks children need lots of help and
practice in using the fi ne muscles of hands, arms and fingers. We can provide many play
activities to help stimulate this development.
 Clay and dough
 Large beads to thread
 Cars, farms, doll houses
 Books with pages to turn, flaps and lift up sections
 Dressing dolls / action man
 Paint brushes, crayons and pencils for further ideas on Learning through Play, get a copy of our
publication “I Want To Play”, available at the Early Years information and resource centre.
Référence:
https://www.early-years.org/parents/docs/learning-through-physical-play.pdf
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Handout 7.4
Importance of physical development
From sitting up on their own to throwing a ball, children gradually develop the physical skills needed
for their adult lives.
Physical development experiences and activities are crucial in the early years and are cited as one of
the three prime areas of learning and development in the Early Years Statutory Framework (EYSF).
The EYFS states that early education programmes should:
“provide opportunities for young children to be active and interactive; and to develop their co-
ordination, control, and movement. Children must also be helped to understand the importance of
physical activity, and to make healthy choices in relation to food.”
Physical activities promote healthy growth and development. It helps build a healthier body
composition, stronger bones and muscles. It also improves the child's cardiovascular
fitness. Physical activities help in the development of better motor skills and in concentration and
thinking skills.
If you are worried your child is not meeting these developmental milestones by the recommended
age, you can engage your child in some physical activities to reach these goals.
Step 1 - Determine which developmental milestones you would like to address and are appropriate
for your child’s age
The Centres for Disease Control and Prevention provide a list of these milestones through age 5 years,
and your child’s physician will also have a list.
Step 2 - Write down a list of activities that will aid your child’s physical development for each
milestone
Choose activities that will address more than one skill.
For example, playing baseball will increase muscle strength through holding the bat, improve the gross
motor skills needed for swinging a bat and develop hand-eye coordination by hitting the ball.
Make sure your activities are developmentally appropriate for your child; for example, a 12-month-old
child cannot hop on one foot, so don’t use an activity that requires this action.
Step 3 - Encourage independence with your child
If you go out, don’t let them sit in the stroller, but rather make them walk.
If your child is old enough to feed themselves, let them eat finger foods or use a spoon.
Step 4 - Engage your child in music and movement activities
March to a song with a strong beat to encourage steadier gait. Practice jumping, spinning, hopping,
crawling or tiptoeing to a lively tune.
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Purchase a keyboard or drum and let your child explore the instrument and play along with their
favourite songs.
Step 5 - Foster fine motor skills through art and tactile experiences
If it’s age-appropriate, let your child cut with scissors or grab small pieces of construction paper to glue
to a larger sheet of paper.
Draw circles and squares to practice the fine motor skills needed for writing. String beads onto a piece
of yarn to make a necklace or bracelet.
Place pebbles, pearls or plastic objects inside a box of sand and let your child dig through the sand
with his fingers to pick up the objects.
Step 6 - Play sports and enjoy outdoor activities
Try a game of football to aid both coordination and the gross motor movements of the legs. Teach
your child to ride a bike or a tricycle when age appropriate.
Reference:
http://www.crec.co.uk/announcements/the-importance-of-physical-development
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Handout 7.5
Effects of physical development
The Effects of Physical Development on the Middle Childhood
The period of time from school age to adolescent is a time of growth and change. They are learning so
much about the world around them, as well as their place in it. Their bodies are growing, and changing,
and their cognitive capacity is increasing. Physical development in the middle childhood continues
steadily and children grow taller. Growth is especially apparent in the legs. Their fine and gross motor
skills improve too, and they have greater strength and muscle control since their bodies have grown in
size. Obesity is a problem in this country, and many are not getting enough physical activity. Sports
activities can be of benefit because not only will they get exercise, but they also learn to work with
others in a team environment which could help with their socio-emotional development. As children
progress into adolescence, puberty brings physical changes to the body as well. Pimples emerge which
can cause teens to be anxious and self-conscious about their appearance. Puberty and hormones bring
out sexual maturation characteristics such as facial hair, muscle growth, breast growth, and
menstruation begins. When children are in school age, they cognitively become capable of thinking in
more complex ways, and therefore are able to learn how to read, write, and understand mathematical
concepts.
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HANDOUTS
Handout 8.1
Perspectives
One day a father and his rich family took his young son on a trip to the country with the firm purpose
to show him how poor people can be. They spent a day and a night in the farm of a very poor family.
When they got back from their trip the father asked his son, "How was the trip?" Very good, Dad!"
"Did you see how poor people can be?" the father asked. "Yeah!" "And what did you learn?"
Task: (Think Pair Share) Discuss with your partner and come up with at least three possible responses
the child must have given:
Read the rest of the story; see to what extent your responses match the child’s observations.
The son answered, "I saw that we have a dog at home, and they have four. We have a pool that
reaches to the middle of the garden; they have a creek that has no end. We have imported lamps in
the garden, they have the stars. Our patio reaches to the front yard, they have a whole horizon. When
the little boy was finishing, his father was speechless.
His son added, "Thanks, Dad, for showing me how poor we are!"
Isn't it true that it all depends on the way you look at things? If you have love, friends, family, health,
good humor and a positive attitude toward life, you've got everything! You can't buy any of these
things. You can have all the material possessions you can imagine, provisions for the future, etc., but if
you are poor of spirit, you have nothing.
Reference:
 https://johnparankimalil.wordpress.com/2014/11/18/meaning-and-nature-of-learning/
 https://www.google.com/search?q=meaning+of+learning&oq=meaning&aqs=chrome.1.69i59l
2j69i57j0j69i61j69i60.10298j0j7&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8
 https://www.rasmussen.edu/degrees/education/blog/types-of-learning-styles/
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Handout 8.2
Definitions of Learning
Defined By: Definition Explanation

Merriam Dictionary Knowledge or skill One can learn by getting someone’s
acquired by instruction or instruction or by studying some information.
study
Cambridge Dictionary The process of getting It is a process in which one obtains information
an understanding of by studying or by experiences of life.
something by studying it or
by experience
Gardener Murphy The term learning covers Learning modifies human behavior according to
every modification in the needs of society.
behaviour to meet
environmental
requirements.
Henry P. Smith Learning is the acquisition As a result of learning we adapt to new
of new behaviour or the situation and change behaviors, which may
strengthening or require strengthening, weakening or removing
weakening of old the old ones.
behaviour as the result of
experience.
Crow & Crow Learning is the acquisition Learning progressively brings changes in our
of habits, knowledge & behavior and enables us to adjust ourselves
attitudes. according to the new situation to achieve goals.
John Parankimalil Learning is the process by

which an individual When experiences bring change in our
acquires knowledge, behavior, this change is called learning.
attitudes and skills that are
necessary to meet the
demands of life.
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Handout 8.3 (a)

Abraham Lincoln's letter (to his son's teacher)
He will have to learn, I know, that all men are not just, all men are not true. But teach him also that for
every scoundrel there is a hero; that for every selfish Politician, there is a dedicated leader... Teach
him for every enemy there is a friend, Steer him away from envy, if you can, teach him the secret of
quiet laughter. Let him learn early that the bullies are the easiest to kick... Teach him, if you can, the
wonder of books... But also give him quiet time to ponder the eternal mystery of birds in the sky, bees
in the sun, and the flowers on a green hillside. In the school, teach him it is far honorable to fail than
to cheat... Teach him to have faith in his own ideas, even if everyone tells him they are wrong... Teach
him to be gentle with gentle people, and tough with the tough. Try to give my son the strength not to
follow the crowd when everyone is getting on the band wagon... Teach him to listen to all men... but
teach him also to filter all he hears on a screen of truth, and take only the good that comes through.
Teach him if you can how to laugh when he is sad... Teach him there is no shame in tears; teach him to
scoff at cynics and to beware of too much sweetness... Teach him to sell his brawn and brain to the
highest bidders but never to put a price-tag on his heart and soul. Teach him to close his ears to a
howling mob and to stand and fight if he thinks he's right. Treat him gently, but do not cuddle him,
because only the test of fire makes fine steel. Let him have the courage to be impatient... let him have
the patience to be brave. Teach him always to have sublime faith in himself, because then he will have
sublime faith in mankind. These are a big order, but see what you can do... He is such a fine fellow, my
son!
Task: Lincoln’s letter embodies the crux of education, in view of this letter, recall the Unit on
Psychology. Now enlist any four core purposes of education that you can glean from this letter. For
each of the core purposes, think of the nature of learning and fill in the Concept web provided to you.
Each group should draw the Concept Web on newsprint in readiness for a poster display.
Plenary: Go around the room and review the posters on display for whole group discussion.
Reference:
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Handout 8.3(b)
Concept Web
Web concept encourages learners to visually record their learning through an exploration of issues or
topic. The process establishes connections and helps the learner organize ideas and understand
relationships between different concepts, problems and ideas.
The center circle contains the main concept, problem or topic. Linking ideas or solutions are recorded
in the outer circles using key words. Lines may be added to link the connecting circles to each other as
well as to the central circle. Images and colors may also be used to enhance the concept map.
Sample Concept Web
Reference:
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Handout 8.4
Nature of learning
S. No Nature Description
1 Learning is Every creature that lives learns. Human beings learn most.
Universal
2 Learning is through Learning always involves some kind of experience, direct or indirect.
experience
3 Learning is from all Today learning is from all sides. Children learn from parents, teachers,
sides environment, nature, media etc.
4 Learning is It denotes the lifelong and dynamic nature of learning. In today’s ever-
continuous changing world, every day new situations are faced by the humans.
They have to bring essential changes in their behavior to adjust in new
demand. Learning is from womb to grave.
5 Learning results in It is a change of behaviour influenced by previous behaviour. It is any
change in behaviour activity that leaves a more or less permanent effect on later activity.
6 Learning is an Learning helps the individual to adjust himself adequately to the new
adjustment situations. Most learning in children consists in modifying, adapting,
and developing their original nature. In later life the individuals acquire
new forms of behaviour.
7 Learning comes It is the basis of drill and practice. It has been proven that students
about as a result of learn best and retain information longer when they have meaningful
practice practice and repetition. Every time practice occurs, learning continues
8 Learning is a Once you learnt something, after years in just a few minutes you will
relatively permanent be proficient again.
change
9 Learning as growth It is never ending growth and development. At each stage the learner
and development acquires new visions of his future growth and news ideals of
achievement in the direction of his effort. According to Woodworth,
“All activity can be called learning so far as it develops the individual.”
10 Learning is not The only way to study learning is through some observable behaviour.
directly observable Actually, we cannot observe learning; we see only what precedes
performance, the performance itself, and the consequences of
performance.
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Handout 8.5
Types of learning styles
Learning styles and preferences take on a variety of forms—and not all people fit neatly into one
category as there’s plenty of overlap between styles. Most learners align with the following styles.
1. Visual learners
How to recognize visual learners in your class: Someone with a preference for visual learning is partial
to seeing and observing things, including pictures, diagrams, written directions and more. This is also
referred to as the “spatial” learning style. Students who learn through sight understand information
better when it’s presented in a visual way. These are your doodling students, your list makers and your
students who take notes.
How to cater to visual learners: The whiteboard is your best friend when teaching visual learners!
Teachers should create opportunities to draw pictures and diagrams on the board, or ask students to
doodle examples based on the topic they’re learning. Teachers catering to visual learners should
regularly make Handouts and use presentations. Visual learners may also need more time to process
material, as they observe the visual cues before them. So be sure to give students a little time and
space to work through the information.
2. Auditory learners
How to recognize auditory learners in your class: Auditory learners tend to learn better when the
subject matter is reinforced by sound. These students would much rather listen to a lecture than read
written notes, and they often use their own voices to reinforce new concepts and ideas. These are the
students who like to read out loud to themselves, aren’t afraid to speak up in class and are great at
verbally explaining things. Additionally, they may be slower at reading and may repeat things a teacher
tells them.
How to cater to auditory learners: Since these students can sometimes find it hard to keep quiet for
long periods of time, get your auditory learners involved in the lecture by asking them to repeat back
new concepts to you. Ask questions and let them answer. Invoke group discussions so your auditory
and verbal processors can properly take in and understand the information they’re being presented
with. Watching videos and using music or audiotapes are also helpful ways to engage with auditory
learners.
3. Kinesthetic learners
How to recognize kinesthetic learners in your class: Kinesthetic learners or “tactile” learners learn
through experiencing or doing things. They like to get right in the thick of things by acting out events
or using their hands to touch and handle in order to understand concepts. These are the students who
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might struggle to sit still, might be good at sports or like to dance, need to take breaks when studying
and might not have great handwriting.
How to cater to kinesthetic learners: The best way teachers can help these students learn is by getting
them moving. Teachers should instruct students to act out a certain scene from a history lesson
they’re teaching. Additionally, they should encourage these students by incorporating movement into
lessons: pacing to help memorize, learning games that involve moving around the classroom or having
students write on the whiteboard as part of an activity.
Once these students can physically sense what they’re studying, abstract ideas and difficult concepts
will be easier to understand.
4. Reading/writing learners
How to recognize reading/writing learners in your class: Reading/writing learners prefer to learn
through written words. While there is some overlap with visual learning, these types of learners are
drawn to expression through writing, reading articles on the internet, writing in diaries, looking up
words in the dictionary and searching the internet for just about everything.
How to cater to reading/writing learners: This is probably the easiest learning style to cater to since
most of the educational system provides lots of opportunities for writing essays, doing research online
and reading books. Allow plenty of time for these students to absorb information through the written
word, and give them opportunities to get their words out on paper as well.
Reference:
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Worksheet 8.1
Instruction: After reading the Handout 8.3 (a)

Fill in the following web on the pattern of Handout 8.3 (b)
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Worksheet 8.2 (a)

What's Your Learning Style?
For these questions, choose the first answer that comes to mind. Don't spend too much time thinking
about any one question. Choose only one answer for each question.
Questions – 1: When you study for a test, would you rather?
a) Read notes, read headings in a book, and look at diagrams and illustrations.
b) Have someone ask you questions, or repeat facts silently to yourself.
c) Write things out on index cards and make models or diagrams.
d) Read and write the material many times.
Question- 2: Which of these do you do when you listen to rhythm?
a) Daydream (see things that go with the rhythm)
b) Hum along
c) Move with the rhythm; tap your foot, etc.
d) Lipsing
Question- 3: When you work at solving a problem do you?
a) Make a list, organize the steps, and check them off as they are done
b) Make a few phone calls and talk to friends or experts
c) Make a model of the problem or walk through all the steps in your mind
d) Take help from literature and take notes.
Question- 4: When you read for fun, do you prefer
a) A travel book with a lot of pictures in it
b) A mystery book with a lot of conversation in it
c) A book where you answer questions and solve problems
d) Fiction (novels, stories, dramas)
Question- 5: To learn how a computer works, would you rather
a) Watch a movie about it.
b) Listen to someone explains it.
c) Take the computer apart and try to figure it out for yourself Lesson on Self-Awareness/Self-
Advocacy.
d) Take help from books, journals or papers on computer.
Question- 6: You have just entered a science museum, what will you do first?
a) Look around and find a map showing the locations of the various exhibits
b) Talk to a museum guide and ask about exhibits
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c) Go into the first exhibit that looks interesting, and read directions later.
d) Look around and find the instruction for guidance
Question- 7: What kind of restaurant would you rather not go to?
a) One with the lights too bright
b) One with the music too loud
c) One with uncomfortable chairs
d) One with no written direction to guide
Question- 8: Would you rather go to
a) An art class
b) A music class
c) An exercise class
d) Literature Class
Question- 9: Which is you most likely to do when you are happy?
a) Grin
b) Shout with joy
c) Jump for joy
d) Go for an interesting book
Question- 10: If you were at a birthday party, what would you be most likely to remember the next
day?
a) The faces of the people there, but not the names
b) The names but not the faces
c) The things you did and said while you were there
d) Make a report
Question -11: When you see the word "d - o - g", what do you do first?
a) Think of a picture of a particular dog
b) Say the word "dog" to yourself silently
c) Sense the feeling of being with a dog (petting it, running with it, etc.)
d) Close your eyes and visualize the word
Question- 12: When you tell a story, would you rather
a) Give it pictorial form
b) Tell it out loud
c) Act it out
d) Write it
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Question- 13: What is most distracting for you when you are trying to concentrate?
a) Visual distractions
b) Noises
c) Other sensations like, hunger, tight shoes, or worry
d) Loud reading
Question- 14: What is you most likely to do when you are angry?
a) Scowl
b) Shout or "blow up"
c) Stomp off and slam doors
d) Write on a paper, crump and throw it into dustbin
Question -15: When you aren't sure how to spell a word, which of these are you most likely to do?
a) Write it out to see if it looks right
b) Sound it out
c) Write it out to see if it feels right
Question- 16: Which are you most likely to do when standing in a long line at the theater?
a) Look at posters advertising other plays
b) Talk to the person next to you
c) Tap your foot or move around in some other way
d) Read the captions written on the posters
Reference:
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Worksheet 8.2 (b)

Key
My Style
My name is………………..
My learning style(s) is/are:
This means I learn best when … (count your answers and write total tick as:
(a__________________________________________________________________________________________
(b)_________________________________________________________________________________________
(c)_________________________________________________________________________________________
(d)_________________________________________________________________________________________
My strengths as a learner are:
1. Visual learners ________________________________________________________
2. Auditory learners _______________________________________________________
3. Kinesthetic learners _______________________________________________________
4. Reading/writing learners _________________________________________________
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HANDOUTS
Worksheet 9.1
Placement Map
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Handout 9.1
Higher and Lower order thinking skills
Bloom’s Taxonomy
Can help you contextualize the level of thinking skills involved with your goals, and offers many
example active verbs that can help you write your goals. Chances are you’ve already used verbs in
your assignments and have devised questions at different levels of thinking. We’re suggesting you
become systematic but also creative in your approach to learning goals. Below we provide you with
examples of higher-order thinking skills and lower-order thinking skills.
Higher-order thinking skills
Higher-order thinking skills are reflected by the top three levels in Bloom’s Taxonomy: Analyzing,
Evaluating, and Creating.
Two examples of higher order thinking skills include:
By the end of the semester, students will be able to summarize the different theories of learning
discussed in class (experiential, visual, verbal, social, kinesthetic and logical).
In this case, the key action verb is “Summarize” indicating a level five or six on the Bloom’s taxonomy.
Rather than having students simply “Remember” (level one on Bloom’s Taxonomy) the different
theories by having them select from a pre-made description, this allows them to explain the theories
in their own words thus “Evaluating” the material (level five on Bloom’s Taxonomy).
By the end of the Unit on Force & Motion, students will be able to design a poster on how and why
Push and Pull, Gravity and Friction and Acceleration and Magnetism are important in our daily lives.
 Here the key action verb is “Design” (demonstrating the sixth level of Bloom’s taxonomy –
Creating) which allows students to create, in this case a poster, from the different factors of Force
& Motion. This goal requires them to put the different elements together concisely to produce a
cohesive poster and would be assessing a higher-order thinking skill.
Lower-order thinking skills
Lower-order thinking skills are reflected by the lower three levels in Bloom’s Taxonomy: Remembering,
Understanding, and Applying.
Two examples of lower-order thinking skills include:
By the end of the Unit on Ratios & Proportions students will be able to apply their learning to
prepare recipes of their choice
 In this case, the key action verb is “Apply” indicating a level three on the Bloom’s taxonomy. it is
clearly a level 3, it would likely be assessing a lower order skill, especially if the students simply
need to choose the correct ratios and apply them in making a dish of their choice. However, this
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may also be a higher order skill if students are not used to applying ratios or if this is a lower
course of just understanding ration=s and proportions.
 By the end of the semester students will be able to identify Force & Motion and describe
different situations by giving the real-world examples to explain the concept. They will be able
to list down at least five characteristics that define Push from Pull.
 Here we see that the active verbs include “describe,” “give examples,” and “list,” all of which are
low on Bloom’s Taxonomy (being either a level 1 or a level 2). This goal, or a test or homework
question covering this goal, would be assessing a lower order thinking skill for a majority of our
students.
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Handout 9.2
Revised Bloom’s taxonomy action verbs
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HANDOUTS
HANDOUT 10.1
Can you see, What I Can’t?
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Handout 10.2 (A)

Paradigm Shift
"Imagine you're in Peshawar Bacha Khan Airport. While you're waiting for your flight, you notice a stall
selling shortbread cookies. You buy a box, put them in your traveling bag and then you patiently
search for an available seat so you can sit down and enjoy your cookies. Finally, you find a seat next to
a gentleman. You reach down into your travelling bag and pull out your box of shortbread cookies.
As you do so, you notice that the gentleman starts watching you intensely. He stares as you open the
box and his eyes follow your hand as you pick up the cookie and bring it to your mouth. Just then he
reaches over and takes one of your cookies from the box, and eats it! You're more than a
little surprised at this. Actually, you're at a loss for words. Not only does he take one cookie, but he
alternates with you.
For everyone cookie you take, he takes one. Now, what's your immediate impression of this guy?
Crazy? Greedy?
Task: Working on your own, provide three adjectives to describe this man.
Share with other groups.
Now read the rest of the story.
He's got some nerve?! Can you imagine the words you might use to describe this man to your
associates back at the office? Meanwhile, you both continue eating the cookies until there's just one
left. To your surprise, the man reaches over and takes it. But then he does something unexpected. He
breaks it in half and gives half to you. After he's finished with his half he gets up, and without a word,
he leaves.
You think to yourself, "Did this really happen?" You're left sitting there dumbfounded and still hungry.
So you go back to the stall and buy another box of cookies. You then return to your seat and begin
opening your new box of cookies when you glance down into your travelling bag. Sitting there in your
bag is your original box of cookies -- still unopened.
Only then do you realize that when you reached down earlier, you had reached into the other man's
bag, and grabbed his box of cookies by mistake. Now what do you think of the man? Generous?
Tolerant?
You've just experienced a profound paradigm shift. You're seeing things from a new point of view. Is it
time to change your point of view?
Plenary: Now, think of this story as it relates to the process of teaching and learning. Keep in mind
Vygotsky’s quote: ‘If learning hasn’t happened, it hasn’t happened yet.’
Task: In groups of four/five think about factors that hinder or assist learning.
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Handout 10.2 (B)

Paradigm Shift in Education
“Research is the bricks. Our informed, educated intuition is the mortar. It’s impossible to construct a
worthy structure without either one.” – Dr. Michael Allen, e-zine January 26, 2006
The most significant issue relating to learning is the relatively recent paradigm shift in education. This
change is illustrated in the way in which curriculum is defined and technology is used. The distinct
roles of teachers and learners are becoming increasingly blurred.
Education is no longer defined in terms of what a teacher will teach but rather in terms of what a
student will be able to demonstrate. Thus, it is from here that instruction must work backward.
If we are to be responsible for what a student learns then it is essential that we understand WHAT a
student knows before new learning begins and HOW best to build on what each
student already knows.
“To learn is to change. Education is a process that changes the learner.” – George Leonard
“Our dominant paradigm mistakes a means for an end. It takes the means or method called
“instruction” or “teaching” and makes it the end or purpose…. We now see that our mission is not
instruction but rather that of producing learning with every student by whatever means work best.”
Principles that guide this change in learning include:
 Student and teacher share responsibility for the quality of the student’s learning
process (only indirectly and secondarily, the quality of the teacher’s teaching).
 Core motivation, for both student and teacher, is satisfaction derived from improving
the quality of each student’s learning.
Our role as teachers is to be a “guide on the side” instead of a “sage on the stage.” We have moved
from an instruction paradigm, in which an instructor transfers knowledge to students, to a learning
paradigm, in which a teacher’s role is that of coach. The result is a student learning how to learn and
discovering knowledge with the coaching guidance of a teacher.
Note, the expression “from sage on the stage to guide on the side” comes from Alison, King, changing
College Classrooms: New Teaching and Learning Strategies for an Increasingly Complex World (Chapter
2, Inquiry as a Tool in Critical Thinking, D.F. Halpern, editor, San Francisco, Jossey-Bass 1994).
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Handout 10.3
Physiological Factors
The physiological factors are sense perception, physical health, fatigue, time and day of learning, food
and drink, age and atmospheric conditions.
1. Sense-perception:
Sensation and perception are the basis of all cognitive learning. Weaker the power of perception,
lesser the amount of learning. A blind man learns far less than a normal person. Impairment of sense
organs is a handicap in the process of learning.
2. Physical Health:
Ill health hampers learning. Sound mind is only in a sound body. Sound physical health gives vigour
and vitality to pursue learning activities for a longer education. A diseased person is handicapped by
the normal physical strength necessary for any mental activity.
3. Fatigue:
Muscular or sensory fatigue causes mental boredom and indolence. A number of factors in the home
and school environment may cause physical and mental fatigue, such as lack of accommodation, bad
seating arrangement, unhealthy clothing, inadequate ventilation, poor light, noise over crowdingness,
and impure nutrition. Longer hours of study also cause fatigue which affects the learning capacity.
4. Time of Learning:
Morning and evening hours are the best periods of study. During the day, there is decline in the
mental capacity. Experiments on children have shown that there are great variations in learning
efficiency during the different hours of the day.
5. Food and Drink:
Nutrition is responsible for efficient mental activity. Poor nutrition adversely affects learning. The type
of food also has some effect. The alcoholic drinks, caffeine, tobacco and such addictive items have
adverse effect on neuro-muscular system, and consequently upon the learning capacity.
6. Atmospheric conditions:
High temperature and humidity lower the mental efficiency. Low ventilation, lack of proper
illumination, noise and physical discomfort (as we find in factories and overcrowded schools) hamper
the learning capacity. Distractions of all sorts affect power of concentration and consequently the
efficiency of learning.
7. Age:
Learning capacity varies with age. Some subjects can better be learnt at the early age, and some
during adulthood. On the evidence of experiments conducted. Thorndike says that mental
development does not stop at 16 or 18 but increases upto 23, and halts after 40. Learning proceeds
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rapidly between 18 and 20, remains stagnant till 25, and declines upto 35. Age accompanies mental
maturation. So some complex problems cannot be solved till the person is sufficiently mature.
Children learn the school subjects more easily than uneducated adults can learn. This is perhaps
because the children’s minds are not burdened with worldly problems, and they have more flexible
nervous system. But there are instances when person of 50 made remarkable progress in learning new
subjects like music, a foreign language.
Reference:
http://www.psychologydiscussion.net/learning/learning-theory/factors-influencing-learning-
education/2531
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Handout 10.4
Psychological factors
1. Mental Health:
Mental tension, complexes, conflicts, mental illnesses and mental diseases hamper learning. A
maladjusted child finds it difficult to concentrate. Concentration needs mental poise and absence of
mental conflict or complex. Some pupils find it difficult to prepare for the university examination,
simply because of fear of the examination and anxiety neurosis. A calm, serene and balanced mind has
the power to concentrate and learn better.
2. Motivation and Interest:

No learning takes place unless it is motivated. Purposeless learning is no learning at all. Every child is
impelled by some motive to learn new things. In the absence of motivation, he does not feel
interested in the act of learning. A child’s behaviour in learning is energized, selected and directed by
motives.
(i) Motives energize behavior:
Hunger and thirst induce acquisition of food. Reward induces further success. Punishment or failure
induces action for achievement.
(ii) Motives select behaviour:
Only those acts of learning are selected which are supported by some motive. A boy visits a village fair.
He sees only those toys, objects or things that interest him.
(iii) Motives direct behaviour:
These activate the person, enthuse him and impel him to do the desired action. These direct his
energies to reach the desired action and to achieve the desired goal.
3. Success, Praise and Blame:
Nothing succeeds like success. Thorndike’s law of effect, is applicable most commonly. Experimental
evidences show that praise stimulates small children to work and learn, although it does not produce
much effect on superior and elder children. Elder children are more sensitive towards reproof and
blame, than younger children are.
4. Rewards and Punishment:
Rewards of all sorts are powerful incentives to learn. A first division of distinction in the examination is
a false reward. Work is its own rewards. Pupils forget this point. They become over-dependent on
rewards. They refuse to work without any incentive of reward. All learning should not be and cannot
be rewarded immediately.
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Punishments, arousing fear in anticipation, may influence the pupil to work and learn, but not in all the
cases. Sometimes punishment creates bad reaction, retaliation, hatred and disgust. Experimental
studies show that punishment interferes with complex learning activities, when punishments become
frequent. Absence of punishment becomes a basis of low activity on the part of the pupil. In the
absence of fear, they disobey and waste time.
Reference:
 https://www.teachthought.com/learning/learning-theories-double-loop-
learning/https://www.classcentral.com/report/experiential-learning/
 http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/learning/7-important-factors-that-may-affect-the-learning-
process/6064
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Handout 10.5
Environmental Factors
1. Working conditions:
Learning is hampered by bad working conditions such as distraction, noise, poor illumination, bad
ventilation, overcrowding, bad seating arrangement, and uncomfortable stay both at home and
school. The location of the school, the internal set-up, the accommodation, decoration and healthful
and sanitary conditions are very important for efficient learning.
2. Organizational set-up:
The organizational set-up of the school also affects learning.
(i) The time-table must be drawn, in accordance with the psychological principles. It should avoid
fatigue and boredom. Difficult subjects should be taught in the morning. There should be
interval after some periods.
(ii) The democratic environment/organization promotes a healthy atmosphere for learning.
(iii) The teacher-pupil relations should be healthy, so that there is mental cooperation and the
pupils are motivated to learn.
(iv) There should be some sort of competition. The inter-class or inter- house competitions will
stimulate the pupils to work more in order to outshine others. Rivalry and jealousy should,
however, be avoided. Group emulation should be strengthened.
(v) The participation on the part of the pupils should be active. The pupil should not act as a
passive learner.
(vi) Guidance in the selection of subjects and activities in accordance with age and ability and
aptitude of the pupils should be provided. Unguided children may oscillate from one subject to
another, and thus gather no mass.
Reference:
https://www.learningliftoff.com/5-factors-that-affect-learning/
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Handout 10.6
Instructional Factors
1. Presentation and Organization of Material:

The learning material should be properly planned and organized. It should be graded to suit the
mental level of the pupils. It should be presented in a meaningful and interesting manners.
2. Learning by Doing:
Practice makes a man perfect. Repetition and practice is important for learning. The pupils must be
encouraged to learn through activity. Theoretical teaching should be replaced by practical application
of knowledge, experimentation and personal application. Children learn better through personal
experience. Verbalization should be reduced to minimum.
3. Special Methods of Learning:
It has been found that some special methods give better results. In learning a piece of poetry, learning
by the whole method, and by the part method have been advocated. Sometimes it is helpful to recall
what is learnt and to recite by memory. Gestalt psychologists do not approve of ‘trial and error
learning’. They advocate learning by insight. They discourage mechanical repetitions without
understanding.
4. Timely Testing:
Through tests, the learner knows his exact achievement, and there is no scope for over-estimation or
underestimation. Occasional and periodical testing motivates the pupil to be regular in his studies.
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Worksheet 10.1
Factors identified How they impact learning Remedies
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Worksheet 10.2
1. Describe the various aspects of experiential learning
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
2. Explain how these can be applied to classroom practices
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
3. Name the major factors that affect learning.
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
4. Differentiate between the four Factors that affect learning by giving examples from real life
situations
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
5. How do these factors impact learning?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
6. How can the adverse effects on learning be reduced?
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________________________________________________________
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HANDOUTS
Handout 11.1 (a)

Transfer of Learning
The word transfer is used to describe the effects of past learning upon present acquisition. In the
school, laboratory and in the outside world, how well and how rapidly we learn anything depends to a
large extent upon the kinds and amount of things we have learned previously.
In simple way transfer may be defined as “the partial or total application or carryover of knowledge,
skills, habits, attitudes from one situation to another situation”
 “Transfer” is a cognitive practice whereby a learner’s mastery of knowledge or skills in one

context enables them to apply that knowledge or skill in a different context. Because transfer
signals that a learner’s comprehension allows them to recognize how their knowledge can be
relevant and to apply it effectively outside original learning conditions, transfer is often
considered a hallmark of true learning (Barnett & Ceci, 2002).
 “Transfer of learning is the application of skill and knowledge learned in one context being
applied in other context” (Cormier & Hangman)
 “To carry over habits of thinking, feelings or working of knowledge or of skills from one
learning to another usually is referred to as transfer of learning” (Crow & Crow)
 “Transfer of learning occurs when a person’s learning in one situation influences his learning
and performance in other situations” (B.L.Bigge)
 “Transfer of training is concerned with the question of whether or not the learning of material
A-say Mathematics – aids, hinders or does not affect the subsequent learning of material B –
say Physics or Chemistry. (Skinner)
 “A person learns through transfer to the extent that the abilities acquired in one situation help
in another.” (Sorenson)
 “Transfer is the application of carry over the knowledge’s, skills, habits, attitudes or other
responses from the situation in which they are initially acquired to some other situation.”
(W.B. Kolesnik)
 “Transfer is generalization for it is extension of ideas to a new field.” (Peterson)
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In education Transfer of learning or transfer of knowledge or transfer refers to learning in one

context and applying it to another, i.e. the capacity to apply acquired knowledge and skills to new
situations.
There are three kinds of transfer: from prior knowledge to learning, from learning to new learning, and
from learning to application” (Simons, 1999).
The issue of transfer of learning is a central issue in both education and learning psychology. There is
probably a subtle difference between transfer of learning (that addresses what is learnt in school) and
transfer of knowledge (that addresses the general issue of applying knowledge to new situations).
Transfer of knowledge is very much related to the problem of knowledge integration, knowledge
application and knowledge use in "the real world".
Examples
 Knowledge of Urdu may help student to learn Punjabi.
 Knowledge of French may help student to learn Spanish.
 Learning Mathematics prepares student to study Physics.
 Learning to get along with siblings may prepare one for getting along with others.
 A creative writing student takes a course on Shakespearean drama. Over the course of the
semester she continues to write her own play, drawing from techniques and structures
throughout her coursework.
 Teachers teach how to do percentages. Their students can solve percentages problems in class,
but they can’t determine the final price of a sale item in the store, given the discount amount.
Reference:
 http://www.psychologydiscussion.net/learning/learning-theory/transfer-of-training-types-and-
theories-child-psychology/2533ssssss
 http://www.psychologydiscussion.net/essays/essay-transfer-of-learning-types-and-
theories/594
 https://www.buildinglearningpower.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/2b-
WTPOS_outline.pdf
 https://learningsolutionsmag.com/articles/288/can-they-do-it-in-the-real-world-designing-for-
transfer-of-learning
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7wx5WBIufFY
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Handout 11.1 (b)

Types of Transfer of Learning:
There are three types of transfer of learning:
1. Positive transfer:
When learning in one situation facilitates learning in another situation, it is known as positive transfer.
Knowledge of mathematics facilitates to learn physics in a better way. Driving a scooter facilitates
driving a motorbike. A sportsman playing football plays volley-ball as nicely.
2. Negative transfer:
When learning of one task makes the learning of another task harder- it is known as negative transfer.
For example, left hand drive vehicles hindering the learning of right hand drive. Herein learning of one
task makes the learning of a second task harder. Learning shorthand by Danton method may cause
interference in subsequent learning by Pitman method. The negative transfer is also called habit
interferences.
One form of positive transfer is bilateral transfer or cross-transfer. Practice in using right hand while
handling a machine in the factory may help handling by the left hand.
3. Neutral transfer:
When learning of one activity neither facilitates nor hinders the learning of another task, it is a case of
neutral transfer. It is also called as zero transfer. For example, knowledge of history in no way affects
learning of driving a car or a scooter.In this case, the learning of one subject does help the learning of
another? There may be zero transfer between language and mathematics.
Surface and Deep Learning
John Hattie: It’s a very important distinction between surface and deep learning.
 Surface learning is very much about the idea, the content, the knowledge and the information.
 The deep learning is when you relate or extend or transfer that knowledge.
Certainly, in many schools in many systems there are both those two parts – the content and how we
relate and extend that content is critical. But the differences between surface and deep learning are
important.
Deep learning first requires recall and use of surface knowledge and skills (Webb, 2005). ‘Traditional’
approaches like memorization and rehearsal can equip students with these foundations (Hattie, 2012),
but the problem is that teaching and learning often stops at the surface.
Robyn Gillies from University of Queensland: Research shows that student-centered approaches to
teaching that change and develop students’ thinking gets better student learning outcomes than the
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more traditional, teacher-directed, information-transmission approaches. For teachers to make this

shift, it’s important to have the capacity to reflect on one’s own practice and to be familiar with
evidence-based research into effective teaching.
To be effective, learning must be active. Effective and active learning are inter-dependent, and one
cannot occur without the other. They are two sides of the same coin. When learning is effective,
students are actively engaged, and they are motivated. They accept responsibility for their learning,
work together to achieve shared goals, listen to others’ ideas, and support one another through
challenges. The effectiveness of active learning is not limited to the academic or cognitive but extends
to social and personal development.
Reference:
UQx: LEARNx Deep Learning through Transformative Pedagogy (2017). University of Queensland,
Australia. (an Open edX MOOC). Module 1: Surface and Deep Learning
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Handout 11.2
Another Day in Paradise (by Phil Collins)
She calls out to the man on the street
'Sir, can you help me its cold and I've nowhere to sleep,
Is there somewhere you can tell me?
He walks on, doesn't look back
He pretends he can't hear her
Starts to whistle as he crosses the street
Seems embarrassed to be there
Oh think twice, it's another day for you and me in paradise
Oh think twice, 'cause it's just another day for you,
You and me in paradise, think about it
She calls out to the man on the street
He can see she's been crying
She's got blisters on the soles of her feet
She can't walk but she's trying
Oh think twice, 'cause it's another day for you and me in paradise
Oh think twice, it's just another day for you,
You and me in paradise, think about it
Oh Lord, is there nothing more anybody can do
Oh…
Reference: Lyric Find
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Worksheet 11.1
Task: In your groups, answer the following questions and place them in different levels of the
Cognitive Domain:
 Where is this dialogue taking place?
 What is the weather like? How do you know?
 Who is the girl in the poem? What expressions and words reveal her identity?
 What class do you think the man belongs? What words/expressions in the poem indicate this?
 What is the attitude of the man? Select the words that reflect his attitude.
 What do you think the title of this poem implies?
 Do you think this is an appropriate title? Give reasons to justify your answer.
Discuss in your groups: This poem ‘Another day in Paradise,’ is based in a western context, think of
similar characters in your own context and write how such girls are treated in your setting. How do
people treat them?
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Handout 11.3
Instructional strategies for transfer
So, how can we help transfer occur to a greater degree? Research shows that the strategies
summarized in Table 1 can dramatically improve transfer from instruction to the real world.
In light of the discussion from Worksheet 11.1 identify strategies for transfer in Table 1 below:
TABLE 1 Six strategies for improving transfer from instruction to the job
Strategy Explanation
The context of learning can be very much like the context of application,
Engage learners in
so transfer is easier. The goal is to create instruction that is directly
similar contexts
applicable to how the content is used in the real world.
Transfer is improved when new knowledge and skills are connected to

Investigate what is already known. Analogies and metaphors are often extremely
connections helpful, but it is critical that differences between the analogy and the
current situation be pointed out.
Routine skills can be practiced extensively so they become routine and

Provide extensive
automatic. For near(er) transfer, practicing to the point where skills can
practice
be done automatically is often needed.
Most instruction simplifies practice (both in breadth and depth), but this
Provide varied interferes with transfer to more complex application in the real world.
practice Transfer is improved when learners have the opportunity to practice in
the wide range of contexts in which they are expected to perform.
Intentionally For transfer situations where the learner is expected to apply skills in
extract underlying diverse situations, they need to be able to recognize and then apply
principles underlying principles.
Skillful learners naturally reflect on their own thinking processes in order

Teach learners to
to improve learning and performance. Teaching learners when and how
self-monitor
to monitor their thinking processes and performance aids in transfer.
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Handout 11.4
Strategies for Transfer of Learning
1. Focus on core concepts - Students can more effectively transfer their knowledge when they
comprehend principles that organize, guide, and explain content and skills. Instructors can develop
activities that connect dots through deeper relationships, shared functions, or similar organizing
principles. With a strong conceptual framework, rather than memorized facts or a string of lecture
notes, students can recognize contexts operating through similar concepts and arrange knowledge as
more functional parts of a whole.
2. Include activities that promote deeper learning - A larger approach to conceptual learning, deeper
learning asks students to practice more rigorous thinking than memorization, skills practice, or test
preparation. Instructors can design class activities and assessments like active learning that
span Bloom’s taxonomy, thereby leading students to more independent thinking and the ability to
recognize both the details and the broad strokes of what they study.
3. Provide comparative scenarios - Students develop the ability to transfer their learning by practicing
transfer. Instructors can present two different scenarios, formulas, or readings and ask students to
find single approaches for solving or analyzing each; flipping the script, they can ask students to
construct a different problem or scenario that requires the same skills and knowledge as a pre-
completed assignment; instructors can also engage students in case studies, where a variety of skills
and knowledge sets may be stretched to address issues that are similar to, but not exactly, readings or
lecture material.
4. Provide a roadmap with links - Students are more engaged when instructors provide a clear sense
of direction for intended learning. By making intellectual links between segments of class or asking
students to articulate the relationship between a previous class and a current class, instructors show
how knowledge operates in more than one context, and give students practice charting their learning
beyond single contexts.
5. Build on previous knowledge - Students construct their learning by integrating new knowledge into
knowledge they already have. Instructors can support student learning by assessing and building from
previous knowledge. They can also make this process explicit for students, which in turn helps
students learn to link their knowledge and treat it as a network, rather than individual nuggets.
6. Be explicit about transfer - When engaging students in activities that promote transfer, instructors
should feel free to make their learning goals known. Students will practice transfer better when they
learn to recognize it in action and will more willingly engage in a lesson if the instructor presents the
benefits of transfer for career aspirations and future learning.
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HANDOUTS
Handout 12.1
Behaviourism/ Behavioural theory of learning:

Behaviourism is based upon the simple notion of a relationship between a stimulus and a response,
which is why behaviourist theories are often referred to as ‘stimulus-response’ (SR) theories.
Behaviourism is a theory of learning focusing on observable behaviours and discounting any mental
activity. Learning is defined simply as the acquisition of new behaviour. Behaviourists call this method
of learning ‘conditioning’.
Two different types of conditioning are described and demonstrated as viable explanations of the way
in which animals and humans alike can be ‘taught’ to do certain things. First there is classical
conditioning and second is operant conditioning.
1. Classical conditioning
This involves the reinforcement of a natural reflex or some other behaviour which occurs asa response
to a particular stimulus. A well-known example of this type of conditioning, the firstof its kind, is the
work of Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist at the start of the twentieth century, who conditioned
dogs to salivate at the sound of a bell. He noticed that dogs salivated when they ate, or even saw,
food. In his initial experiments he sounded a bell at the time when food was presented to the dogs.
The sound of the bell became, for the dogs, an indication that food was about to be presented and
eventually the dogs would salivate at the sound of the bell irrespective of the presence of food. The
dogs had been conditioned to respond to the sound of the bell by producing saliva. Their behaviour
had been successfully modified.
We talk about conditioning and conditioned responses in a general way. Feelings of fear at the sound
of the dentist’s drill or at the sight of a syringe in preparation for an injection are examples of
conditioned responses.
Key Terms used:
Pavlov identified four stages in the process of his classical conditioning and what follows from the
initial connection between stimulus and response: acquisition, extinction, generalization and
discrimination.
Acquisition
The acquisition phase is the initial learning of the conditioned response – for example, the dog
salivating at the sound of the bell.
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Extinction
Once learnt, a conditioned response will not remain indefinitely. Extinction is used to describe the
disappearance of the conditioned response brought about by repeatedly presenting the bell, for
example, without then presenting food.
Generalisation
After a conditioned response to one stimulus has been learnt, it may also respond to similar stimuli
without further training. If a child is bitten by a dog, the child may fear not only that particular dog, but
all dogs.
Discrimination
Discrimination is the opposite of generalization. An individual learns to produce a conditioned
response to one stimulus but not to another similar stimulus. For example, a child may show a fear
response to freely roaming dogs, but may show no fear when a dog is on a lead, or distrust Alsatians
but not Jack Russell terriers.
2. Operant conditioning
The second type of conditioning is ‘operant conditioning’. Operant conditioning is the most important
type of behaviourist learning. It is more flexible in its nature than classical conditioning and therefore
seen as potentially more powerful. It involves reinforcing behaviour by rewarding it. It can also work in
a negative way, when an undesirable behavior can be discouraged, by following it with punishment of
some form. In some cases, simply notoffering an expected reward for a particular behaviour is a
sufficient punishment. For example,if a mother gives her child a chocolate bar every day that he tidies
his bedroom, before longthe child may spend some time each day tidying. In this example, the tidying
behaviour increases because it is rewarded. This rewarding is known as ‘reinforcement’. It is likely that
the tidying behaviour would decrease or stop completely if the rewards were suspended.
Skinner, a psychologist working in America in the 1930s, is the most famous psychologist in the field of
operant conditioning and probably the most famous behaviourist. Skinner studied the behaviour of
rats and pigeons, and made generalisations of his discoveries to humans. He
used a device now called a Skinner box. The Skinner box was a simple, empty box in which an animal
could earn food by making simple responses, such as pressing a lever. A normal, almost random action
by the animal, such as pressing a lever in the box, would result in a reward, such as a pellet of food. As
the rewards continued for the repetition of the action, the animal ‘learnt’ that in order to be fed it
must press the lever.
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Key Terms used:

Skinner maintained that rewards and punishments control the majority of human behaviours, and that
the principles of operant conditioning can explain all human learning. The key aspects of operant
conditioning are as follows.
Reinforcement
This refers to anything that has the effect of strengthening a particular behaviour and makes it likely
that the behaviour will happen again. There are two types of reinforcement: positive and negative.
Positive reinforcement
Positive reinforcement is a powerful method for controlling the behaviour of both animals and people.
For people, positive reinforcers include basic items such as food, drink, approval or even something as
apparently simple as attention. In the context of classrooms, praise, house points or the freedom to
choose an activity are all used in different contexts as rewards for desirable behaviour.
Negative reinforcement
As its name suggests, this is a method of decreasing the likelihood of a behaviour by pairing it with an
unpleasant ‘follow-up’. There is controversy about whether punishment is an effective way of reducing
or eliminating unwanted behaviours. Laboratory experiments have shown that punishment can be an
effective method for reducing particular behaviour, but there are clear disadvantages, especially in
classroom situations. Anger, frustration or aggression may follow punishment, or there may be other
negative emotional responses.
Shaping
The notion of shaping refers to a technique of reinforcement that is used to teach animals or humans
behaviours that they have never performed before. When shaping, the trainer begins by reinforcing a
simple response which the learner can easily perform. Gradually more and more complex responses
are required for the same reward. For example, to teach a rat to press an overhead lever, the trainer
can first reward any upward head movement, then an upward movement of at least three
centimetres, then six and so on, until the lever is reached. Shaping has been used to teach children
with severe mental difficulties to speak by first rewarding any sounds they make and then gradually
only rewarding sounds that approximate to the words being taught. Animal trainers use shaping to
teach animals. In classrooms, shaping can be used to teach progressively complex skills, and more
obviously to ensure the desired behaviour from children at such times as the end of the day, lining up
for assembly and so on. When a teacher says something like, ‘Let’s see which table is ready’, it would
not be unusual in many classrooms to witness many if not all of the children sitting up straight with
folded arms, having tidied away their belongings.
There is a place for learning in classrooms that relies on the principles of behaviourism.
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However, since behaviourism gives little importance to mental activity, concept formation or
understanding, there are difficult problems to overcome when setting out philosophies of teaching
and learning that depend wholly upon behaviourist approaches.
Criticism:
Critics of the application of behaviourist approaches make two main points.
First that rewarding children for all learning is likely to cause the child to lose interest in learning for
its own sake. Studies have suggested that using rewards with children who are already well motivated
may lead to a loss of interest in the subject.
Second, using a reward system or giving one child increased attention may have a detrimental effect
on the others in the class. Using a behaviourist approach in the classroom seems to be most effective
when applied in cases where a particular child has a history of academic failure; where there is very
low motivation and high anxiety; and in cases where no other approach has worked.
It is interesting, in consideration of the basic tenets of behaviourist learning theory, to look briefly at a
quotation from Lao-Tzu, an ancient Chinese philosopher of the sixth century: ‘Rewards and
punishments are the lowest form of education.’
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Handout 12.2
Cognitivist/ Cognitive theory of learning:
Cognitive scientists study how people learn, remember and interact, often with a strong emphasis on
mental processes. Many explanations of how and why children’s thinking processes change over time
have been offered in the past. The three most influential cognitive development theories are of Jean
Piaget, Lev Vygotsky, and the neo-Piagetian. Each of these theories views cognitive development from
a different perspective and, therefore, will give you alternative strategies to foster children’s cognitive
growth.
Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget conducted a lifelong study of children’s cognitive development in the
past half-century. Piaget's (1936) theory of cognitive development explains how a child constructs a
mental model of the world. His contributions include a stage theory of child cognitive development,
detailed observational studies of cognition in children to reveal different cognitive abilities. He
disagreed with the idea that intelligence was a fixed trait, and regarded cognitive development as a
process which occurs due to biological maturation and interaction with the environment.
Piaget's Cognitive Development theory (1970)/ Conception of equilibration (1985)
Piaget (1970) proposed that children progress through a sequence of four stages, assumed to reflect
qualitative differences in children's cognitive abilities. Limited by the logical structures in the different
developmental stages, learners cannot be taught key cognitive tasks if they have not reached a
particular stage of development.
He later (1985) expanded this theory to explain how new information is shaped to fit with the learner's
existing knowledge, and existing knowledge is itself modified to accommodate the new information.
The major concepts in this cognitive process include:
 Assimilation: it occurs when a learner perceives new objects or events in terms of existing schemes
or operations. This information is compared with existing cognitive structures
 Accommodation: it has occurred when existing schemes or operations must be modified to
account for a new experience.
 Equilibration: it is the master developmental process, encompassing both assimilation and
accommodation. Anomalies of experience create a state of disequilibrium which can be only
resolved when a more adaptive, more sophisticated mode of thought is adopted
 Schema/ Scheme: A representation in the mind, of a set of ideas or actions which go together.
Piaget's Theory Differs From Others In Several Ways:
 It is concerned with children, rather than all learners.
 It focuses on development, rather than learning in isolation, so it does not address learning of
information or specific behaviors.
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 It proposes discrete stages of development, marked by qualitative differences, rather than a

gradual increase in number and complexity of behaviors, concepts, ideas, etc.
Piaget’s stages of Cognitive development:
Reference:
 Module10 Concepts of Learning
 Teaching - Ways Of Learning_ Learning Theories & Learning Styles In The Classroom-Routledge
(2008)
 Roxana Moreno-Educational Psychology -John Wiley & Sons (2009)
 https://www.learning-theories.com/piagets-stage-theory-of-cognitive-development.html
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Handout 12.3
Theory of Social Constructivism by Lev Vygotsky
According to the theory of social constructivism, social worlds develop out of individuals’ interactions
with their culture and society. Knowledge evolves through the process of social negotiation and
evaluation of the viability of individual understanding. Basically, every conversation or encounter
between two or more people presents an opportunity for new knowledge to be obtained, or present
knowledge expanded. The exchange of ideas that goes along with human contact is at play here.
In order to apply social constructivism theories in the education arena, teachers and school leaders
need to shift and reshape their perspectives. Both must move from being “people who teach” to being
“facilitators of learning.” A good constructivist teacher is one who questions students’ answers,
without regard to whether they are right or wrong, to make sure the student has a good grasp of the
concept. Additionally, instructors should have their students explain the answers they give and not
allow students to use words or equations without explanations. They should also encourage students
to reflect on their answers.
Social constructivism teaches that all knowledge develops as a result of social interaction and language
use, and is therefore a shared, rather than an individual, experience. Knowledge is additionally not a
result of observing the world, it results from many social processes and interactions. We therefore find
that constructivist learning attaches as much meaning to the process of learning as it does to the
acquisition of new knowledge. In other words, the journey is just as important as the destination.
The process of learning requires that the learner actively participate in creative activities and self-
organization. Teachers should allow their students to come up with their own questions, make their
own theories, and test them for viability. Moreover, those who practice constructivist theory find that
imbalance facilitates learning, in the sense that contradictions between the learner’s current
understanding and experiences create an imbalance, which leads the learner to inquire into his or her
own beliefs and then try out new ideas. Instructors should therefore encourage errors resulting from
the learners’ ideas, instead of minimizing or avoiding them.
Students should also be challenged by their instructors to perform open-ended investigations, working
to solve problems with realistic and meaningful contexts. This activity enables the learner to explore,
and come up with either supporting or conflicting possibilities. Contradictions need to be investigated,
clarified, and discussed.
Through the process of reflecting on the collected data,, learning is given a push. A good example of
allowing reflection is through journal writing, which usually facilitates reflective thoughts.
Dialogue within a community stimulates new ideas. All school stakeholders should view the classroom
as a community for discussion and exchange of ideas. Students in the classroom are responsible for
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the defense, proof, justification, and communication of their ideas to the community. These ideas can
only be accepted as truth if they can make sense to the community. If they do, they become shared
knowledge. In summary, learning occurs not through hearing or seeing, but primarily through
interpretation. Interpretation is shaped by what’s already known and is further develop through
discussion.
Social Constructivist
1. Language, Culture, & Knowledge

Vygotsky (1934) emphasized the role of language and culture in cognitive development and in
how we perceive the world and claimed that they provide frameworks through which we
experience, communicate, and understand reality.
He demonstrated the importance of language in learning by demonstrating that in infants,
communication is a pre-requisite to the child’s acquisition of concepts and language. But he
suggests that people learn with meaning and personal significance in mind, not just through
attention to the facts:
I do not see the world simply in colour and shape but also as a world with sense and meaning. I do
not merely see something round and black with two hands; I see a clock…. (p. 39)
Language and the conceptual schemes that are transmitted by means of language are essentially
social phenomena. Knowledge is not simply constructed; it is co-constructed.
2. The Zone of Proximal Development

Vygotsky believed that learning takes place within the Zone of Proximal Development. In this,
students can, with help from adults or children who are more advanced, master concepts and
ideas that they cannot understand on their own. This model has two developmental levels:
1. The level of actual development – point the learner has already reached & can problem-solve
independently.
2. The level of potential development (ZDP) – point the learner is capable of reaching under the
guidance of teachers or in collaboration with peers.
The ZDP is the level at which learning takes place. It comprises cognitive structures that are still in
the process of maturing, but which can only mature under the guidance of or in collaboration
with others.
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Handout 12.4
Activities using theories of Learning
GROUP A:
CLASSICAL CONDITIONING:
a) Invite your students to recall a song that evokes powerful emotions for them. Ask them if there
is a specific event or person that they associate with that song.
b) One student shared the story of how her elderly dog convulsed and died in her arms while she
was watching the movie "Sgt. Bilko." To this day, she has a strong distaste for that movie and
other movies of that genre.
c) Point out that this is the power of classical conditioning and that a teacher can use this
behavioral principle to her advantage by helping her students to build positive associations
between their learning activities and things that they already love. For example, she might
invite students to read in a comfortable loft with pillows and stuffed animals.
d) She might create mathematics activities that include outdoor games. She can also help
students to overcome negative associations (such as test anxiety), by slowly building a new set
of associations with the students (ie. test day is also treat day; introducing authentic testing
activities that are enjoyable, etc.)
GROUP B:
OPERANT CONDITIONING:
Used in a variety of situations, operant conditioning has been found to be particularly effective in the
classroom environment. One of the main ways of reinforcing a behavior is through praise, as the
following example illustrates.
1. During 'listening time' on the carpet, pupils are required to remain quiet and put their hand up
when they want to make a vocal contribution to the class. When a child manages to sit and behave
in the exemplary way, the teacher may say, 'Great effort, Jamie' or, 'Well done, Louise - just like I
asked'. Undoubtedly, the student will feel pleased with themselves after getting such a positive
response. The feeling of pride and self-satisfaction is one they are going to want to emulate in the
future, and so they are likely to behave well during 'listening time' from here onwards.Simple
though it may be, the teacher has now managed to educate the pupil on the type of behavior she
expects, and through positive reinforcement, the child will probably feel determined to impress
next time round - a positive outcome for both parties: the teacher, and the child.
2. Rewards may be used occasionally for a similar effect, but shouldn't be overused, as it is important
to prevent the child from developing a dependency. If they become too adjusted to getting sweets,
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for example, they may eventually struggle to act in the same way without being presented with
such a treat.
3. By building operant conditioning techniques into lesson plans, it is easily possible to teach children
useful skills - as well as good behaviors. By using symbols like smiley faces, 'Good Work' stamps,
stickers, and even simple ticks when a child does something correctly, you are encouraging them
to repeat such satisfying work again further down the line.
4. You could even use this type of reinforcement when teaching a student something totally new, like
how to spell a particular word. When they do it correctly, you can administer praise to ingrain the
message that they've done it right. By doing the opposite when they don't get it exactly correct,
you can tempt them away from doing it this way in the future. In effect, the process is all about
nurturing the student and aiding them in their development. With a good attitude and positive
approach, it really can be done.
GROUP C:
VYGOTSKY’S THEORY:
Theory is significant as it accounts for social and cultural factors in children's development. It
establishes that language is a key factor in cognition, and knowledge is constructed as children interact
with others and develop abilities shaped by their culture. (Vygotsky, 1962). Children benefit when
teachers, and even other children, share their own knowledge to expand a child’s understanding of a
topic (i.e., scaffolding). Effective teachers bridge knowledge gaps and help children advance
intellectually.
Vygotsky's theory encourages children to work in groups. This factor allows them to continually learn
from each other and progress faster through development levels. (Jaruszewicz, 2013, Ch. 1.2). Social
skills are refined as children adapt to circumstances they do not solely control. Children
are encouraged by peers to venture into different realms, ideas, and modes of play and learning.
Here's a look at the step-by-step process by which a teacher can apply the zone of proximal
development:
 First, a teacher should identify what a student already knows. By identifying this prior
knowledge, the teacher can build on that skill set when introducing new concepts.
 Next, the teacher can build on this knowledge through scaffolding; the scaffold will help
students move from what they already know to what they should know by the end of class.
When planning lessons, teachers should keep in mind the scaffolding process by integrating
guided practice in their lesson plans.
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 Last, teachers can help students connect their new learning to their prior knowledge. For
example, if a math teacher has just taught children how to master dividing decimals, the
teacher might then relate this concept back to multiplying decimals.
 All in all, through applying the concept of the zone of proximal development, the teacher
identifies what a child already knows, teaches him or her something new to add to it, and then
relates this back to his or her prior knowledge so that he or she can now understand the new
concept with assistance
Reference:
 Module10 Concepts of Learning
 Teaching - Ways Of Learning_ Learning Theories & Learning Styles In The Classroom-Routledge
(2008)
 Roxana Moreno-Educational Psychology -John Wiley & Sons (2009)
 https://www.learning-theories.com/piagets-stage-theory-of-cognitive-development.html
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Worksheet 12.1
Behavioural Theory Beliefs Focus View Standpoint Knowledge

Behaviourism
(Skinner)
Cognitivism
(Piaget)
Social
Constructivism
(Vygotsky)
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HANDOUTS
Handout 13.1
Meaning and Purposes of Mental Hygiene:
With the advancement in scientific knowledge and research, we now have a better understanding of
mental illness as it emerges in various forms, its symptoms, its causes and treatment. As a result of
these advances, we have a knowledge of certain principles which, if practiced correctly, will save us
from developing mental illness or suffering from maladjustments. In other words, these principles will
help individuals retain their emotional balance.
The branch of psychiatry deals with the science and practice of maintaining and restoring mental
health, and of preventing mental disorder through education, early treatment, and public health
measures.
Definitions of Mental Hygiene:
1. Kolesnik:
Menial hygiene is a set of conditions which enables a person to live at peace with himself and others.
2. A.J. Rosanoff:
Mental hygiene endeavors to aid people toward off troubles as well as to furnish ways of handling
troubles.
3. S.K. Dani:
Mental hygiene is the science of the principles of mental health derived mostly, from our
understanding of the causation and pathology of mental illness.
4. Crow & Crow:
Mental Hygiene is a science that deals with human welfare and pervades all fields of human
relationship.
5. Drever:
Mental Hygiene means investigation of the laws of mental health and the taking or advocacy of
measures for its preservation.
6. World Health Organization:
Mental health is “a state of well-being in which the individual realizes his or her own abilities, can cope
with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully, and is able to make a
contribution to his or her community”.
7. Hadfield
Mental health is the full and harmonious functioning of the whole personality.
Reference: https://www.dictionary.com/browse/mental-hygiene
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Handout 13.2
Aims and Tips for Mental Hygiene:
Doctors treating mental disorders have determined the following three aims of mental hygiene:
1. Prevention of mental ill-health.
The prevention of mental disorders through an understanding of the relationship that exists between
wholesome personality development and life experiences.
2. Preservation of mental health.
The preservation of the mental health of the individual and of the group.
3. Cure of individuals suffering from mental disorders.
The discovery and utilization of therapeutic measures to cure mental illness.
Of these three approaches, preventive, preservative and curative, the most significant and modern
approach is the preventive approach. This approach is very much influenced by principles of public
health. According to Kaplan and Baron, this approach” is based on the principle that the best way to
ensure well-adjusted individuals is to surround them with environmental influences which will enable
each person to develop his full potentialities, to attain emotional stability, and to achieve personal and
social adequacy”. Preventive mental hygiene begins in the home, and its principles are important even
in the school and other areas. Mental health, and behavioral health for that matter are hot-button
issues.
Elements of Mental Health/Hygiene: Mental hygiene deals with these principles of living which would
serve as a guide to human adjustments. It consists of those patterns of living which promote the
development of wholesome and socially adequate personalities. These patterns of living help an
individual to get along with himself and with his fellowmen, to cultivate desirable attitudes, to avoid
conflicts that bring about maladjustments, and to pursue intelligent, rational behavior. These
principles have been drawn from philosophy, psychology, religion, ethics, sociology, biology,
physiology, medicine, psychiatry and common-sense. The following are common features of mental
Hygiene.
Generally mental hygiene has the following elements:
1. Physical health.
2. Intellectual health.
3. Emotional health.
4. Interest and aptitude.
5. Good environment.
Reference:
 hygiene-and-education/essay-on-mental-hygiene-and-education/2649https://www.merriam-
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Handout 13.3
Tips for Mental Health
1. Build a healthy self-esteem
2. Receive as well as give
3. Create positive parenting and family relationships
4. Make friends who count
5. Figure out your priorities
6. Get involved
7. Learn to manage stress effectively
8. Cope with changes that affect you
9. Deal with your emotions
10. Have a spirituality to call your own
11. Share feelings (a problem shared is half solved)
12. Take a break
13. Do something you are good at
14. Get enough sleep
15. Ask for help
Reference:
 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kmSinPMVU2U
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Worksheet 13.1
Instructions:
 Read the cases carefully.
 Fill out the worksheet given at the end of the case-study.
Case Study No .1
Salma – a 10-year-old in her 5th grade – was bullied in her school due to her socio-economic
background. Her friends shunned her from group activities and called her names like savage and bum
(vehshi, faqeer). The bullying and teasing drove her away from all social activities, and she soon fell
into depression. These incidents gave rise to several failed suicide attempts.
Case Study No .2
Raza was the shortest boy in his class. While all the other boys started to tower over him, he still
remained 4’2” tall in 8th grade. The boys made fun of his short stature. The constant comparison that
he put himself through and the self-blame for not having grown taller had driven him into depression.
Raza began to skip classes and made excuses to avoid going to school. He became lonely and shut
himself out from the world.
Case Study No .3
Sarah – a 13-year-old 7th grader – was an outgoing and friendly girl who always tried to make new
friends. At home, she was the opposite, often trying to stay away from her addicted father and a
mother whose quarrels did not seem to end. The lack of love and care at home turned into a deep
craving for attention in school. She would go to extreme lengths to keep her friends interested in her.
She would not express her emotions to others, in the fear of losing them, and resorted to self-harm
to get attention.
Case Study 4
Ryan was known as the “hulk” in his school. He was famous in his school for his extremely violent and
aggressive behavior that spared neither his classmates nor the teachers. He hung out with his ‘gang,’
of people who showed similar behavior and were the reason for all the mishaps in the school. The
principal had decided to send Ryan to the school counselor. The counsellor concluded that Ryan’s
personality type was unfit for the school, hence, he was expelled.
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1. Identify the most important facts surrounding the case.
2. Identify the key issue or issues.
3. Specify alternative strategies.
4. Evaluate each strategy.
5. Recommend the best strategy.
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Worksheet 13.2
1. Something I didn’t know or hadn’t 2. Something I found surprising or

expected…………. intriguing…………..
3. Something I need to learn more 4. Something I can connect with my

about………… previous learning or experience………..
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HANDOUTS
Handout 14.1
Challenges and solutions
Note: This article talks about foreign context but due to its applicability in Pakistani context it is
included in this course.
In view of the high prevalence rates of mental health problems in children and their importance for
young people’s scholastic development, and in view of the low uptake of the relevant services
provided by the healthcare system, the risks of mental health problems should be identified at an
early stage and reduced by means of preventive measures.
Children and their families should be informed about the options available in the healthcare system,
and access to such services should be improved. The school as a central institution in the education
system, with its support systems in the psychosocial area (school social workers, school psychologists)
can take a central role in this by implementing the following measures:
8. Start talking about it
 Mental health needs to be integrated into the school curriculum, which will help increase
understanding and reduce stigma around issues. Without this, pupils may not be aware their
mental health is deteriorating and feel silenced or shamed when seeking help.
 If both pupils and teachers have more open discussions about mental health, issues will also be
easier to identify early on, and this will help to build students’ knowledge and understanding of
the subject.
 Ideally, mental health needs to be talked about the same way physical education or healthy
eating is, because research has found that when schools adopt a comprehensive approach to
discussing mental health it supports all pupils – including those who are experiencing mental
health difficulties already.
9. Create a safe space
 Students do better in schools when they feel safe – this means ensuring that bullying incidents
are low and addressed, including the rising incidents of cyberbullying.
 The evidence also shows that when students feel a sense of belonging, have good peer and
teacher relationships, and feel listened to when they raise concerns, also helps to support
positive mental health in schools.
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10. Support for all

 Everyone in schools from the head teacher, teachers to the teaching assistants, all have a role
to play in improving the school environment – and making it more open to discussions around
mental health.
 But they can do this only if they are supported and healthy themselves. Looking out for the
well-being of staff will itself have a positive impact on the students. And research shows that
when staff are trained in mental health they are more confident in supporting their students.
The same research also showed that this additional mental health training even helped to
boost staff’s own resilience an
11. Make sure teachers know how to help
 Head teachers should demand mental health training for all new teachers. And before a school
takes on a new or trainee teacher, they should ask to see what mental health training they
have. This could include an understanding of the risk and resilience factors for their students,
how to spot the signs of mental ill health, along with how to support and get help for students
at risk.
This will ensure that all new teachers have a basic understanding of the mental health
challenges they will face, and will make it easier for them to help pupils in need.
12. Recognize that it takes a village
 Looking after children’s mental health isn’t just something that can be done on a small scale, it
involves a shift in the way everyone not only works together, but also communicates on issues.
 There are lots of additional things schools need to do in this area, including working with
parents and having staff as mentors for vulnerable students. Schools may also have to
introduce peer mentoring, where children are partnered up with older children who can look
out for them.
 Running extracurricular social activities for pupils on students, by providing a space for them to
work through their emotions and develop strategies to address their challenges.
Reference:
 hygiene-and-education/essay-on-mental-hygiene-and-
 education/2649https://www.merriam-
 https;//www.dictionary.com/browse/mental-hygiene.
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Handout 14.2
Specific mental illnesses
The most common forms of mental illness, paying special attention to those that generally affect
students
Anxiety Disorders
What is anxiety? Anxiety is a term which describes a normal feeling people experience when faced
with threat or danger, or when stressed. When people become anxious, they typically feel upset,
uncomfortable and tense and may experience many physical symptoms such as stomach upset,
shaking and headaches. Feelings of anxiety are caused by experiences of life, such as a new
relationship, a new job or school, illness or an accident. Feeling anxious is appropriate in these
situations and usually we feel anxious for only a limited time. These feelings are not regarded as
clinical anxiety, but are a part of everyday life.
What are anxiety disorders? The anxiety disorders are a group of illnesses, each characterized by
persistent feelings of intense anxiety. There are feelings of continual or extreme discomfort and
tension, and may include panic attacks. People are likely to be diagnosed with an anxiety disorder
when their level of anxiety and feelings of panic are so extreme that they significantly interfere with
daily life and stop them from doing what they want to do. This is what characterizes an anxiety
disorder as more than normal feelings of anxiety. The main types of anxiety disorders are:
Agoraphobia
Agoraphobia is fear of being in places or situations from which it may be difficult or embarrassing to
get away, or a fear that help might be unavailable in the event of having a panic attack or panic
symptoms. People with agoraphobia most commonly experience fear in a cluster of situations: in
supermarkets and department stores, crowded places of all kinds, confined spaces, public transport,
elevators, highways and heights. People experiencing agoraphobia may find comfort in the company
of a safe person or object. This may be a spouse, friend, pet or medicine carried with them.
Panic disorder (with or without agoraphobia)
People with this disorder experience panic attacks in situations where most people would not be
afraid such as: at home, walking in the park or going to a movie. These attacks occur spontaneously,
come on rapidly (over a few minutes) and go away slowly. Usually they last about 10-15 minutes. The
attacks are accompanied by all of the unpleasant physical symptoms of anxiety, with a fear that the
attack may lead to death or a total loss of control. It is because of this that some people start to
experience a fear of going to places where panic attacks may occur and of being in places where help
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is not at hand. In addition to panic attacks and agoraphobia symptoms, people with panic disorder also
worry about having another panic attack.
Specific phobias
Everyone has some mild irrational fears, but phobias are intense fears about particular objects or
situations which interfere with our lives. These might include fear of heights, water, dogs, closed
spaces snakes or spiders. Someone with a specific phobia is fine when the feared object is not present.
However, when faced with the feared object or situation, the person can become highly anxious and
experience a panic attack. People affected by phobias can go to great lengths to avoid situations which
would force them to confront the object or situation which they fear.
Social phobia (also called Social anxiety disorder)
Every person experiences social phobia at some point in their lifetime. People with social phobia fear
that others will judge everything they do in a negative way and they feel easily embarrassed in most
social situations. They believe they may be considered to be flawed or worthless if any sign of poor
performance is detected. They cope by either trying to do everything perfectly, limiting what they are
doing in front of others, especially eating, drinking, speaking or writing, or withdrawing gradually from
contact with others. They will often experience panic symptoms in social situations and will avoid
many situations where they feel observed by others (such as in stores, movie theatres, public speaking
and social events).
Obsessive compulsive disorder
This disorder involves intrusive unwanted thoughts (obsessions) and the performance of elaborate
rituals (compulsions) in an attempt to control or banish the persistent thoughts or to avoid feelings of
unease. The rituals are usually time consuming and seriously interfere with everyday life. For example,
people may be constantly driven to wash their hands or continually return home to check that the
door is locked or that the oven is turned off. People with this disorder are often acutely embarrassed
about their difficulties and keep it a secret, even from their families.
Post-traumatic stress disorder
Some people who have experienced major traumas such as war, torture, hurricanes, earthquakes,
accidents or personal violence may continue to feel terror long after the event is over. They may
experience nightmares or flashbacks for years. The flashbacks are often brought about by triggers
related to the experience.
Bipolar Mood Disorder
Bipolar mood disorder is the new name for what was called manic depressive illness. The new name is
used as it better describes the extreme mood swings - from depression and sadness to elation and
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excitement – that people with this illness experience. People with bipolar mood disorder experience
recurrent episodes of depressed and elated (overjoyed) moods. Both can be mild to severer.
What are the symptoms of bipolar mood disorder?

Mania - Common symptoms include varying degrees of the following:
 Elevated mood – The person feels extremely high, happy and full of energy. The experience is
often described as feeling on top of the world and being invincible.
 Increased energy and over activity
 Reduced need for sleep
 Irritability – The person may easily and frequently get angry and irritable with people who
disagree or dismiss their sometimes unrealistic plans of ideas.
 Rapid thinking and speech – Thoughts are more rapid than usual. This can lead to the person
speaking quickly and jumping from subject to subject.
 Lack of inhibitions – This can be the result of the person’s reduced ability to foresee the
consequences of their actions, for example, spending large amounts of money buying things
they don’t really need.
 Grandiose plans and beliefs – It is common for people experiencing mania to believe that they
are unusually talented or gifted or are kings, movie stars or political leaders. It is common for
religious beliefs to intensify or for people with this illness to believe they are an important
religious figure.
 Lack of insight – A person experiencing mania may understand that other people see their
ideas and actions as inappropriate, reckless or irrational. However, they are unlikely to
recognize the behavior as inappropriate in themselves.
Reference:
 hygiene-and-education/essay-on-mental-hygiene-and-
 education/2649https://www.merriam-
 https;//www.dictionary.com/browse/mental-hygiene.
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Worksheet 14.1
Read these paragraphs and write the main idea in front of each
Para-1 Mental health needs to be integrated into the school 1 Main idea of the
curriculum, which will help increase understanding paragraph is
and reduce stigma around issues. Without this, pupils
may not be aware their mental health is
deteriorating and feel silenced or shamed when
seeking help. If both pupils and teachers have more
open discussions about mental health, issues will also
be easier to identify early on, and this will help to
build students’ knowledge and understanding of the
subject. Ideally, mental health needs to be talked
about the same way physical education or healthy
eating is, because research has found that when
schools adopt a comprehensive approach to
discussing mental health it supports all pupils –
including those who are experiencing mental health
difficulties already.
Para-2 Students do better in schools when they feel safe – 2 The paragraph is
this means ensuring that bullying incidents are low about…………..
and addressed, including the rising incidents of
cyberbullying. The evidence also shows that when
students feel a sense of belonging, have good peer
and teacher relationships, and feel listened to when
they raise concerns, also helps to support positive
mental health in schools.
Para-3 Everyone in schools from the head teacher, teachers 3 This paragraph tells
to the teaching assistants, all have a role to play in me…………….
improving the school environment – and making it
more open to discussions around mental health.
But they can do this only if they are supported and
healthy themselves. Looking out for the well-being of
staff will itself have a positive impact on the
students. And research shows that when staff are
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trained in mental health they are more confident in

supporting their students. The same research also
showed that this additional mental health training
even helped to boost staff’s own resilience and
confidence.
Para-4 Head teachers should demand mental health training 4 This paragraph
for all new teachers. And before a school takes on a Informs about….
new or trainee teacher, they should ask to see what
mental health training they have. This could include
an understanding of the risk and resilience factors for
their students, how to spot thesigns of mental ill
health, along with how to support and get help for
students at risk. This will ensure that all new teachers
have a basic understanding of the mental health
challenges they will face, and will make it easier for
them to help pupils in need.
Para-5 Looking after children’s mental health isn’t just 5 The gist of this
something that can be done on a small scale, it paragraph
involves a shift in the way everyone not only works is……………………..
together, but also communicates on issues. There are
lots of additional things schools need to do in this
area, including working with parents and having staff
as mentors for vulnerable students. Schools may also
have to introduce peer mentoring, where children
are partnered up with older children who can look
out for them. Running extracurricular social activities
for pupils on students, by providing a space for them
to work through their emotions and develop
strategies to address their challenges
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Worksheet 14.2
Instruction: Look through the text of Handout 14.2 quickly to find out the answers of following
questions:
1. What does the author mean by anxiety disorder?
2. What are the causes of anxiety disorder?
3. What are the feelings of a person with anxiety disorder?
4. What are the effects of anxiety disorder?
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Worksheet 14.3
Note: Choose the suitable title for the text in second column from the list below and put it in the
relevant box of the first column.
Start talking about it, Create a safe space, Support for all, Make sure teachers know how to help,
recognize that it takes a village
Title Text
This will ensure that all new teachers have a basic
understanding of the mental health challenges they will face
and will make it easier for them to help pupils in need.
All have a role to play in improving the school environment
– and making it more open to discussions around mental
health.
There are lots of additional things schools need to do in this
area, including working with parents and having staff as
mentors for vulnerable students
Both pupils and teachers have more open discussions about
mental health.
Looking out for the well-being of staff will itself have a
positive impact on the students.
When students feel a sense of belonging, have good peer
and teacher relationships, and feel listened to when they
raise concerns, also helps to support positive mental health
in schools.
This will ensure that all new teachers have a basic
understanding of the mental health challenges they will face
and will make it easier for them to help pupils in need.
Looking after children’s mental health isn’t just something
that can be done on a small scale, it involves a shift in the
way everyone not only works together, but also
communicates on issues.
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Worksheet 14.4
Use understanding of Handout 14.1 and 14.2 and complete the following table
Mental illness Symptoms Ways for mental hygiene
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Worksheet 14.5
Reflection
Reflection Action
(What will be challenging for me?) (How am I going to overcome this?
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HANDOUTS
Handout 15.1
Mental Hygiene Concept and importance in Education:
It is being realized by all progressive educators that the goals of mental health and education are
similar. The aim of education is an all-round development to human personality. It is to help every
individual become a well-adjusted being in his society. Mental health is also concerned with the
harmonious development of personality. Therefore, they complement each other.
Moreover, feelings and emotions are being recognized as key factors in growth and development
including learning in/out educational institutions. Feelings and emotions are the driving forces behind
the ways people behave. Behavior is complex and its causes are deep rooted personal and societal
experiences. Another evidence of this standpoint is the assumption that expression and release,
through worthy creative endeavor, is demanded by growing minds and bodies and that consideration
must be given to basic human needs in the development of curricula and the selection of subject-
matter and experiences for children. Working in education is exciting yet highly demanding, especially
when learners are in the picture.
Mental hygiene/ health in schools:
The statistics regarding youths’ mental health problems are staggering. Approximately twenty percent
of young people may be suffering from some form of mental disorder, which translates to one in five
students in the average classroom. These include: depression; schizophrenia; anorexia nervosa;
bipolar disorder; panic disorder; etc. As an educator these numbers illustrate the potential that these
problems seriously impact the day-to-day functioning of youth in the classroom. Mental disorders
represent the most common and disabling condition affecting young people and therefore have major
implications for students and for schools.
Mental disorders affect a student’s emotional well-being. If ignored, mental health problems can
impede social development, leaving young people feeling socially isolated, stigmatized and unhappy.
In an attempt to cope with or overcome the symptoms of these disorders, some young people acquire
socially or personally inappropriate behaviors, such as dropping out of school or becoming heavily
involved in the illicit use of drugs. Mental disorders may also impact the young person’s ability to make
and retain a strong and supportive peer network or appropriate relationships with adults.
Teachers represent a prominent and positive adult role model in the student’s life. It is part of their
role to be supportive and aware of student difficulties and direct them to the appropriate resources
for help if needed.
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Promotion of mental health in teachers and learners

Why Teachers’ Mental Health?
Unlike other professionals, as the teachers deal with living human being, they should keep extreme
mental health. Any sort of mental disorder of teacher may affect the mindset of a learner too.
Moreover, if he/she has not a very good mental health, he/she cannot deal the classes effectively and
usefully.
The following steps can be taken by authority to ensure the mental health of teachers.
1. Arranging meditation/ yoga session.
2. Clarifying the roles and responsibilities.
3. Providing time for relaxation in between school hours.
4. Ensuring good relationship at school.
5. Providing reasonable support.
6. Reducing work load.
7. Avoiding public insulting.
8. Avoid staying up / late night.
9. Avoiding excessive watching of T.V and use of cell phone.
10. Sticking to own roles and responsibilities.
11. Keep good relationship with colleagues.
12. Finding time for small talk with family members.
13. Avoid tussles with colleagues.
Why students’ mental Health?
Learning is a task which occurs effectively only when the learner is equipped with interest,
concentration, a tension free mind, confidence, aspiration etc. Hence learner’s mental health is an
inevitable factor in the teaching learning process.
The following steps can be taken by authority for the promotion of mental health in learners.
1. Making inclusion in its real sense.
2. Reducing the content of the curriculum, so that to make it comfortable for the learners.
3. Creating very good rapport between the teacher and learner.
4. Providing proper time for refreshment.
5. Providing proper support when it is needed.
6. Avoiding public interest.
7. Offering proper clarification of doubts.
8. Providing time for proper recreation.
9. Accepting the concept of synergy when giving assignments and projects.
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10. Ensuring the learner is not indulging in excessive watching of T.V, using mobile or playing video
games.
11. Conducting field tours.
12. Making use of culturally responsive pedagogy.
13. Creating learner friendly atmosphere in school campus.
Reference:
 https://theconversation.com/five-things-schools-can-do-to-help-pupils- mental-health-
79376https://www.mentallyhealthyschools.org.uk/risks-and-protective-factors/
 http://canwetalk.ca/about-mental-illness/factors-affecting-mental-health/
 https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/adolescent-mental-health
 https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Case_study_in_psychology
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Handout 15.2
Factors affecting mental health
Good mental health is more than just the absence of mental illness. It can be seen as a state of mental
health that allows one to flourish and fully enjoy life. Everyone experiences down times in life. The
ability to cope with negative experiences varies greatly from one person to another and, in large part,
determines whether people enjoy their lives.
Some of the factors that affect the mental health of children are as follows:
1. Self-esteem
 This is the value we place on ourselves, our positive self-image and sense of self-worth. People
with high self-esteem generally have a positive outlook and are satisfied with themselves most
of the time.
2. Feeling loved
 Children who feel loved, trusted and accepted by their parents and others are far more likely to
have good self-esteem. They are also more likely to feel comfortable, safe and secure, and are
better able to communicate and develop positive relationships in the school.
3. Confidence
 Children should be encouraged to discover their own unique qualities and have the confidence
to face challenges and take risks. Children s who are brought up to have confidence in
themselves are more likely to have a positive attitude, and to lead happy and productive lives.
4. Family breakup or loss
 Separation or divorce or the loss of a parent is extremely painful. Finding ways to cope and
adjust to the changes wrought by these events is critical for everyone, but particularly for
children. How grief is handled can affect children negatively for years to come. If children are
having difficulty coping, professional help is recommended.
5. Difficult behaviour
 When children are unhappy, they either internalize their unhappiness or act out. The latter
usually appears as bad or difficult behaviour, such as using abusive language, being aggressive
or violent, damaging property, stealing, lying, refusing to comply with requests or expectations
at school or home, or displaying other inappropriate actions. If such behaviour is serious and
persistent, the child might require help.
6. Physical ill health
 Diseases, injuries and other physical problems often contribute to poor mental health and
sometimes mental illness. Some physical causes (such as birth trauma, brain injury or drug
abuse) can directly affect brain chemistry and contribute to mental illness. More commonly,
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poor physical health can affect self-esteem and children’s ability to meet their goals, which
leads to unhappiness or even depression. In such cases, receiving the best possible treatment
for both the physical problem and the resulting psychological consequences is key to optimal
recovery to good mental health.
7. Abuse
 The mental health of abused children is at great risk. Abused children are more likely to
experience mental disorders or mental illness during childhood and into adulthood.
 Abuse may be physical, psychological or verbal. It may not always be evident or easily
recognized. Regardless of the form it takes, abuse cannot be tolerated. Children need to be
protected from abuse and helped to overcome its negative effects. Abuse can cause feelings of
low self-esteem, lack of self-confidence, depression, isolation and anger—all feelings that
impair a child’s chance to lead a happy life.
 Trust in others and feelings of being safe and cared for are key components to recovery from
abuse. Few children are able to recover on their own. Support is critical, and professional
counselling is sometimes required. If abuse is discovered early, the chances of a child returning
to a healthy state of mind and avoiding serious mental disorders are greatly enhanced.
8. Emotional disorders
 Emotional disorders commonly emerge during adolescence. In addition to depression or
anxiety, children with emotional disorders can also experience excessive irritability, frustration,
or anger. Symptoms can overlap across more than one emotional disorder with rapid and
unexpected changes in mood and emotional outbursts.
 Globally, depression is the ninth leading cause of illness and disability; anxiety is the eighth
leading cause. Emotional disorders can be profoundly disabling to an children’s functioning,
affecting schoolwork and attendance. Withdrawal or avoidance of family, peers or the
community can exacerbate isolation and loneliness. At its worse, depression can lead to
suicide.
9. Childhood behavioral disorders
 Childhood behavioral disorders are the sixth leading cause of disease. Childhood behavioral
disorders represent repeated, severe and non-age-appropriate behaviors such as hyper-activity
and inattention (such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) or destructive or challenging
behaviors (for example, conduct disorder). Childhood behavioral disorders can affect
adolescents’ education, and are sometimes associated with contact with judicial systems.
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10. Eating disorders

 Eating disorders commonly emerge during adolescence and young adulthood. Most eating
disorders affect females more commonly than males. Eating disorders such as anorexia
nervosa, bulimia nervosa and binge eating disorder are characterized by harmful eating
behaviors such as restricting calories or binge eating. Anorexia and bulimia nervosa also include
a preoccupation with food, body shape or weight, and behaviors such as excessive exercise or
vomiting to compensate for calorie intake. People with anorexia nervosa have a low body
weight and a heightened fear of weight gain. People with binge eating disorder can experience
feelings of distress, guilt or self-disgust when binge eating. Eating disorders are detrimental to
health and often co-exist with depression, anxiety and/or substance misuse.
11. Psychosis
 Disorders which include symptoms of psychosis most commonly emerge in late adolescence or
early adulthood. Symptoms of psychosis can include hallucinations (such as hearing or seeing
things which are not there) or delusions (including fixed, non-accurate beliefs). Experiences of
psychosis can severely impair an adolescent’s ability to participate in daily life and education.
In many contexts, children with psychosis are highly stigmatized and at risk of human rights
violations.
12. Suicide and self-harm
 Suicide is the third leading cause of death in the world. Suicide attempts can be impulsive or
associated with a feeling of hopelessness or loneliness. Risk factors for suicide are
multifaceted, including harmful use of alcohol, abuse in childhood, stigma against help-seeking,
barriers to accessing care, and access to means. Communication through digital media about
suicidal behavior is an emerging concern for children.
13. Bullying
 Bullying is usually targeted behavior that is repetitive and persistent. It can have long-lasting
effects on children’s mental health and academic performance.
14. Child abuse and neglect
 Child maltreatment is any action causing potentially significant harm to a child. Maltreatment
can be initiated by an adult or a child. It can involve physical, verbal, sexual or emotional abuse;
neglect or exploitation.
15. Family problems
 Demographic and societal changes over recent decades have led to much greater diversity and
complexity in family forms. Children today are more likely to experience parental separation,
lone parenting, stepfamilies, half-siblings and new family structures.
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 Family violence
Family or domestic violence or abuse can be physical, emotional, psychological or financial. It can
include any situation where child is forced to alter their behavior due to fear of their partner’s reaction.
16. Poor parental mental health
 Many parents who experience mental illness are excellent parents. With the right support, it’s
perfectly possible to manage mental health issues without it affecting parenting.
17. Poverty and unemployment
 Children living in poverty often lack material resources which can affect what they eat, their
participation in activities, the clothes they wear, family stress levels and optimism, where and
how they live, and their access to proper healthcare and high-quality education.
Reference:
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Handout 15.3
How does mental illness affect my school performance?
Mental illnesses may interfere with your children ability to function at school, or they may have no
effect at all. If child mental illness is affecting his ability to do things such as concentrating or
communicating effectively, you’re probably aware of it. Then again, child may not have made the
connection between his disability and his problems functioning. Educational personnel only need to
provide accommodations for limitations that can be directly connected to his disability. You will need
to document the types of functional limitations caused by his disability to show his need for academic
adjustments. Here’s a list of some of the limitations you may be experiencing. If your learners have a
psychiatric disability, you may have trouble doing some of these things. Please remember that since
that are many different types of mental illnesses, this isn’t a complete list — and that not everyone
experiences all, or even any, of these limitations. Here’s how you might cope:
 Inability to screen out environmental stimuli. Stimuli such as sounds, sights, or smells, which
distract a child.
Example: It may be hard for a child to pay attention to a lecture while sitting near a loud fan or to
focus on studying in a high traffic area.
Possible strategies: Move away from the fan; or shut off the fan during the lecture; ask someone
to help you find a quiet study area.
 Inability to concentrate: A child may feel restless, have a short attention span, be easily distracted,
or have a hard time remembering verbal directions.
Example: children may have trouble focusing on one task for extended periods, reading and
retaining course material, or remembering instructions during an exam or a classroom exercise.
Possible strategies: Break large projects into smaller tasks; ask permission to take short, frequent
breaks to stretch or walk around; ask for a tutor to help you with study skills and information
retention; ask for assignments to be given one task at a time or in writing.
 Lack of stamina. A child may not have enough energy to spend a full day on campus, carry a full
course load, or take a long exam in one sitting. You may also find his medication makes him
drowsy.
Possible strategies: Enroll as a part-time student; schedule his classes during his high-energy hours;
ask to take exams in sections.
 Difficulty handling time pressures and multiple tasks. A child may have trouble managing
assignments, setting priorities, or meeting deadlines.
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Example: He may not know how to decide which assignments to do first, or how to complete
assignments by the due date.
Possible strategies: Break larger assignments and projects down into manageable tasks; ask for a
course syllabus detailing class topics, assignments, and due dates for the entire semester.
 Difficulty interacting with others. It may be difficult for a child to talk to other students, get notes
or discuss assignments, participate in class, meet students outside of class, chat with other
students at class breaks, and make friends.
Possible strategies: Ask for help finding a mentor or “buddy” who can introduce him around and
help him fit in.
 Difficulty handling negative feedback. A child may have a hard time understanding and
interpreting criticism.
Example: A child may get defensive when someone tells him, his work isn’t up to standards. It’s
hard for him to figure out what to do to improve. He might want to withdraw from class or even
drop out of school because of a poor grade.
Possible strategies: Talk with him about his performance and suggest specific ways to improve; find
out whether he can make up for poor grades with alternative assignments; meet with him and his
school’s disability services counselor to facilitate feedback.
 Difficulty responding to change. Unexpected changes in a child coursework, such as new
assignments, due dates, or instructors, may be unusually stressful for him.
 Possible strategies: Talk to him, give him individual attention or give him extra time.
Reference:
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HANDOUTS
Handouts 16.1
Factors effecting mental health of students
A. Different Intervention Strategies

As a first step, schools can consider implementing a universal intervention program that provides
resources and tools to proactively create a positive environment and also create an awareness about
the importance of mental health in schools. Here are some examples of universal intervention
programs that schools can easily implement.
1. Create a positive environment at school: Schools should observe areas in and around their
campus and assess if the school environment is pleasant and friendly. After the assessment,
they should make the necessary changes to keep the school comfortable and inviting for
students.
2. Promote social and emotional learning: Guide students to develop critical skills for life. Help
children with recognizing and managing emotions, thinking about their feelings and controlling
or regulating behavior. The Search Institute’s Developmental Assets and Character Counts!
Program are great resources that schools can leverage.
3. Practice mindfulness and yoga: Children experience stress as they face diverse situational
challenges every day. Mindfulness, yoga, and relaxation can improve stress-coping abilities and
reduce anxiety among students, thereby ensuring a better mental health in schools.
4. Establish motivation initiatives for all students: Initiatives like the ‘student of the week’
and/or ‘student of the month’ and Buddy (mentoring) program can motivate students to try
harder and also help students develop competence.
5. Develop School‐wide Behavior & Social Skills: PBIS is a social skill development program that
aims to promote the emotional well-being of students. Project Achieve: Stop and Think Social
Skills Project for Schools is another evidence-based model prevention program that provides
early academic and behavioral interventions.
John P Salerno, a Research Training Coordinator at the University of Miami, reviewed several universal
intervention programs and concluded that universal intervention programs have shown good results
as far as awareness and prevention of mental health problems are concerned. However – apart from
prevention measures – schools also need to take proactive measures to identify and help students at
risk.
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B. In such cases, selective and indicative interventions are critical.

1. Assess the Students’ Medical Records: Schools can use a detailed health and medical record to
filter high-risk students and students with a prior history of mental illness into a focused
intervention schedule.
2. Train Teachers: As students spend more time with teachers in their early age, training teachers
in identifying risky and abnormal behaviors in class can be very useful in early intervention for
children vulnerable to mental illness.
3. Increase Parent-Teacher Interaction: Including parents in the intervention process can be very
effective. It would lead to a better evaluation of students’ mental health.
4. Use Technology to Filter At-Risk Students: Schools should consider using technology to
monitor any suspicious or indicative activity online. For example, SysCloud‘s cloud-
based monitoring service allows schools to monitor students who are at risk of self-harm or
violent behavior by monitoring online content such as emails, documents, and chats.
5. Encourage Sports and Arts: In recent studies, it has been found that engaging in sports can
have a positive impact on improving mental health in schools. According to an article published
by BeBrainFit.com, arts in any form such as music, drama, painting, etc., can help in relieving
stress. Schools can encourage high-risk students to engage in sports and arts in order to
channel their energy, creativity, and concentration into something productive, which can
increase their self-esteem and, in turn, improve their mental health.
6. Individual Treatment Using Evidence‐Based Therapeutic Approaches: Identified students can
be given individual care and treatment using scientifically proven treatment methods.
7. Violence Reduction, Anger Management, & Peer Mediation: Such intervention programs can
help students cope with stressful situations in a positive manner and, in turn, reduce violence
to a large extent. Winning Against Violent Environments (WAVE) is a mediation program
wherein students learn and participate in conflict management techniques and become agents
of change by taking skills, such as effective decision-making, communication, and problem-
solving into the classroom and to the community.
8. Substance Abuse Prevention: Life Skills provides students with the skills and knowledge
necessary to help them avoid the misuse/abuse of opioids and prescription drugs. This is
effective in reducing the risks of alcohol, tobacco, drug abuse, and violence while supporting
the social and emotional development of the students.
Reference:
 https://theconversation.com/five-things-schools-can-do-to-help-pupils-mental-health-79376
 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4850518/
 African School Mental Health Curriculum
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Handout 16.2
School Climate: School-related factors that influence student’ performance.
Factor Examples Importance for mental health development
Safety at school Adherence to social rules, Poor safety increases the risk for
(social-emotional Control of availability of experiencing violence, violence against
and physical safety weapons and drugs in schools, fellow students (bullying/mobbing),
owing to standards Teaching and monitoring disciplinary measures taken against
and rules) behavioral rules and standards, students, absenteeism/truancy, and less
Managing conflict and success at school.
strengthening students’
problem solving skills
Connectedness to I am happy to be at this school! Low school connectedness increases the risk
school I think I am a part of this of depressive symptoms, anxiety, violence,
school! and bullying/mobbing whereas high school
I feel safe at this school! connectedness reduces that risk.
I feel attached to my fellow A close social bond with fellow students
students! further reduces the risk of developing
I get a fair treatment from my mental health problems. High school
teachers. connectedness supports students’ individual
successful learning.
Relationship/interac How strongly do you feel that There is a positive correlation between
tion your teacher takes care of fewer symptoms of depression among
between teacher you/worries about you? students and caring teachers. A conflicting
and student How often during this school relationship between teacher and student
year have you had increases the risk for abnormal behaviors
rouble/conflict with your and learning problems.
teacher? A teacher’s emotionally supportive,
committed, and responsible attitude
towards his/her student results in less
disruptive behavior and fewer internalizing
disorders.
Learning Collaborative group work with a Great willingness to cooperate and achieve
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environment at common aim. together improves the climate in the

school Feelings of belonging and classroom and yields greater learning
attachment is shaped by success.
mutual trust in the group of
students
Reference :
 https://theconversation.com/five-things-schools-can-do-to-help-pupils-mental-health-79376
 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4850518/
 African School Mental Health Curriculum
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Worksheet 16.1
(Micro Teaching Feedback Proforma)
Focus Comments Yes NO

General
Understanding is checked
Activity is logically structured
All participants are engaged

The activity is motivating
A good rapport is established with
participants
Understanding Lesson Planning
There is a clear SLO

Activities are relevant to SLO
Activities are logically sequenced
Understanding Grouping
There is a variety of interaction patterns
Group/pair work is set up effectively
Teacher manage space effectively
Understanding differentiation
Materials are appropriate for participants
(level, interest,
needs, Learning preferences
The teaching is inclusive
Support is given where required
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Worksheet 16.2
Factor Affecting School performance Importance for mental health
development
Anxiety due to broken family.

Single parent mother is taking
care.
Panic Disorder: (afraid of

people in classroom, in
assembly)
Bipolar Disorder: (mood

disorder, mood switching)
Social Phobia (Believe that they

may be flawed or worthless)
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HANDOUTS
Handout 17.1
Identify the Stranger
A few years after I was born, my dad met a stranger who was new to our small town. From the
beginning, baba was fascinated with this enchanting newcomer and soon invited him to live with
our family. The stranger was quickly accepted and was around from then on.
As I grew up, I never questioned his place in my family. In my young mind, he had a special place. My
parents were complementary instructors: Ami taught me good from evil, and Baba taught me to obey.
But the stranger ... he was our storyteller. He would keep us captivated for hours on end
with adventures, mysteries, and comedies. If I wanted to know anything about politics, history or
science, he always knew the answers about the past, understood the present and even seemed able
to predict the future!
He took my family to the football and cricket games. He made me laugh, and he made me cry. The
stranger never stopped talking, but Dad didn't seem to mind. Sometimes, Ami would get up quietly
while the rest of us were shushing each other to listen to what he had to say, and she would go to the
kitchen for peace and quiet. (I wonder now if she ever prayed for the stranger to leave).
Baba ruled our household with certain moral convictions, but the stranger never felt obligated to
honour them. From promoting items that were not good for our health to encouraging us to use
packaged and processed food, the stranger was always making sure money was spent on harmful and
unnecessary items.
Not only this, the stranger encouraged us to listen to discussion on politics, which my baba did not
permit. The Stranger continued to spread negative sentiments, use comments that were at times
blatant, sometimes suggestive, and generally embarrassing. He would urge us to take sides and always
criticize.
I now know that my early concepts about relationships were influenced strongly by the stranger. Time
after time, he opposed the values of my parents, yet he was seldom rebuked ... And NEVER asked to
leave.
More than fifty years have passed since the stranger moved in with our family. He has blended right in
and is not nearly as fascinating as he was at first. If you could walk into my parents' den today, you
would still find him sitting over in his corner, waiting for someone to listen to him talk and watch him
draw his pictures.
Can you guess its name?
Reference: S. Legg and M. Hutter. (2006) www.idsia.ch/∼shane/intelligence.html. A collection of
definitions of intelligence,
 R. J. Herrnstein and C. Murray. (1996) the Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in
American Life. Free Press,
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Handout 17.2
Definition of Intelligence
There seem to be almost as many definitions of intelligence as there were experts asked to define it
(Sternberg, 1996)
Defined By: Definition Significant Idea
Merriam-Webster The ability to understand and Intelligence is the ability of a person to
Dictionary learn and be able to deal with learn new ideas, skills and cope with new
new situations. and different situation
All Words Dictionary, “The ability to use memory, It is the ability of a person to use his/her
2006 knowledge, past experience, previous knowledge and past experiences
understanding, reasoning, apply reasoning and judgment to look for
imagination and judgment in solutions related to a particular situation
order to solve problem and
adapt to new situations.”
Random House “Capacity for learning, The inherent ability of a person to learn
Unabridged Dictionary, reasoning, understanding, and new ideas and skills and analyze a certain
2006 similar forms of mental activity; situation in the light of those new ideas.
aptitude in grasping truths, The particular inherent talent and ability of
relationships, facts, etc.” a person to grasp ideas and understand
relationships.
Word Central Student The ability to learn and The ability of a person to pinpoint,
Dictionary, 2006 understand or to deal with understand and get solution to a problem
problems.”
The capacity to judge well, to the ability of adapting one's self to
Alfred Binet reason well and to comprehend circumstances through judgment and
well. better comprehension
Charles Spearman It is the existence of a broad The cognitive abilities of a person defines
mental capacity that influences his level of intelligence
performance on cognitive
ability measures
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Handout 17.3
Nature of Intelligence
According to Encyclopedia Britannica (2019); adaptation to the environment is the key to
understanding both what intelligence is and what it does. e.g. a student learns study material in
order to perform well in course and a doctor learns about the decease of the patient getting his
history
The main emphasis in a definition of intelligence in psychology is upon the ability of a person about
perception, learning, memory, reasoning, and problem solving e.g. the physician who learns about a
new disease adapts by perceiving material on the disease in medical literature, learning what the
material contains, remembering the crucial aspects that are needed to treat the patient, and then
utilizing reason to solve the problem of applying the information to the needs of the patient.
Intelligence, in total, has come to be regarded not as a single ability but as an effective drawing
together of many abilities.
The nature of intelligence can be explained as the ability:
 for adjustment to environment.
 to perceive relationship between various objects and methods.
 to solve problems.
 to think independently.
 to learn maximum in minimum period of time.
 to benefit from one’s own experience and the experience of others.
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Handout 17.4
Intelligence
 The ability for adjustment to environment: Adjustment refers to the behavioral process of
balancing conflicting needs, or needs challenged by obstacles in the environment. Humans and
animals regularly adjust to their environment. For example, when they are stimulated by their
physiological state to seek food, they eat (if possible) to reduce their hunger and thus adjust to
the hunger stimulus. The person who adjust amicably to his/her environment is considered
intelligent.
 The ability to solve problems: Many of our daily activities involve problem solving of some
sort. For example, we decide what to wear in the morning, which route to take to get to our
office, which job-related duties to perform in which sequence once we arrive at our office,
what to have for lunch, and so on. Of course, not all problem solving is alike. There are
problems that can be solved with a few mental steps, and there are problems that require
extensive thinking. There are problems that we have never encountered before, and there are
problems we are familiar with. There are problems that have very clear goals, and there are
problems where the goals are far from clear. Problems, then, can be distinguished on any
number of meaningful dimensions, and the solution processes, the mental steps we engage in
when solving a problem, may differ widely for different types of problems.
 Ability to think independently: Intellectually active minds open doors to opportunities.
Whether your thinking is on a logical or creative wavelength being an independent thinker, it
will enable you to improve performance, productivity, efficiency and to reach a greater level of
self-awareness. Independent thinking is a tool that can be used to enhance personal expression
and creative ability and is a valuable additional skill to acquire. Being able to think
independently opens up a wealth of potential knowledge. It enables you to become more
discerning about the things you hear, see and believe and helps you question values and
assumptions. Independent thinking also hones your personal skills on many other levels,
including the building of confidence in your ability to stand up for your beliefs.
Reference:
 http://www.brainmetrix.com/intelligence-definition/
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Handout 17.5
Theories of Intelligence
Four theories of intelligence are discussed below:
i. Charles Spearman; the Theory of General Intelligence
British psychologist Charles Spearman (1863–1945) described a concept he referred to as general

intelligence or the g factor. Intelligence is a single general factor, a broad mental ability that affects
the performance in all mental tasks.
People who performed well on one cognitive test tended to perform well on other tests, while those
who scored badly on one test tended to score badly on others.
ii. Louis L. Thurstone; The Theory Of Primary Mental Abilities

Psychologist Louis L.Thurstone (1887–1955) offered a differing theory of intelligence. Instead of
viewing intelligence as a single, general ability, Thurstone's theory focused on seven different primary
mental abilities. The abilities that he described include:
Verbal
comprehension
Spatial
Reasoning
visualization
Associative Perceptual
memory speed
Numerical
Word fluency
ability
 Verbal comprehension. This factor involves a person’s ability to understand verbal material. It is
measured by tests such as vocabulary and reading comprehension.
 Verbal fluency. This ability is involved in rapidly producing words, sentences, and other verbal
material. It is measured by tests such as one that requires the examinee to produce as many words
as possible beginning with a particular letter in a short amount of time.
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 Number. This ability is involved in rapid arithmetic computation and in solving simple arithmetic
word problems.
 Perceptual speed. This ability is involved in proofreading and in rapid recognition of letters and
numbers. It is measured by tests such as those requiring the crossing out of As in a long string of
letters or in tests requiring recognition of which of several pictures at the right is identical to the
picture at the left.
 Inductive reasoning. This ability requires generalization—reasoning from the specific to the
general. It is measured by tests, such as letter series, number series, and word classifications, in
which the examinee must indicate which of several words does not belong with the others.
 Spatial visualization. This ability is involved in visualizing shapes, rotations of objects, and how
pieces of a puzzle fit together. An example of a test would be the presentation of a geometric form
followed by several other geometric forms. Each of the forms that follows the first is either the
same rotated by some rigid transformation or the mirror image of the first form in rotation. The
examinee has to indicate which of the forms at the right is a rotated version of the form (at the
left), rather than a mirror image.
iii. Howard Gardner; The Theory Of Multiple Intelligence:
According to Howard Gardener, (1983, 1999) Intelligence comes in multiple forms. He has divided
intelligence into seven specific groups:
Musical-rhythmic and harmonic
This area has to do with People with a high musical intelligence have high sensitivity to sounds,
rhythms, tones, and music are able to sing, play musical instruments, and compose music.
Visual-spatial
The people with spatial intelligence have the ability to visualize with the mind’s eye. Spatial ability is
one of the three factors beneath g in the hierarchical model of intelligence.
Verbal-linguistic
People with high verbal-linguistic intelligence display a facility with words and languages. They are
typically good at reading, writing, telling stories and memorizing words along with dates. Verbal ability
is one of the most g-loaded abilities.
Logical-mathematical
This area has to do with, abstractions, reasoning, numbers and critical thinking. This also has to do
with having the capacity to understand the underlying principles of some kind of causal system.
Bodily-kinesthetic: The core elements of the bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are control of one’s bodily
motions and the capacity to handle objects skillfully. Gardner elaborates to say that this also includes a
sense of timing, a clear sense of the goal of a physical action, along with the ability to train responses.
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People who have high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence should be generally good at physical activities
such as sports, dance, acting, and making things.
Interpersonal
In theory, individuals who have high interpersonal intelligence are characterized by their sensitivity to
others’ moods, feelings, temperaments, motivations, and their ability to cooperate in order to work as
part of a group. Those with high interpersonal intelligence communicate effectively and empathize
easily with others, and may be either leaders or followers. They often enjoy discussion and debate.”
Intrapersonal
This area has to do with introspective and self-reflective capacities. This refers to having a deep
understanding of the self; what one’s strengths or weaknesses are, what makes one unique, being
able to predict one’s own reactions or emotions.
iv. Robert Sternberg; The Triarchic Theory Of Intelligence
According the Robert Sternberg, (1985, 1999, 2003) intelligence can be divided into three specific
types.
 Analytical Intelligence: This form of intelligence is more in terms with the traditional definitions
of IQ and academic achievement. It’s also called componential intelligence. Because of its
analytical nature, the person with high analytical intelligence is good at problem solving. These
people are generally more able to see the solutions not normally seen, because of their
abstract thinking and evaluation skills. Intelligence that is assessed by intelligence tests.
 Creative Intelligence: Intelligence that makes us adapt to novel situations, generating novel
ideas. Creativity in this realm can include finding a novel solution to an unexpected problem or
producing a beautiful work of art or a well-developed short story. Imagine for a moment that
you are camping in the woods with some friends and realize that you’ve forgotten your camp
coffee pot. The person in your group who figures out a way to successfully brew coffee for
everyone would be credited as having higher creative intelligence
 Practical Intelligence: Intelligence that is required for everyday tasks Sternberg says that
analytical intelligence is demonstrated by an ability to analyze, evaluate, judge, compare, and
contrast. When reading a classic novel for literature class, for example, it is usually necessary to
compare the motives of the main characters of the book or analyze the historical context of the
story. Being practical means you find solutions that work in your everyday life by applying
knowledge based on your experiences.
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Worksheet 17.1
Name: Date:
KWL Chart
Select a topic you want to research in the first column, write what you already know about the topic
in the second column, and write what you want to know about the topic. After you have completed
your research, write what you learned in the third column.
What I know What I Want to Know What I Learned
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HANDOUTS
Handout 18.1
Heredity and its effects upon Intelligence
Heredity is defined as the characteristics we get genetically from our parents.
Heredity is the process of transmission of characteristics from one generation to another. Genes are
the suppliers of specific traits.
Heredity is a process of transmission, by genes, of specific traits from ancestor (parents) to descendant
(infants).
How does Heredity affect intelligence?
Heredity plays an important role in identifying ability. It gains ground from the fact that some families
produce eminent persons, generation after generation. Family studies show that intelligence tends to
run in families.
Studies show a higher correlation between identical (Monozygotic) twins in intelligence than between
fraternal (Dizygotic) twins. This holds true even when identical twins reared apart are compared to
fraternal twins reared together.
Adoption studies show that adopted children somewhat resemble their biological parents in
intelligence.
Researchers have conducted many studies to look for genes that influence intelligence. Many of these
studies have focused on similarities and differences in intelligence within families, particularly looking
at adopted children and twins. These studies suggest that genetic factors underlie about 50 percent of
the difference in intelligence among individuals. These studies have not conclusively identified any
genes that have major roles in differences in intelligence. It is likely that a large number of genes are
involved, each of which makes only a small contribution to a person’s intelligence.
Evidence of genetic influences on intelligence:
 Twin studies suggest that identical twins’ intelligences are more similar than those of fraternal
twins (Plomin &Spinath, 2004).
 Siblings reared together in the same home have intelligences that are more similar than those
of adopted children raised together in the same environment (Mcgue & others, 1993).
In addition to inherited characteristics, other biological factors such as maternal age, prenatal
exposure to harmful substances and prenatal malnutrition may also influence intelligence.
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Handout 18.2
What is environment?
Environment is everything that is around us. It includes physical, chemical and other natural forces
with which they constantly interact and adapt themselves to conditions in their environment.
Environmental factors:
Intelligence is also strongly influenced by the environment. Factors related to a child’s home
environment and parenting, education and availability of learning resources, and nutrition, among
others, all contribute to intelligence.
1. Education of parents and home environment: A conducive and supplementing home
environment allows the child to develop his potential and perform better. Most parents who
are highly educated stress upon provision of elements that are conducive to learning.
Uneducated parents, however, don’t give much importance to learning and thus the children
are not provided much desired learning friendly environment. The provision of helping
materials and environment like internet, computers, books, tuitions, provide the child with
opportunities that improve his intellect.
2. Parenting styles:
There are three most common parenting styles or techniques: Authoritative, Permissive, and
Authoritarian.
The authoritative parenting style places limits and controls on children’s behaviors; however, it
allows for them to engage in extensive communication with their parents (Williams, 2013).
Conversely, the permissive parenting style enforces very few rules or boundaries, allowing
children to dictate their own life affairs, make their own choices, and out rightly refuse
compliance with the choices of others, without regard for consequences (Baumrind, 1971;
Akinsola, 2010).
The authoritarian parenting style, also differing from that of the other styles, is characterized
by the adoption of unusually high expectations of conformity and compliance with rules for
children (Olowodunoye & Titus, 2011).
Thus the children reared in different home environments differ in intelligence levels
3. Health and nutrition: Prenatal and early nutrition are linked to brain structure, behavior and
intelligence. There is evidence that providing a high nutrient diet to very premature babies,
particularly males, can help to reduce the loss of brain size and intelligence often experienced
by these babies. Zinc, iron, folic acid, iodine, b12 and protein deficiency can also result in low
intelligence
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4. Learning environment: However, the learning environment is an expression that is a lot

broader than these components. The term comprises of:
 Learners’ characteristics;
 Learning and teaching goals;
 Activities that support learning
 Assessment strategies that drive and measure learning;
 A culture that directly infuses a learning environment.
Typically, social, physical, psychological or cultural factors involved in a learning environment
deeply affect the learners’ learning capabilities. If the learning atmosphere is not conducive to
gaining new knowledge or skills, it will be hard for learners to remain engrossed or interested.
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Handout 18.3
Which is more effective in determining intelligence; nature or nurture?
Researchers often study twins who’ve been separated at birth to understand the roles of nature and
nurture in human intelligence. They theorize that if intelligence is purely biological, identical twins
separated at birth should still have equal intelligences. But that’s not always the case, they find.
Genetic effects bright children seek out more stimulating environments that further increase
intelligence.
So what are some of the environmental influences that can account for variances in intelligence?
Factors such as family, education, enriched social environments, and peer groups have all been linked
to differences in intelligence. For example, studies have found that first-born children tend to have
higher intelligences than later-born siblings.
Environment is able to modify genetically determined cognitive abilities, and an enriched environment
can improve the performance. However, the role played by genetics and environment does not remain
the same during the entire lifetime. The increase in heritability of intelligence with age is presumably
due to genes that somehow predispose people to gain intelligence via certain environmental factors.
People with high intelligence genotypes pick stimulating environments and end up with high
intelligence. When we’re kids the brain is still growing and developing so there’s the chance for
environment (mental stimulation, nutrition) to affect its development, but by the time we’re adults
the brain has peaked, so environment can no longer affect it very much.
One important thing to note about the genetics of intelligence is that it is not controlled by a single
"intelligence gene" instead; it is the result of complex interactions between many genes. Next, it is
important to note that genetics and the environment interact to determine exactly how inherited
genes are expressed.
For example, if a person has tall parents, it is likely that the individual will also grow to be tall.
However, the exact height the person reaches can be influenced by environmental factors such as
nutrition and disease.
A child may be born with intelligent genes, but if that child grows up in a deprived environment where
he is malnourished and lacks access to educational opportunities, he may not score well on measures
of intelligence.
Why? Many experts believe that this is because first-born children receive more attention from
parents. Research also suggests that parents expect older children to perform better on a variety of
tasks, whereas later-born siblings face lesser task-focused expectations.
Programs aiming to increase intelligence would be most likely to produce long-term intelligence gains
if they caused children to persist in seeking out cognitively demanding experiences. Recent studies
have shown that training in using one’s working memory may increase intelligence.
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HANDOUTS
Handout 19.1
What are individual differences?
Individual differences are the more-or-less enduring psychological characteristics that distinguish one
person from another and thus help to define each person's individuality. These are qualities that are
unique; just one person has them at a time. Among the most important kinds of individual
differences are intelligence, personality traits, and values. Variation in hair color, for example, is an
individual difference; even though some people have nearly the same hair color, no two people are
exactly the same.
Definitions of “Individual differences” by various Psychologists:
The psychology of individual differences is concerned with the systematic study of intelligence and
abilities associated with personality of learner, learning styles and needs and interests of learner
Psychologist Definition
Drever James Variations or deviations from the average of the group, with respect to the
mental or physical characters, occurring in the individual member of the
group are individual differences.
Good The variation or deviations among individual is regard to a single
characteristics or a number of characteristics, those differences which in their
totality distinguish one individual from another.
Linda Gottfredson The ability to deal with cognitive complexity
David Wechsler The aggregate or global capacity of the individual to act purposefully, to think
rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment
The psychology of individual differences is largely the study of group
differences. This study classifies individuals by age, traits, sex, race, social class
John P.De Ceeceo and so on, and observes the differences within and between those groups.
Physical, mental, social and cultural differences etc. are being studied, under
individual differences.
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Worksheet 19.1
Movie Clip Wonder
Teacher’s Role
What are the two things you notice about the teacher in the first 20 seconds of the movie clip?
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
Why does the teacher start by giving a personal example of ‘Precept’?
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
What two things do you notice about how the teacher manages the students and the class?
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
How does the teacher fulfil his role in keeping students on track?
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
How do you think students would react if a child like Auggie was in your class?
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
How would you have dealt with the situation?
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
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Worksheet 19.2
Movie Clip Gifted
Example of a gifted child in class
1. What is the indication that the girl may be gifted?
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
2. What does the teacher do to confirm if the girl was indeed gifted?
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
3. Have you had a similar experience with a student in your class?
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
4. What would you have done in such a situation? What challenges do you think you may face, if you
have a gifted student in your class?
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
5. Once you identified that you had a gifted child in your class, what actions would you take to cater
to the child’s needs? Once you’ve answered this question, read Handout 19.2 and review your
answer.
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
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Handout 19.2
Types of Individual Differences
I. GIFTED CHILDREN:
There is no universally agreed upon definition of what exactly it means to be gifted. Some educators
define giftedness in terms of IQ others in terms of academic performance. Generally gifted children
exhibit the potential for higher than normal performance in areas of intellectual, creative, artistic,
academic and leadership capacity, and in order to fully develop their talents and capabilities require
educational and non-curricular activities not provided in a traditional school setting. children are
classified as gifted if they demonstrate exceptional levels of aptitude or competence in one or more
structured areas of academic activity such as mathematics, music, language, etc; or in a set of
sensorimotor skills such as dance, athletics, art, etc. Giftedness can be evident in children who
perform exceptionally well on academic and skills oriented performance tests or as the ability to learn
and assimilate information more rapidly than other children their age. As gifted child grow and
develop their giftedness is characterized by high levels of achievement and motivation.
Identifying giftedness is not a simple process. Children may have the talent to be qualified as gifted,
but due to various circumstances, they may not demonstrate that talent in their schooling. A lack of
resources or even disabilities may lead to underperformance, and only significant testing may reveal
that they have the potential to vastly outperform their peers. It’s up to parents and educators to come
together in a combined effort to use observations and test results to identify gifted children before
their potential goes untapped.
A prime example of how environment may sometimes negatively impact performance can be seen
among underserved populations. Parts of the student population may be hindered because their
school lacks resources, teacher turnover is high, or because the environment is unsafe for one reason
or another. This creates conditions in which it is hard for even the most talented of students to
maximize their potential, and their performance may not suggest they are actually gifted. It’s
incumbent upon educators and school staff to provide all students with the highest quality education
possible, which includes identifying particularly gifted students and finding ways of guiding them
toward programs that will help them reach their maximum potential.
Does & Don'ts of Teaching Gifted Students
Do …
 Understand that gifted students, just like all students, come to school to learn and be
challenged.
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 Pre-assess your students. Find out their areas of strength as well as those areas you may need
to address before students move on.
 Consider grouping gifted students together for at least part of the school day.
 Plan for differentiation. Consider pre-assessments, extension activities, and compacting the
curriculum.
 Use phrases like "You've shown you don't need more practice" or "You need more practice"
instead of words like "qualify" or "eligible" when referring to extension work.
 Encourage high-ability students to take on challenges. Because they're often used to getting
good grades, gifted students may be risk averse.
 Offer training in gifted education to all your teachers.
Don't …
 Confuse high achievers with high-ability students. High achievers put in the time and effort to
succeed in school. This may not be the case with high-ability students. Their gifts may not
translate into academic achievement and their behavior can at times appear noncompliant.
 Assume that all gifted students are the same and that one strategy works for all.
 Assume that by making gifted students tutors, you're providing a learning extension.
 Confuse extension activities with additional work. Gifted students need deeper and more
complex assignments.
 Refer to alternate work for gifted students as "free time." Call it "choice time" or "unfinished
work time," so students understand that they are required to tackle a task during this time
period.
 Give too many directions to students about how they should complete a task. Say, "Here's the
end result I'm grading. How you get there is your choice."
 Assume that gifted students are growing academically. Rely on formative and summative
assessments.
II. SLOW LEARNERS:
Slow learners constitute an appreciable fraction of our population. As Burl (1973) has rightly pointed
out the term ‘backward’ or ‘slow learner’ is reserved for those children who are unable to cope with
the work normally expected of their age group. Kirk (1962) took ‘rate of learner’ as the basis for
identifying slow learners. According to him, the slow learners, gifted and the average children can be
classified according to their ‘rate of learning.
In the present circumstances it is used more widely to indicate the fairly large group of children whose
learning is slowed down by one or more factors of which limited ability may be one.
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The common factor with all pupils seen was some measure of educational retardation, the
contributing factors being manifold e.g., cultural and poverty, family inadequacies and parental
disharmony. Pupils from such homes as these may well function as ‘slow learner’ even through their
intellectual potential may be considerable higher.
Previously psychologists held that slow learning is directly related to intellectual ability. But recent
studies in this regard revealed that heredity alone is not responsible for the backwardness of the child;
but environment contributes significantly to the scholastic achievement of the child. The backward
child is a slow learner and he finds it difficult to keep pace with the normal child in his school work.
Taking only I.Q. into consideration, we cannot call a child who is a slow learner, mentally retarded. On
the whole the only difference between a slow learner and the average child is his slower rate.
1. Slow learners have limited cognitive capacity. They fail to dope with learning situations and to
reason abstractly. Rational thinking becomes practically impossible. They have the capacity to
succeed in rote-learning. These children show interested in learning where relationships are clearly
demonstrated. With regard to retentive memories they require more practice and revision in
comparison with normal children.
2. One of the pertinent characteristics of slow learners is poor memory. It occurs due to lack of
concentration, it is impossible to say how much a child can learn and retain although he is
motivated externally and internally. Experimental evidences reveal that very often the dull children
can recall facts about their local cricket team as well as its players.
3. Classroom situations include distraction and lack of concentration of slow learners. This typical
behaviour is also associated with poor motivation. Again different studies also report that when
the learning material are presented through concrete situations, the slow learner’s concentration
and attention do not differ significantly from that of a normal child.
4. Inability to express his ideas through language is another significant characteristic of a slow
learner. A slow learner also lacks imagination and foresight. He faces difficulty to foresee
consequences in the future.
5. In developing societies, has slow learners invite social as well as educational problems. Of course,
some dull children are very poor in scholastic achievements in the school. Their performance is not
satisfactory. But some children who come from sophisticated homes show good performance,
because they get help and encouragement from home. This is only possible at the primary stage of
education. But at the secondary stage, the frustrations and failures come from different sources.
The children develop an attitude of resentment towards the authorities and create problems. This
kind of attitude may lead to anti-social behaviour in the future.
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6. They lack social skills making it difficult for them to interact with other children or adults. This is
attributed to their low IQ levels. In addition, they don’t understand the rules of social
engagement.Even though they like talking to people, they find it difficult in starting a conversation.
This is attributed to their shyness which stems from low self-esteem.
 They find it difficult maintaining friendships.
 It is hard for them to understand simple skills, for example, taking turns in performing a
particular project or task.
 They are poor in mathematics and find it hard to solve mathematical problems.
 Their reading and comprehension is poor.
 Their thinking and reasoning capacity is poor.
 They have poor memory and auditory processing.
 They have short attention span and lack focus.
 Their response time is slow.
 A slow learner needs somebody to learn with or do assignments together. On their own, they
are unable to learn or complete assignments.
 They have immature personal relationships.
 They don’t have long-term goals. They always live in the present.
 They perform poorly in examinations or tests.
 They have low self-esteem.
 They work on given projects or tasks at a slow pace.
 They are not able to master skills.
 They cannot do complex problems or tasks.
 They have difficulty transferring what they have learned from one assignment to another.
 They lose track of time.
 They have problem with time management.
 They are slow in forming relations between words and phrases.
 They forget quickly.
 They lack innovation and creativeness.
 They find it difficult to think critically.
 They tend to prefer the friendship or company of younger children.
 Some slow learners have a problem with speech.
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How Teachers Can Help Slow Learners to Perform Well Academically

Teaching is a demanding profession. It requires patience coupled with creativeness. If and when a
teacher identifies a child performing below average, then the teacher should try to find ways of
guiding and helping the child to perform well. The following are some tips teachers can employ to
assist slow learners.
 The teacher should concentrate in praising the child’s efforts more than concentrating on praising
his/her abilities. The teacher should let the slow learner know that his/her intellect is under
his/her control. Also, praise the child for overcoming challenges and taking accountability for
his/her work. However, be careful not to offer insecure or dishonest praise as it may further
lower the child’s self-esteem. If a slow learner realizes you're praising him/her for something
he/she has not done well he will feel betrayed. You might lose the trust of the child.
 A teacher might find it appropriate to provide a quite place to work. This will help the teacher to
easily observe, encourage and find better ways to help the child. The teacher can decide to tell
the child to sit at the front row which will make it easier to observe the child.
 Do not reward the child if she/he has not finished an assignment or task.
 Let the child do the hard assignments first then the easier ones later.
 The teacher might find it appropriate to provide extra classes to the child to assist the child in
areas the child finds it difficult to understand or in completing an assignment.
 The teacher should pay equal attention to all learners in the class. She should not ignore children
who are slow learners because they might feel neglected and unwanted. Also, lack of involving
the children in answering questions or writing on the board might further deteriorate the slow
learner’s level of learning.
 The teacher can make use of reference books, audio-visual aids and graphic displays including
online materials to help the slow learner. Record of the progress of the slow learner(s) should be
maintained as it will help track the development of the learner.
 A Slow learner knows very well he/she has a weakness when it comes to academic studies
compared to his/her average learning peers. The child knows he/she does not perform well. A
slow learner is sensitive and self-conscious of this fact. In addition, a slow learner has low self-
esteem. Thus, the teacher should aim to boost the child’s confidence. She should encourage the
child by reminding him/her that he/she is no less than others and can do better. In return, these
encouraging words can boost the child’s morale to want to perform better. The best way to boost
the child’s confidence is focusing on things the child is good at.
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 The teacher should try to maintain an open relationship with the learner. This will create a bond
between the teacher and the learner and will enable the child to be able to accept any form of
assistance from the teacher, other teachers and parents including therapists.
 The teacher should not explain the slow learner's mistake(s) in front of the class. Instead, the
teacher should call the child aside and explain to the child the areas he/she has made erred and
correct the mistakes (revise) together with the child.
 The teacher should not criticize and humiliate a slow learner in front of the class as it will further
lower the child's self-esteem. This will lead to the child to drop-out.
 The teacher should try to focus on areas the slow learner is good at or encourage the child to take
part in tasks he/she is best at. The teacher should reward the child when the child has done the
task or activity as required.
 The teacher should try to persuade other children to treat the slow learner with understanding.
This is because not a lot of children have enough patience to try to help or explain things such as
games rules to a slow learner.
 Above all, the teacher should be the best friend to the slow learner. It is hard for slow learners to
express themselves fully to their caregivers, adults and peers. The people they can best rely on
are the teachers.
Furthermore, it is important to note:
1. Slow learners need topics to be explained in-depth. A teacher should explain a topic in great
detail by providing plenty of examples.
2. Teachers should set aside some time outside of the prescribed curriculum time to offer extra help
to the slow learner.
3. Teachers should be patient with slow learners.
4. Leaving an encouraging note on every marked work you had assigned the children goes a long
way in uplifting their self-esteem. Slow learners need a lot of encouragement.
5. Teachers should request slow learners to sit at the front of the class. It becomes easier to monitor
and involve them in various class activities such as answering questions.
6. Slow learners need somebody they can reach to - a friend. The people they'll tend to trust more
are teachers. Being friendly will enable them to open up to you which enable you to get to know
them better thereby finding better ways to help them.
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III. EMOTIONALLY DISTURBED CHILDREN:

Emotional disturbance is a condition in which a child exhibits one or more of the following
characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects a child’s
educational performance.
 Emotionally disturbed children have an inability to learn that cannot be explained
by intellectual, sensory, or health factors.
 They may be unable to develop and keep appropriate, satisfactory social relationships with
family, peers, and adults in the school system.
 They may have a tendency to display inappropriate behavior or feelings in response to normal
situations.
 They may have a pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression.
 They may be inclined to develop negative physical symptoms or fears related to personal or
school problems.
 "Emotional disturbance" means a condition exhibiting one or more of the following
characteristics over a long period of time and to a marked degree that adversely affects a
child's educational performance
 An inability to learn that cannot be explained by intellectual, sensory or health factors
 An inability to build or maintain satisfactory interpersonal relationships with peers and
teachers;
 Inappropriate types of behavior or feelings under normal circumstances;
 A general pervasive mood of unhappiness or depression; or
 A tendency to develop physical symptoms or fears associated with personal or school
problems. The term includes schizophrenia. The term does not apply to children who are
socially maladjusted, unless it is determined that they have an emotional disturbance (ED).
What needs to be done?
The term itself actually describes a very real challenge that may warrant formal interventions. If a
student’s emotional state is interfering with her learning, then she may qualify for special education
services as a student with an emotional disturbance. Eligibility must be determined through a formal
assessment conducted by a qualified team of professionals, possibly resulting in an Individual
Education Plan (IEP) meeting. It is important to note that most general education teachers are not
qualified to determine if a student needs the support services provided through special education,
though they will often recommend that an evaluation be initiated.
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IV. SOCIALLY HANDICAPPED CHILDREN

the socially handicapped child'' is used as a general term to cover such varied groups of children as
dependent and neglected children on the one hand and delinquent children on the other.”
A social disability or handicap can be referred to as any disorder that leads to the inability to make
progress socially and emotionally meaning the impact of the disorder degrades a person's quality of
life. The person isn’t able to function adequately in a given social situation these children include
orphans, neglected and delinquent children, street children, abused and missing children. These are
the children who have disturbed opportunities for healthy personal development and full unfolding of
potentials due to certain social factors (maternal, emotional and environmental) leading to non-
achievement of full potentials such type of children feel uncomfortable in social situations and often
find it challenging to interact with other people in appropriate ways.
They can be limited in extracurricular activities depending on their specific issues. This, in turn, makes
other children look upon the child with a disability differently. Due to these differences, barriers are
formed between children. Socially handicapped children often feel isolated because of these
boundaries. It is only one of the problems they face because of their condition.
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Handout 19.3
Causes of Individual Differences
Some of the main causes of individual differences are as under:
1. Heredity:
One of the most significant and chief causes of individual differences is heredity. Individuals inherit
various physical traits like face with its features, colour of eyes and hair, type of skin, shape of skull
and size of hands, colour blindness, baldness, stub-finger and tendency to certain diseases like cancer
and tuberculosis, mental traits like intelligence, abstract thinking, aptitudes and prejudices. Now it is
an admitted fact that heredity differences result in the quantity and rate of physical as well as mental
development being different and different individuals.
2. Environment:
Environment significantly influences individual differences. Changes in child’s environment are
reflected in the changes in his personality. Psychologically speaking, a person’s environment consists
of sum total of stimulation which he receives from conception until his death.
Environment consists of physical, intellectual, social, moral, political, economic and cultural forces. All
these forces cause individual differences. Modern psychologists believe that individual differences are
caused by both heredity and environment. Personality is the outcome of mutual interaction between
heredity and environment.
3. Influence of caste, race and nation:
Individuals of different castes and races exhibit very marked differences. It is generally seen that son of
a Kshatriya has a more of courage in him while the son of a trader has the traits of business.
Similarly individuals of different nations show differences in respect of their personality, character and
mental abilities. These are the outcome of their geographical, social and cultural environment. Many
studies have shown the existence of differences between Americans and Negroes, Chineese and
Japaneese, English and Indian individuals.
4. Gender differences:
Development of boys and girls exhibits differences due to difference in gender. The physical
development of the girl takes place a year or two earlier than the boys. Between the age of 11 and 14,
girls are taller and heavier than the boys. After 15, boys start winning the race.
Girls are kind, affectionate, sympathetic and tender while the boys are brave, hard, choleric, efficient
and competent.
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5. Age and intelligence:

Physical, intellectual and emotional development is caused by the growth in age. Many individuals
differ because of the differences in intelligence. Individuals who are below the average in intelligence
and mental age find much difficulty in learning and the average intelligent persons can learn quickly.
6. Temperament and emotional stability:
Some people are by temperament active and quick, while others are passive and slow, some
humorous and others short tempered. Emotional stability of the individual is differently affected by
physical, mental and environmental factors. Differences in emotional stability cause individual
differences.
7. Other Causes:
Interests, aptitudes, achievements, sentiments, character, educational and home background lead to
individual differences.
8. Economic condition and education:
Individual differences are caused by economic condition of the parents and the education of the
children. It is not possible for the children of two economic classes to have a similarity and equality.
One of the important objectives of modern education is the complete development of the individual.
Individuals have different goals, different interests, different emotional problems and different
abilities. We cannot afford to ignore these individual differences in imparting education to children.
Since school work is planned on group basis it presents a formidable challenge to all teachers.
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Worksheet 19.3
How are you different from me?
Name: Name:
Height: Height:
Weight: Weight:
Skin color: Skin color:
Caste: Caste:
Nationality: Nationality:
Education: Education:
Hobbies: Hobbies:
Favorite Favorite
subject: subject:
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Handout 19.4
The significance of individual differences in education
The significance of individual differences in education has long been recognized. The knowledge
concerning individual differences has increased and its significance to education has been enhanced
and individual differences are now a matter of general acceptance.
Now knowledge of these differences, their amount, interrelations, and causes, is very important and
necessary in planning the education of a particular child. Exact knowledge of just what differences do
exist between individuals and of the causes of these differences is important.
Education is furthermore concerned with individual differences resulting from the differing degrees of
maturity or growth, and those which previous education and training have caused. Education can only
be made efficient with a minimum of effort, time, and expense by knowledge of which of the
differences between people and the achievements of a given person are due to training, and which are
due largely to the degree of maturity.
Exact knowledge, not opinion, along all these lines is essential, if progress is to be made. Individual
differences must be kept in mind by the teacher if the needs of the individual pupil are to be met. It
should be remembered that physical and emotional differences must be met, as well as intellectual
differences.
The teacher must be familiar with many approaches to adjusting the learning situation to the
individual needs of the pupil. Any program of instruction must take into consideration the important
facts about differences in individuals and traits.
There exists in any realm of activity a wide range in endowments of individuals. However, individuals
cannot readily be classified into specific types since the various levels merge gradually and are not
sharply differentiated. The evidence is clear that the degree to which the individual possesses different
traits also varies. The wide range of capacities, abilities, needs, and interests in any classroom
necessitates a differentiated approach to instruction at all school levels and in all areas of learning.
Until the differences among the pupils in a given class are recognized, instruction cannot be on a
sound and systematic basis. A significant part of the dilemma in modern education has been brought
about by a failure to admit differences by treating all the pupils alike.
The traditional methods of group teaching have tended to over-emphasize the similarities and to
ignore the difference. To ignore the fact that people differ in ability, intelligence, interest, social train-
ing, and strength, as well as in age and sex, would be a serious mistake.
If training is to be shifted to the nature and needs of the individual, care must be taken to keep the
function of the school flexible and adaptable. No child in school can realize his educational growth and
development without a carefully planned and administered adjustment so wide individual differences
that exist among pupils.
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Handout 19.5
For Home Assignment
Some practical procedures for adapting school work to individual differences
1. Limited size of the class:
Generally, there are 50 or more than 50 students in a class. In such a large class, it is not possible for
the teacher to pay individual attention to the students. The size of the class should be small. It should
be divided into various units so that after class-room work their various difficulties may be found out.
2. Proper division of the class:
Now there are separate classes for the students, who have different intelligence. While bringing about
this classification, the teacher should keep in mind the difference in age, interests, emotional and
social qualities.
3. Home task:
The teacher should assign home task to the students while keeping in view the individual differences.
4. Factor of sex:
Boys and girls are to play different roles in society. Hence the factor of sex should be kept in mind.
5. Curriculum:
The curriculum should be modified to suit the needs of all types of children. A large number of
subjects should be included in the curriculum so that education can be provided to each child
according to his interests, needs and abilities. Curriculum should not be rigid but it should be flexible.
If we lay down the same curriculum for all the students, the brilliant students will not be able to have
full mental diet, and the backward students and the students of lower I.Q. will lag far behind in the
class, and they may start playing truancy from the school.
6. Methods of Teaching:
Methods of teaching should be chosen on the basis of individual differences. It is not advisable to use
the same method of education in the case of all children-gifted or backward.
7. Educational Guidance:
Teacher should impart educational guidance to the students while keeping in view their individual
differences. He can assist them in the selection of educational career, selection of subjects, selection
of books, selection of hobbies and co-curricular activities and in many other areas connected with
education.
8. Vocational Guidance:
While keeping in view the individual differences the teacher can guide the students in the vocation
that they should adopt.
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9. Individual Training:
Many plans and techniques for individualizing instructions have been advocated.
Some of these plans are as under:
(i) Dalton Plan:
This plan was introduced by Miss Helen Parkhurst at Dalton. According to this plan, the school is
regarded as a ‘children house.’ The principles underlying the plan are freedom, co-operation and
allocation of time. The pupils are free to continue without interruption the work in which they are
absorbed, unhindered by time tables.
They are not taught in classrooms. They are given subjects that suit their interests. The advantage of
this plan is that each pupil is allowed to proceed at his own rate and in accordance with this individual
ability. Thus the instructions are completely individualized.
(ii) Morrison Plan:
This Plan was devised by Professor H.Q. Morrison of the University of Chicago. This plan is based on
directed guidance and stresses unit assignment. To establish learning unit is an important task in the
Morrison plan. The plan is based on individual needs and interests.
(iii) Winnetka Plan:
This plan was instituted by C.W. Washburne in the school of Winnetka, Illinois. This plan is based on
the principle that the pupils should be allowed to follow his own rate of learning in each of the
subjects of his curriculum. Before instituting this plan it is observed through an examination that how
much an individual already knows. On the basis of it, specific learning unit is planned for him.
Progress is checked by the pupils himself by means of self-administered tests. The advantages of this
plan are that the backward and the intelligent are to proceed at their own rates. Moreover, there are
no failures since the pupil is measured against his own progress.
(iv) Contract Plan:
In this plan, the subjects of study are determined like the Dalton method; the pupil’s progress is
measured through tests like the Winnetka method. Thus this plan is a synthesis of Dalton and
Winnetka methods.
(v) Project method:
This method was suggested by Kilpatrick. In this method each member of the group can work in terms
of his interest and ability. Hence this method is also in the direction of individualization of instructions.
The classroom environment does not consist of uniform personalities, but rather an environment with
many individual differences. Therefore, in such a multi-disciplinary learning environment, passing the
same learning-teaching process to all students alike will affect the success of students negatively. The
role of the teacher is to observe his / her students and to reveal the individual differences that exist in
them and to arrange the learning environment accordingly.
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Worksheet 19.4
Case Studies
Serial # Case Technique to be used within the classroom and
why?
1. Maria, a student of class 5 is short 1. Identify the problem:
tempered and picks fights with her
fellow students. She is frequently 2. Pinpoint the reason:
absent from school. She is weak in
studies. She seldom does the 3. Suggest remedies to improve learning :
assigned homework.
2. Aliya, class 7th is exceptionally good 1. Identify the problem:
in mathematics. She is quick to pick
any new concept and does all the 2. Pinpoint the reason:
class work well before the other
students. She is however very 3. Suggest remedies:
irritable looks down upon the other
students. She needs constant
attention from the teacher.
4. Amina, class 9th, wants constant 1. Identify the problem:
outdoor physical activity. She
participates in every physical activity 2. Pinpoint the reason:
goes on within or outside the
classroom. Her studies are average 3. Suggestions:
5. Firdous, class 4, is weak in studies. 1. Identify the problem:
Her writing is not good and she is
unable to write on lines. She is slow 2. Pinpoint the reason:
in reading, has trouble spelling, and
mixes up words 3. Suggest remedies to improve learning:
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HANDOUTS
Handout 20.1
(LMS)
1. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uUOxUeCdVV8
2. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ITgA0-LBlGA
3. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=falHoOEUFz0
Self-Assessment worksheet 20.1

Multiple Intelligences: Where does my intelligences lie? (LMS)
https://www.literacynet.org/mi/assessment/findyourstrengths.html
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Handout 20.2
Some application/ideas for using the MI in classroom
Intelligence Examples of Teaching Activities Examples of Teaching Instructional

Materials Strategies
Linguistic Lectures, discussions, word games, Books, tape recorders, Read about it, write
storytelling, choral reading, journal typewriters, stamp sets, about it, talk about
writing etc. books on tape etc. it, listen to it
Logical-Mathematical Brain teasers, problem solving, Calculators, math Quantify it, think
science experiments, mental manipulative, science critically about it,
calculation, number games, critical equipment, math games conceptualize it
thinking, etc etc.
Spatial-Visual Visual presentation, art activities, Graphs, maps, video, art See it, draw it,
imagination games, mind-mapping, materials, optical visualize it, colour it,
metaphor, visualization illusions, cameras, mind-map it
picture library etc.
Bodily-Kinesthetic Hands-on learning, drama, dance, Building tools, clay, Build it, act it out,
sports that teach, tactile activities, sports equipment, touch it, dance it
relaxation exercises, etc. manipulative, tactile
learning resources, etc.
Musical Rapping, songs that teach Tape recorder, tape Sing it, rap it, listen
collection, musical to it
instruments
Interpersonal Cooperative learning, peer tutoring, Board games, party Teach it, collaborate
community involvement, social supplies, props for role- on it, interact with
gatherings, simulations, etc. plays, etc. respect to it
Intrapersonal Individualized instruction, Self-checking materials, Connect it to your

independent study, options in journals, materials for personal life, make
course of study, self-esteem projects etc. choices with regard
building, etc. to it
Naturalistic  Researching animal habitats, Collecting natural Hands on

 Observing natural surroundings, organisms - feathers, experience,
leaves, flowers etc., experiments, Lab
 Cooperative learning, inquiry based
activities, read about
learning about nature etc.
Organizing collections it, talk about it, listen
to it etc.
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Using scientific gadgets -

telescope, microscope
etc.
Environment related
activities - recycling etc.
Learning about nature.
Visiting various natural

locations and places
where they can mingle
with nature (including
farms).
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Handout 20.3
Extra material for facilitator
Educational Benefits of Applying Multiple Intelligences Theory
What makes the Multiple Intelligences Theory strong and useful in a classroom is the fact that it can be
used for any subject and at any level. Each student comes to a classroom as an individual who has
developed a different type of intelligence. This means that each student has their own intelligence
superiorities and weaknesses. Called a learning style, these intelligence domains determine how easily
or difficultly a student can learn through a specific teaching method.
There can be more than one learning style present in a classroom. To balance learning styles and
subject matter, a teacher should show students how to understand a subject which addresses one of
their weak intelligence domains by applying their most developed intelligence domain. For instance, a
student who has highly-developed musical intelligence can be asked to learn about a war and what
happened during that war by making up a song about it (Temur, 2007).
Moreover, students who apply their strong fields of intelligences in learning activities can learn a
subject that they used to hate with joy and without pressure. As another example, mathematics is
considered to be a tough subject for many students due to the abstract concepts they have to learn.
However, when such concepts are explained through a learning activity that implements students’
intelligences, students will find it more interesting and more fun because it is given as something they
love to do. Students can learn mathematics by drawing, dancing, blogging, and much more. A whole
curriculum can be created with activities based on multiple intelligences in a way that develops
different fields of intelligences for each student; such curriculum will be more student-centered.
Students will then discover the best ways by which they’re able to receive information.
It’s important to note that these intelligences are not the same thing as learning styles. Hattie and
Yates wrote an informative book on the learning style myth, discussing that, for example,
we all visually or auditory learn.
In a practical sense, what we can gather from all the research is this: First and foremost, we must find
ways to individualize our instruction. Second, we must vary our approach in how content is presented
and how the knowledge learned is presented back to us. This will maximize our individual student’s
intelligences and allow for all them to thrive.
1. Individualize our instruction
Back in the 1940’s, George Reavis, an Assistant Superintendent at the time, penned a fable called
Animal School. It’s about a school made up of ducks, fish, rabbits and eagles. I always read it to my
students (and parents) the first days of school. The moral: Allow those fish to swim, rabbits to run, and
let those eagles soar. We can’t have a room full of average ducks. Why do I take time to share this? To
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enlighten their understanding that they are all smart in their own special way. Showing them a pie
chart with all eight slices of intelligences can follow the story to further illustrate their individuality.
We must become masterful at acquainting ourselves with our students’ strengths those first few
weeks of school. This could be done with the following:
 All about me projects
 Surveys
 Interviews with students
 Presentations about self-interests
 Give students an MI test; there are many online
2. Reinforce Concepts
Repeated exposure to a concept reinforces learning. A "concept" in the classroom setting may be a
new skill, knowledge or some combination of both. We are not experts at the concept of driving the
first time we get behind the steering wheel, but begin to master the concept each time we practice
the skill of driving. The same is true for learning in the classroom. Teachers build upon what was
learned yesterday, last week or even last year. Repeating a lesson on a concept improves learning, so
the teacher pulling from the theory of multiple intelligences can reinforce the learning with different
types of activities. For example, students strong in the mathematical-logical intelligence would do well
with the pencil-and-paper task of adding simple fractions. Students with a preference for the musical
intelligence would understand how quarter notes and eighth notes "add up" to a complete measure
through a rhythmic-clapping activity. Using both activities reinforces the concept of adding fractions
for all students giving necessary extra practice.
3. Keep It Fresh
Repeated exposure to learning concepts is important, but using the same teaching method to teach
concepts causes students to lose focus. There are times when the worksheet is the best method to
provide practice for learning a concept, but relying on worksheets every day for every lesson can cause
some learners to tune out. Teaching to the multiple intelligences allows the teacher to keep the
learning environment fresh by changing up the teaching method. An activity to start the day may
involve movement that appeals to the bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. Not to be confused with recess
or free time, this is a brief out-of-desk learning time to introduce the day's lesson. Whether dance,
building with large blocks, or assembling a simple birdhouse, this bodily-kinesthetic activity is a
structured lesson outside the confines of the desk. Mixing up your teaching methods keeps students
interested in the lesson.
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4. Classroom Management
People feel success when a new concept is mastered. For adults in the workforce, failure to learn a
new task can be viewed as a chance to try again. For students, the sense of failure may cause them to
misbehave, be apathetic, not pay attention or disrupt the class. The multiple intelligence theory can
draw students back into learning. Using the different intelligences to teach a concept allows each of
your diverse learners a chance to succeed at learning. The learner with strength in the visual-spatial
intelligence will do well with drawing and puzzles. Students with strength in the linguistic intelligence
would do well with a written report over a reading assignment, while those dominant in interpersonal
intelligence excel at classroom discussions of what was read. As students feel success in learning,
problem behavior decreases. Teaching to a student's strength helps increase learning success.
5. Assess Learning
By using a variety of teaching strategies across the multiple intelligences, the teacher can assess or
measure student learning. The assessment could be a written or oral test, original artwork by the
student, a building task or some other activity which gives the teacher an idea of how well the student
learned the new concept. For instance, after successfully assembling a small engine, students in a
technical college could be assessed by developing a how-to manual complete with verbal instructions
and diagrams. In this example, students learn by building the engine tapping into the bodily-
kinesthetic intelligence, while the assessment of a written manual with diagrams draws on linguistic
and visual-spatial intelligences. The teacher can then measure how well students mastered the
concept by the completeness and accuracy of the written manual while students tapped into three
intelligences to learn and master the concept.
The key upon these activities is to observe. Interestingly, one can note intelligence by watching what
they are not doing. For example, the intra-personal student may remain completely silent and seem
uncomfortable when asked to be in a group to discuss a topic. The kinesthetic student won’t be able to
sit still. The musical student may be constantly tapping his/her pencil while you are talking. When we
can see how these students are naturally bent and perhaps sometimes not following instructions, we
can teach to their strengths. Teachers should carry a clipboard with all the students’ names, taking
notes and making intelligence observations. They can rotate on focusing on a group of three or four
students per day.
6. Diversify your lessons
When lesson planning, teachers can start with the objective and then identify an intelligence or two in
how it is taught. For example, to teach fractions, each day of the week, a different intelligence can be
emphasized. (These can be combined also).
 Monday: Logical Mathematical: use number lines, graphs, puzzles and brain games
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 Tuesday: Bodily Kinesthetic: Body formations, movement in the classroom

 Wednesday: Linguistic: picture books, journaling, poems
 Thursday: Spatial: dominoes, cards, , flash cards with drawings
 Friday: Naturalistic: nature walk with observation journals
 Monday: Interpersonal: cooperative groups and games
 Tuesday: Intrapersonal: journaling, individual rubrics to check work
 Wednesday: Musical: sing math facts, musical instruments to play patterns
Homework can also be completed with a particular intelligence in mind. That way students can grow in
a weak area some weeks and be in their sweet spot on other weeks.
7. Maximize our teaching
Varying how we portray material will be monumentally valuable for making the learning experiences
come alive for all students. We must be constantly collecting information about student strengths and
areas that could use improvement. If we have the lens that all students are smart in their own way by
identifying their primary intelligence, we’ll see students flower even an environment that is not
conducive to their given intelligence strength.
As we become more aware of our students, we can individualize our instruction to meet each
student’s need, then diversify to strengthen intelligences while growing others. Connecting to our
children by helping them see their individual intelligence, we are thereby lighting a candle inside of
them. We want our students to have the confidence that they have a special gift to contribute to this
world through the way their brain is wired. I want each student to leave my classroom with the
knowledge of the special way they are smart and then to maximize that in their future endeavors.
Reference:
 Waterhouse, Lynn. (2006a). Multiple Intelligences, the Mozart Effect, and Emotional
Intelligence:
 A critical review. Educational Psychologist, 41(4), Fall 2006, pp. 207–225.
 http://inservice.ascd.org/understanding-multiple-intelligences-for-the-classroom/
 https://www.rubicon.com/multiple-intelligences-theory/
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HANDOUTS
Handout 21.1
Meaning of Guidance for Different Persons
In general Guidance means the general influence applied in the family while fostering the favorable
upbringing of the child plus the assistance students receive from the school by way of reproof, praise,
warning and advice when difficult situations arises.
(i) Parents having children with special defects or disabilities (psychological or otherwise), guidance
may mean a rather special diagnostic and remedial process conducted in the child guidance clinics.
(ii) To parents who desire higher education for their children, guidance may mean chiefly a matter of
college advancement.
2. For teachers.
a) It is giving continuous consideration to individual needs of children.
b) It is providing attention to individual problems of adjustment or learning when it emerges in the
classroom.
c) It is the maintenance of a good psychological tone or climate in the classroom at all times.
3. For pupils
a) A period every week when matters like study habits are discussed or when their 'future' is
explored.
b) A chance to talk over personal problems with someone who listens, understands and helps.
c) An opportunity to obtain information about which college to attend.
4. For school administrator

a) It means all the things mentioned above and more.
b) It is an indispensable phase of school curriculum, very closely allied with instruction yet possessing
certain special service aspects demanded by the set-up of education in the school.
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Handout 21.2
Definitions of Guidance
Defined By: Definitions
Merriam Dictionary a. The act or process of guiding.
definition b. The direction provided by a guide
c. Advice on vocational or educational problems given to students
Cambridge Dictionary Guidance is providing help and advice about how to do something or
definition about how to deal with problems connected with your work, education,
or personal relationships.
(Kinara, 2008) Guidance is
a) An integrated, organized and creative process, which is useful and
applicable to all spheres of life.
b) A process aimed at ensuring all-round development of the recipients so
that they can solve their problems themselves.
c) Aids the process of self-discovery in the recipients, and help them to
develop their own personality, point of view and unique point of view
and unique way of handling problems.
d) Assistance provided by professional counselor in an organized, scientific
and professional activity.
Explanation.
Guidance is the help given by a person to another in making choices and
adjustment and solving the problems. Guidance aims at guiding the
recipient in growing in his independence and ability to be responsible for
himself. It is universal not confined to school or family. It is found in all
spheres of life- in home, in business, industry, in Govt:, in social life, in
hospital and prisons, indeed, it is present wherever there are people who
need help and wherever there people who can help.
JM Brewer Guidance is a process through which an individual is able to solve their
problems and pursue a path suited to their abilities and aspirations.
Stoops and Wahl Quist Guidance is a continuous process of helping the individual development in
the maximum of their capacity in the direction most beneficial to himself
and to society
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Hamrin & Erikson Guidance is an assistance made available by a competent counselor to an

individual of any age to help him direct his own life, develop his own point
of view, make his own decision & carry his own burden.
Ruth Strang Guidance is a process of helping every individual, through his own effort to
discover & develop his potentialities for his personal happiness & social
usefulness.
Reference:
 https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/guidance
 https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/guidance
 Kinara, A. (2008). Guidance and Counslling. New Dehli: Dorling Kindersley( India) Pvt Ltd, India.
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Handout 21.3
Needs of Guidance
Guidance is based upon the fact; human beings need help. Everyone needs assistance at some time in
their life, some will need it constantly, while others require in only at rare. The following are four kinds
of guidance
a) Psychological need
b) Philosophical need
c) Sociological need.
d) Educational need
a. PSYCHOLOGICAL NEED
Psychological researches have established that no two individuals are alike. Individuals differ from one
another in physical and mental traits. Individual traits have to be analyzed for the purposes of
education. One should know what types of differences will lead to what result. A scientific basis for the
allocation of courses and occupations has to be evolved. For example, secondary school student
demands from his educators more than formal instruction and group evaluation, sympathetic
understanding and individual attention due to his peculiar traits manifested in his growth. Guidance
helps us to apply new psychological insights into the nature of the individual. Following are the key
areas of the Psychological needs:
1. Individual Differences
2. Guidance Needs at different stages of development
3. Development of health personality
4. Making the most of available opportunities
b. PHILOSOPHICAL NEEDS/ BASES OF GUIDANCE

The Preamble of the Pakistani constitution bears evidence to commitment to the individual. Respect
individual dignity for each individual is exposed in the 'Fundamental Rights'. Provides each individual
the freedom to choose and equal opportunity. Freedom involves awareness of the alternatives
provided education which students learn by operating in a truly democratic atmosphere. It requires an
inward state of mind, where individuals refuse to act under fear, pressure or any mechanical habit of
mind. Schools create an environment and provide facilities to let the individual’s blossom out to be
creative. The students should pass out of the school with understanding of life, intellectual and
spiritual assurances and understanding of themselves. This is possible only through guidance.
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Guidance is postulated upon freedom of choice. It is intended to an individual to help him understand
himself.
c. SOCIOLOGICAL NEED
Today, industrialization has changed the entire social pattern. Various kinds of explosion such as
population explosion, knowledge explosion, technological explosion and explosion of rising
expectations have given rise to unprecedented problems of adjustments which are grave causes of
maladjustment among various sections of society. These problems must be solved satisfactorily.
Guidance is needed for bringing about proper adjustment. At home and community are inadequate to
meet the challenges of new times, educational institutions must come forward for equipping the
youth properly and adequately. All these factors require to help young men in the difficult art of social
adjustment.
1) Guidance is need for Proper Use of Human energy
2) Guide and changes in religious and moral belief
3) Guidance and extension of democracy
4) Lack of guidance at home
d. EDUCATIONAL NEEDS
As there are intellectually gifted, educationally backward and students of a wide range of varying
abilities, a classroom teacher is confused over ways and means of providing equality of opportunity of
every pupil. Compulsory education, increasing enrolments, high percentage of dropouts and failures,
the problems of wastage and stagnation, different streams require a well-organized programme of
guidance in schools which may enter into all phases of student life. A well-organized program of
guidance serves in following ways.
1. To helps students, having poor academic background

2. To help in proper selection of courses
3. To help in proper selection of careers
4. To minimize wastage of school resources
5. To help exceptional children.
Reference:
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Handout 21.4
Principles of guidance
A) Principles of guidance
1. A slow process. As it requires a considerable time to make suitable adjustments, the counsellor or
the guidance worker needs time to understand the counselee who has a complex personality and
who may be confronted with an intense problem.
2. A continuous process. Individuals are beset with problems throughout their lives. Guidance is a
continuous process. World is changing fast, new and altogether new problems come to the
forefront and an individual requires guidance for the solution of these problems. However, as the
individual gains maturity, he requires less assistance from his counsellor.
3. Development of the insight of an individual. The counsellor should help the individual so that the
latter may gains his own insights, accepts responsibility, develops the feeling of self-confidence
and ultimately makes his own decisions.
4. To consider most individuals as average normal persons. The counsellor is not interested in serving
individuals who are normal. The services of the guidance workers are available to all. The
counsellor would do well to refer cases of abnormal nature, i.e., extremely slow learners,
emotionally unstable, etc., to child guidance clinics where the services of appropriate specialists
are available.
5. Problems of guidance arise out of situations. As the present problems have their roots in the past,
the guidance worker is required to go into the past history of an individual who is in need of
assistance. The guidance-worker must be aware of the difference between symptoms and causes.
For example, if there is a child who is known as a "bully", the symptoms may be summed up as
over-aggressiveness, but the underlying cause may be discovered in the fact that child in the past
has developed the feeling that he was a rejected child and had no place in the family or school and
he wanted recognition and acceptance. Thus, 'why', 'how' and 'when' should be discovered when a
problem
6. Guidance problems are interrelated. The personality of an individual is a complex and integrated
whole. He is not a disembodied mind, nor is he a body without a mind, he is a psychological
organism in constant interaction with a complex array of environmental forces. He responds to his
environment as a ‘whole being'. Hence, educational, vocational and personal problems are
interrelated.
7. Based on individual differences. As the individuals differ in native capacity, ability and interest,
guidance is required for every one separately.
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8. Based on planning. Adequate time is required for planning guidance activities during and after
School hours.
9. Based on a rigid code of ethics. It needs as that every worker who has access to the confidence of
the student should establish and follow a rigid code of ethics.
10. Related to the total development of the student. As guidance is related to the total development,
all round harmonious development is the basic aim of guidance.
11. Guidance services must be an integral part of the school organisation. These should not be treated
as an isolated work to be left to the counsellor alone. All or most of the members of the staff
should take a keen interest and active part in assisting students to solve their problems. Guidance
work should be closely integrated with the work done by other agencies engaged in child
development work.
12. Guidance and instructional activities are complementary, these activities are interdependent and
reciprocal.
13. It is an organised service. Guidance is not an incidental activity of the school. It is a service which is
borad-based and has a definite purpose.
14. It is both a specialised and a generalised service. Everyone in the educative process — the teacher,
the parent and the counsellor — has an important role to play. For its proper functioning guidance
services require the help of a specially trained staff. These specialised personal assisting in student
guidance work would include the school counsellor, school psychologist, school social worker, child
welfare worker, school physician, school psychiatrist, curriculum placement worker, coordinator of
school activities.
15. It is meant for all. A guidance programme is not meant only for those who seek it. It must reach
the entire student community without their asking for it.
16. It is based on educational objectives. The guidance programme must be based on the educational
objectives which in their turn reflect the aim and purpose of a society.
17. Its tools should be as perfect as possible. Proper tools and guidance facilities are essential for
proper guidance service.
18. It is a specialised service. A guidance programme needs the services of a qualified and trained
counsellor.
19. Flexibility. In terms of educational and community needs a guidance programme is flexible.
Its special cases are referred to experts. Assistance and guidance of experts is obtained when there
are special cases needing guidance and counselling.
20. In it standards of ethics are observed. Secrecy should be observed in using personal information
and records in counselling.
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21. Objective data are used in it. Scientific attitude is observed in obtaining and using data.
Its work is separated from routine clerical and administrative work. The counsellor should not be
given duties of purely clerical and administrative nature of work.
22. Its work is subject to periodicals evaluation. Periodical appraisal is very essential for effective and
improved guidance and counselling programme.
23. Holistic development of individual: Guidance needs to be provided in the context of total
development of personality. Guidance deals with the development of the whole person. It does
not only focus on the learner’s academic achievement. But should also focus on different aspects
such as social and physical aspects (Thungu et. al. (2010).
24. Recognition of individual differences and dignity: Each individual is different from every other
individual. Each individual is the combination of characteristics which provides uniqueness to each
person. The dignity of the individual is supreme. The respect for others should come naturally and
should not be affected by titles, sex, age or appearance.
25. Guidance is concerned with Individual Behavioural Processes. It helps the individual gain better
control over his/her own behaviour such as likes, dislikes, tendencies and weaknesses. In this
principle the guidance worker uses tools such as: personal interviews, counselling relationship, test
interpretation sessions.
26. Guidance Relies on Cooperation, Not on Compulsion (Force). Client should not be forced. The client
should consent by either explicitly asking for help or implicitly hinting.
Similarities of Guidance and Counseling:
 Both are helping services
 Both aim at solving problems
 Both are principled activities
Reference:
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Handout 21.5
Deference between guidance and counseling
Guidance is a kind of advice or help given to the individual’s especially students, on matters like
choosing a course of study or career, work or preparing for vocation, from a person who is superior in
the respective field or an expert. It is the process of guiding, supervising or directing a person for
a particular course of action.
The process aims at making students or individuals aware of the rightness or wrongness of their
choices and importance of their decision, on which their future depends. It is a service that assists
students in selecting the most appropriate course for them, to discover and develop their
psychological and educational abilities and ambitions. Guidance results in self-development and helps
a person to plan his present and future wisely.
Definition of Counseling
The term counseling is defined as a talking therapy, in which a person (client) discusses freely his/her
problems and share feelings, with the counselor, who advises or helps the client in dealing with the
problems. It aims at discussing those problems which are related to personal or socio- psychological
issues, causing emotional pain or mental instability that makes you feel uneasy. The counselor listens
the problems of the client with empathy and discusses it, in a confidential environment. It is not a one
day process, but there are many sessions.
Counseling is not just giving advice or making a judgement, but helping the client to see clearly the
root of problems and identify the potential solutions to the issues. The counselor also changes the
viewpoint of the client, to help him take the right decision or choose a course of action. It will also help
the client to remain intuitive and positive in the future.
Key Differences between Guidance and Counseling in schools
The significant differences between guidance and counseling are given in the following points:
1. Advice or a relevant piece of information given by a superior, to resolve a problem or
overcome from difficulty, is known as guidance. Counseling refers to a professional advice
given by a counselor to an individual to help him in overcoming personal or psychological
problems.
2. Guidance is preventive in nature, whereas counseling tends to be healing, curative or remedial.
3. Guidance assists the person in choosing the best alternative. But counseling, tends to change
the perspective, to help him get the solution by himself or herself.
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4. Guidance is a comprehensive process; that has an external approach. On the other hand,
counseling focuses on the in-depth and inward analysis of the problem, until client understands
and overcome it completely.
5. Guidance is taken on education and career related issues whereas counseling is taken when
the problem is related to personal and socio-psychological issues.
6. Guidance is given by a guide who can be any person superior or an expert in a particular field.
As opposed to counseling, which is provided by counselors, who possess a high level of skill and
undergone through professional training.
7. Guidance can be open and so the level of privacy is less. Unlike counseling, wherein complete
secrecy is maintained.
8. Guidance can be given to an individual or group of individuals at a time. On the contrary,
counseling is always one to one.
9. In the guidance, the guide takes the decision for the client. In contrast to counseling, where the
counselor empowers the client to take decisions on his own.
Reference:
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Worksheet 21.1
Nature of Guidance
Definition by Merriam dictionary
a. The act or process of guiding. b. The direction provided by a guide
d. Advice on vocational or educational problems given to students
Q.1 Write down the nature of guidance from this definition
A. _____________________________________________________________
Definition 2
To provide help and advice about how to do something or about how to deal with problems
connected with your work, education, or personal relationships.

A.________________________________________________________________
Definition 3
Assistance provided by professional counselor in an organized, scientific and professional activity.
A. __________________________________________________________________
Definition 4
Guidance as a process through which an individual is able to solve their problems and pursue a path
suited to their abilities and aspirations
A.___________________________________________________________________
Definition 5
Guidance is a continuous process of helping the individual development in the maximum of their
capacity in the direction most beneficial to himself and to society.
A.___________________________________________________________________
Definition 6
Guidance is an assistance made available by a competent counselor to an individual of any age to help
him direct his own life, develop his own point of view, make his own decision & carry his own burden.
___________________________________________________________________________
A.________________________________________________________________
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Definition 7
Guidance is a process of helping every individual, through his own effort to discover & develop his
potentialities for his personal happiness & social usefulness.
A.__________________________________________________________________
Definition Knapp.
"Learning about the individual student, helping him to understand himself, effecting changes in him
and in his environment which will help him to grow and develop as much as possible — these are the
elements of guidance."
A._________________________________________________________________________________
Definition 9Chisholm.
"Guidance seeks to help the individual discover his own talents in comparison to the opportunities of
the world and helps him prepare himself so that he can find or develop a place in which he can live a
well-balanced life and contribute his part of his fellow man."
A._________________________________________________________________________________
Definition 10 Ruch and Segel.
"On the elementary school level, guidance is predominantly educational guidance, broadly viewed as
encompassing the objectives of physical and mental health, well-rounded social development, proper
use of leisure time and mastery of the fundamental school processes."
________________________________________________________________________________
A._________________________________________________________________________________
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Worksheet 21.2
Case studies
Serial Cases Technique to be used for
number guidance and why?
1 A Student is interested in math and physics while 1. Type of guidance provided:
not good at biology and chemistry. His/Her father
is seriously interested in medicines. He/she is
confused whether to obey his/her father’s
decision or to decide according to his own will. 2. Give your own Suggestions
for guidance:
2 A student decides to meet the principal of his 1. Type of guidance provided:
school to discuss future prospects. The principal
searches the interest of the student and suggests 2. Give your own Suggestions
accordingly (Pre-engineering). The principal for guidance:
shares his conversation with the student’s parents
and convinces them to allow their son to follow
his career choice.
3 Sheraz lives in Kohat city. He is a brilliant student 1. Type of guidance provided:
and his father is a Govt. servant. His father is
transferred to another district. Sheraz is very 2. Give your own Suggestions
upset and feels uncomfortable in the new school. for guidance:
Aslam is a teacher in Sheraz’s new school, he
notices that Sheraz is disturbed and develops a
bond of friendship with Sheraz. The teacher tries
to help Sherazad just in new school. After a few
weeks, with the teacher’s efforts, Sheraz feels
comfortable in the new school.
4 The village Zandani is far flung and backward area 1. Type of guidance provided:
in district DIKhan. The feudal lord of this village is
one of the biggest hurdles in education. Mr. 2. Give your own Suggestions
Nawaz is a social activist and works for the for guidance:
improvement of education in his district. He
brings awareness among the people of Zandani
about education as their basic right. He also
motivates the feudal lord that prosperity comes
only through education in any area.
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Worksheet 21.3
Comparison between Guidance and Counselling
BASIS FOR COMPARISON GUIDANCE COUNSELING
Meaning
Nature
Approach
What it does?
Deals with
Provided by
Privacy
Mode
Decision making
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HANDOUTS
Handout 22.1
The Role of Guidance in Schools
In any learning institution, counselors form an essential part of the organization since they serve as
key persons to whom students can turn to for help on matters related to general challenges facing a
teenager both in school and out of school. With the too academic oriented education system
characterized with exam cheating and results irregularities, students are likely to find themselves
faced with difficult decisions to make concerning career choices. Pressure from parents, lack of proper
Guidance and scarcity of jobs in preferred sectors can be quite overwhelming for a child unless guided
appropriately. Apart from career choice, the students are also faced with other adolescent challenges
such as relationships, rapid growth and physical changes, peer pressure, addiction to drugs and
alcohol, and the need for identity or to “belong”. Across the nation, schools have continued to
embrace use of GUIDANCE in an attempt to make the student’s growth and development as smooth
as possible. The school being a social place receives children both from developed and developing
communities with varied characteristics and behavior. The GUIDANCE teachers have continued to play
a crucial role in shaping the psychological, emotional, moral, and spiritual and education development
of students. They have looked after the welfare of the students by assisting them to make decisions
from a wide range of choices available. The department has contributed positively to students’
academic life by influencing them into making right decisions. Though schools may vary in terms of
demography, location, social-economic status and demands, the need for GUIDANCE remains the
same and counselors must strive to meet the varied needs of the student, teacher, and the school at
large for the education system to realize realistic results. This can meaningfully be achieved through
the following roles of GUIDANCE in schools.
A) Integrated Development of the Student
Apart from intellectual development and academic excellence, there is need to ensure total
development of the child enabling him/her to easily adapt to the ever changing environment within
the school and outside school. Integrated development is essential as it prepares the student for
sometimes tough choices they have to make ranging from, study skills, academic achievement, and
relationship with peers, teachers and parents. The student being a social being interacts and shares
facilities with others from different socio-economic backgrounds therefore requires proper Guidance
so as to develop qualities that facilitate harmonious interaction. Though GUIDANCE has done a
commendable job, a lot of emphasis has been geared towards academic excellence. Schools therefore
through proper GUIDANCE arrangements must ensure that, apart from academic achievement, all the
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following aspects are developed in a student to help them gain integrated development to cope with
the situations they are likely to encounter.
1. Academic Excellence: Education being the best livelier by giving an opportunity to the poor and
needy to rise in status, the school must guide the child towards academic excellence. With increased
workload, change in technology, and change in lifestyle, proper Guidance should be given to students
to develop good study habits and gain enough confidence to prepare and sit for exams. In some cases
the counselor has to give specialized attention to manage crisis such as lack of concentration, poor
performance, difficulty in comprehending certain subjects or just lack of interest in schooling on the
part of the student. The work of the counselor goes beyond excellence at the school level as proper
Guidance to the child would ensure they explore all avenues of academic excellence including
preparation for careers, scholarships, interviews and the competitive job market. Students from
financially low backgrounds are likely to be affected even further because of lack of fees therefore
would need Guidance concerning availability of bursaries and sponsorship which they can take
advantage of to better their chances of upward mobility.
2. Career Choices: Though academic excellence has been referred to part (a) of point one above, a
student’s professional world forms an essential part of his/her life. It is one thing to pass exams and
another to have a career that allows one to meet the demands of the job market and the society at
large. As noted by, counseling has become more focused on developing students’ competency not
only in academics but also in careers. To plan and build a career, a student must be helped to form an
integrated picture of themselves and their role in the professional world. Investing in education
becomes meaningful when the end product gives returns to the individual, government and the
society. A student must therefore be helped to have a clear perspective of the changing society and
realize their assets and limitations so that they set attainable goals and make their education
meaningful to the individual and the society at large. This would go along way in curbing high levels of
education inefficiency where graduates lack employable skills leading to educated unemployment that
the current education system is experiencing. Kiumi and Chiuri notes that, efficiency in education is
achieved if the education given yields desirable results to the society and its constituent individuals.
3. Social and Moral Life:
A school being a place where people from heterogeneous background meet for a common goal, it is
essential for the counselor to make proper arrangements to give adequate social adjustment to the
students. The students must be well equipped to face and rise above the situations they encounter in
relationship to peer pressure, social behavior, making new friends; being leaders among themselves
e.t.c. that has characterized our schools today. A counselor must get time to guide the students
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against anti-social behavior which is bound to affect performance. Listening to the students gives the
reassurance, self confidence and a strong self-image.
4. Health and Nutrition: Through both formal and informal programmes on health education,
nutrition and exercise, the GUIDANCE unit in secondary schools can help guide and instill hygienic
practices, eating habits and sanitation in students to ensure improved health, nutritional status and
body physique. Earlier researches have shown that, human development encompasses education and
training, better health and nutrition, and reduction of fertility, each of which makes its own important
contribution to human development. Together, these elements form “a seamless web” in which the
links and relationships considerably enhance the productivity of investment in education. GUIDANCE is
to assist guide students towards proper sanitation of dormitories, dining hall and the surrounding
environment as a measure of controlling diseases. Through the nurse, they can maintain proper health
records and assist refer students with medical problems that require attention beyond what the
school can offer. Physically disabled students and those with speech and hearing defects do require
remedial measures to help them cope with the situation and enjoy their learning. This has been
addressed through the establishment of GUIDANCE in schools.
5. Students’ Personal Problems:
These may be as varied as the total number of students in the school. When students fail to live up to
their expectations, they are likely to develop feelings of incompetence and insecurity that can easily
disturb their mental equilibrium resulting into low achievement. The most common of these problems
may include disappointing memories, strained relationships with teachers, parents or other students,
inferiority complex, emotional conflicts and lack of sense of belonging.
6. Co-curricular Activities: Students need proper Guidance so that out of class time is well utilized and
geared toward meaningful development of the child. Such activities can be well organized to provide
an opportunity for the student to develop a positive inter-personal character. Lack of proper utilization
of such “free” time can cause a student to deviate into anxiety and end up using their time on anti-
social behavior to release stress and other emotion related problems. This is a common phenomenon
in our schools as more and more parents seek to have their children exempted from curricular
activities which they view as a waste of time.
B) To Help Shape the Students’ Professional World
With the rapidly changing labour market trends, world of work, job requirements and altered market
conditions, there is need to guide the students towards setting of meaningful occupational goals. The
students should be given relevant information concerning career choices and labor market
requirements. Through careful understanding of the student, GUIDANCE can help the student choose
careers that are consistent with his/her ability. Students have to be helped in developing an integrated
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picture of themselves and of their role in the professional world. Left on their own, the students may
not know much about the job prospects of what they study, majority of them still look forward for
white collar jobs forgetting the ever changing world of technology which has turned many blues white.
Education should be made more meaningful to the child then and thereafter and avoid accumulation
of papers and certificates that may not help the child to fi t in the labour market. A student should
pursue education with a clear idea of what they will be to ensure efficient use of human resources.
Currently schools are pre occupied with mean scores and attainment of grade ‘A’ without much
thought on possible combination and career alternative for the child. A lot of talent in some of the
students remains latent because of laying too much emphasis on academic performance.
C) To Curb Indiscipline in Schools
Among the key issues was the discipline of the students which must now be carried out within the
human rights approach, the administration must make decisions with this in mind so as not to violate
the rights of the child. The removal of the cane has made it even more challenging considering the
new breed of young people in the society and in our schools. Principal is a tough job these days, she
further comments, on average, school students have access to more information, both good and bad,
and they believe they know their rights therefore can challenge the authority. With a liberal society
that prefers to give advice and not show the way and many parents wanting disciplined children and
not willing to make tough choices, the youth find themselves faced with serious challenges concerning
their discipline. The guiding and counseling unit therefore has a task to help direct students and give
them a sense of direction, purpose and self fulfillment geared towards all round excellence
performance. Most of the secondary schools across the country are dotted with drug abuse, alcohol,
peer influence, poverty, in disciplined children, orphaned children, lesbianism and worse of all
HIV/AIDS which make it impossible for the child to cope resulting into academic, social and spiritual
stress. Peer influence is quite rampant necessitating the need for counselors to provide useful
information that can shape the character of the students.
D) Ensure Sound Social and Moral Development of the Students
In a school set up, we cannot consider the student in isolation; they interact with others and face
different situations in life which may be easy to tackle or sometime requiring tough choices to be
made. If not well guided, this could easily lead to problems of adjustments which cause unrest in the
child who may find it difficult to cope. The situation is made worse by the fact that parents no longer
play their role, parents simply bundle their children off to school and pray that the principal’s magic
wand will do the trick. Many want the children disciplined but are never willing to make tough choices,
the task is presumed to be the teachers’. The school must therefore look for ways of equipping the
child with problem-solving skills without interfering with academic performance. In the same set up,
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we have children from disadvantaged sections of the society with varied experiences that may make it
difficult for them to cope with peers, teachers and the environment. This may range from poor
communication, low class participation, withdrawal, depression and lack of interest in co-curricular
activities. If not helped, such factors can affect a child’s performance not only academically, but the
total wellbeing and development of the child. Guidance and counseling is needed for such students to
enable them utilize the available opportunities and realize their full potential. Apart from facing
difficult situations, the school is also likely to have children with special needs such as physically
handicapped, slow learners, adapted, bereaved e.t.c., such children require support to enable them
accept their state and realize their full potentials irrespective of them disability. Well planned
educational programmes can help ease tension, anxiety and depression which would otherwise affect
a child’s performance. Spiritual nourishment is likewise essential so as to keep the child morally
upright. An extract from a report in the daily nation on Head teachers raise the alarm as students riots
become more violent, Ngare quotes parents as having said, “ We are raising the red flag. Things are
not right in our schools. There is no point of producing a bright but morally corrupt and in disciplined
youth” Added to that is rampant spread of devil worship in schools, students are bound to be gripped
by fear for lack of understanding what it all involves. They have to be given correct information and a
way out when handling such cases.
Reference:
 http://www.scientiasocialis.lt/pec/node/287
 https://www.researchgate.net/publication/324209919_The_role_of_Guidance_and_Counselli
ng_in_effective_teaching_and_learning_in_schools
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Worksheet 22.1
The Role of Guidance in Schools
A) Integrated Development of the Student
1) Academic Excellence:
Career Choices
2) Social and Moral Life:
3) Health and Nutrition:
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4) Students’ Personal Problems
5) Students’ Personal Problems:
6) Co-curricular Activities:
B) To Help Shape the Students’ Professional World
C) To Curb Indiscipline in Schools
D) Ensure Sound Social and Moral Development of the Students
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HANDOUTS
Handout 23.1
Group A. The meaning of Counseling
 Meaning of Counselling:
1. Counselling is not a process of giving advice, but it is a process of helping your patient who is
genuinely in need.
2. It aims to help an individual to be able to overcome his problem.
 Despite the fact that the terms guidance and counseling are used interchangeably, but both terms
have different meaning. In a family, parents counsel their children, doctors counsel patients,
lawyers to clients and teachers to students.
 Counseling is a mutual relationship between a counselor who is a professionally trained helper,
and a client who is a consumer of counseling services.
 Counseling is a professional relationship between a counselor who is professionally trained and a
client (counselee) who is seeking help to resolve a problem. (Okech and Ngumba 1991)
 Counseling is a face to face relationship between a client and a counselor in a confidential setting.
Counseling is a dynamic and purposeful relationship between two people who approach a
mutually defined problem, with mutual consideration of each other to the end that the younger or
less mature or more troubled of the two is aided to a self-determined resolution to his problem.
Counseling constitutes three activities like: I – Informing A- Advising and C – Counseling
3. Counselling is different from a casual conversation as it builds a professional relationship with
the patient.
4. It is totally FOCUSED, SPECIFIC and PURPOSEFUL.
5. Counselling is a long-term process and consists of professional communication.
6. What is Communication? It is a process in which there is exchange of thoughts, ideas and
feelings. It happens between two or more persons. It differs from casual communication.
7. Types of Communication – Verbal and non-verbal.
GROUP B. ROLE OF THE COUNSELOR:
 Informing: Here the role of the counselor is to give appropriate and correct information to the
clients.
 Advising: The counselor suggests appropriate courses of action. Here the counselor offers several
options and recommends one according to your aim or interest.
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 Counseling: The counselor helps the students to clarify his needs, feelings or motivations so that
he can make the appropriate decision for himself. So you can think of these three activities as a
continuous spectrum of areas which merge into each other.
 Supportive Verbal:
1. Use language that patient understands.
2. Convey interest in him by remembering name or the problem he has told.
3. Use encouraging statements.
4. Give the needed information.
5. Use humour or other means to reduce tensions.
6. Speak slowly, softly and clearly.
 Non-Supportive Verbal:
1. Direct advising.
2. Criticizing blaming.
3. Scolding.
4. Discussing your personal problems.
5. Interrupting and imposing your own values.
6. Non-accepting patient’s feelings.
7. Asking direct and embarrassing questions.
8. Arguing.
9. Excessive curiosity in personal things.
10. Giving un-guaranteed reassurance.
11. Talking too much.
 Supportive Non-verbal:
1. Maintain suitable conversational distance.
2. Maintain proper eye contact.
3. Attentive body posture.
4. Use occasional gestures.
 Non-supportive Non-verbal:
1. Looking away frequently.
2. Inappropriate distance.
3. Looking bored and irritated.
4. Looking at watch and showing restlessness.
5. Unpleasant tone of voice.
6. Unwanted or hating expressions.
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GROUP C. CHARACTERISTICS OF COUNSELING:

According to the British Association for Counseling and Psychotherapy, the definition of Counseling
emphasizes many features of counseling such as:
 Counseling takes place in the confidential environment
 Counseling is a two -way process.
 Counseling is the private relationship
 There is a mutual relationship between the two individuals. Mutual respect between the two.
 Counseling is a professional relationship i.e. one of the two must be trained to assist the other.
Skills and Techniques of Counselling:
1. Listening skills—you should always listen carefully and not question the patient too frequently.
Allow him to ventilate through your listening.
2. Attending skill—your proper attention should be given to the patient to show interest and
concern-verbal and non-verbal.
3. Feedback—expressing the meaning of patient’s feelings and summarizing his problems.
4. Probing—focusing in depth on particular aspects of the situation.
5. Confronting—help the patient to realize his problems or help him to become aware of what he
is suffering from, by making proper statements.
6. Interpreting—presenting the alternative ways or angles to look at his situation.
7. Self-disclosure—share your attitude, opinions and experiences.
8. Non-dependence—do not make the patient dependent rather make him self-sufficient to solve
his problems independently.
9. Questioning—ask open ended questions so that the patients gets the clue to open up with you.
Do not ask too many close-ended questions.
10. Incomplete sentence—encourage the patient to complete the sentence if he is not able to do
so.
11. Refocusing—if the patient is going off track or talking in circles get him back to maintain the
theme without hurting any of his feelings.
12. Silence—be with the patient’s feelings while he is crying and do not prevent him from crying.
Let him cry and ventilate himself.
13. Connecting—show connection between thought, behaviour and result or effect of what has
gone before.
Reference:
 https://books.google.com.pk/books?id=lafEC3V5XG0C&pg=PA2&dq=counseling+definition
 https://www.slideshare.net/nazumtin/councelling-54377672
 https://www.slideshare.net/EstherMaryMathew/principles-of-counceliing-techniques
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Handout 23.2
Principles of Counseling
1. Human Beings are Basically Self-Determining Creatures. Human beings have an innate desire for
independence and autonomy. They have the ability to control their own destiny and to be fully
responsible for their actions.
2. A Client Should Move Towards a Greater Level of Self-Acceptance and Self-Understanding. Aim to
excel more.
3. A Client Should Develop a Greater Level of Honesty in Respect to Himself. Client’s real self should
resemble the ideal self (one would like to be). Self-Concept (the way individuals perceive
themselves) should be congruent with their experiences.
4. Objectives should be based on the Clint’s Need and Not the Counselor’s. Guidance is a client
centered. It helps an individual to make a wise and informed decision.
Principles of Counselling:
1. Principle of acceptance—accept the patient with his physical, psychological, social, economical
and cultural conditions.
2. Principle of communication—communication should be verbal as well as non-verbal and should
be skilful.
3. Principle of empathy—instead of showing sympathy put yourself in patients shoes and then
give reflections accordingly (Empathy is ability to identify with a person.)
4. Principle of non-judgmental attitude do not criticize or comment negatively regarding patient’s
complaints.
5. Principle of confidentiality—always keep the patient’s name, and the problem strictly secret
and assure the patient about the same.
6. Principle of individuality—treat each and every patient as unique and respect his problem as
well.
7. Principle of non-emotional involvement—not getting emotionally involved with the patient and
avoid getting carried away with his feelings
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Handout 23.3
Guidelines for teachers
Know Your Limits
Although you are not expected to act as an amateur psychologist, you can function as a concerned and
understanding support person. In cases where you are uncertain about your ability to help a student,
however, it is best to be honest about this. Trust your intuition when you think an individual’s problem
is more than you can handle and the assistance of a professional is warranted.
Clarify Your Role
When you assume or are placed in the counseling role, role conflicts are possible. Some students will
see you as an authority figure, which may make it difficult for them to be totally straightforward. It
may also give your advice or opinion added “baggage,” if a student thinks it will influence his or her
outcome in your course. Other students will see you as a friend, complicating things when you need to
evaluate their performance in your class. If you feel role confusion or conflict, address it clearly by
letting your student know how you see your role.
Listen
Productive listening is a skill acquired with practice. When a student shares a problem or questions,
refrain from immediately imposing your opinion. Withhold advice unless it is requested; concentrate
instead on understanding the feelings and thoughts of your student (rather than your own). Allow the
student enough time and latitude to express their thoughts and feelings as fully as possible.
Help Clarify Concerns
Sometimes students simply need the opportunity to figure out what is bothering them without being
directly advised. You can help a student clarify their concerns by “mirroring” the feelings and thoughts
you hear expressed and by helping them define the area of concern as precisely as possible. Once both
you and the student understand the nature of the problem, you may then want to provide honest and
considerate feedback, if it is desired.
Offer Support
Offer support by directly expressing concern, understanding, and empathy, and conveying an attitude
of personal acceptance and regard for the student. Support does not mean you have to endorse every
action, thought, or feeling that a student shares with you; it simply shows that you care about their
well-being.
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Suggest Alternatives for Action
Students will often generate the best plans of action themselves, but you can help a student assess
and use both personal resources and outside support for solving problems. If requested, you can also
suggest alternatives. Try to do so, however, only after the person in need has exhausted his or her
ability to generate ideas. However, if the problem is merely a need for information, provide it or point
the student to someone who can.
Follow Up Your Efforts
If a student has made a decision or approached a conflict with your help, politely and nonintrusively
check back a few days or weeks later to get feedback on what has happened. Such information can be
rewarding if your help has been useful, and corrective if it has no
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Worksheet 23.1 (A)
After watching the video (Anxiety) answer the questions below:
Q1. What are the two most important points you picked up from the video?
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
________________________
Q2: Think of an example from your personal experience where a student faced anxiety. Now describe
how you dealt with the situation and steps you took to ease an anxious child.
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________
Q3. What three pieces of advice would you give to your colleagues to alleviate anxiety in your
students?
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
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Worksheet 23.1 (B)
After watching the video (Trauma) answer the questions below:
Q1: What parts of the brain would kick in if a teacher asks a shy student a sudden question, taking
him/her unawares?
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
Q2. In light of the video, give an example of how a child’s brain reacts to trauma. What can a teacher
do to assuage the traumatic experience of a child?
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
Q3. Think and write about a time when you faced trauma, what did you experience physically,
emotionally and psychologically? What helped you get over the experience?
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
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Worksheet 23.1 (C)
After watching the video (c) answer the questions below:
Q1. What is counselling and how can it help students get over anxiety and traumatic experiences?
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
Q2. How can a counsellor build confidence in a child?
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
Q3. Think about and write a personal experience where you were successful in counselling a child and
making them feel good about themselves or getting them to improve in what they were falling short
of.
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
__________________________________________________________________________
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HANDOUTS
Handout 24.1
Organization of Guidance services in Schools.
A) Definitions
1. Guidance services in schools include those activities which assist the students in achieving their
maximum potential for living a full, productive life that honors God, and which helps them to
achieve the self -understanding and self-direction necessary to make a maximum adjustment
to school, home, and community.
2. Guidance Program is a system of services designed to improve the adjustment of every person
for whom it is organized. Guidance Program is not a merely specialized service, but becomes an
integral part of the educational system. It is responsive to the student’s needs and recognizes
the student as an individual. It aims to personalize and humanize the education of the student.
It is a collaborative work of the three pillars of the educational system, namely, administration,
instruction and guidance.
B) Key Stake holders in the organization of guidance services in school.

Following are the key stake holders, who are involved in the Organization of Guidance services
in Schools.
The Administrator
It is the administrator of the school system who should give the initial understandings of this program
and the over-all picture of what constitutes the guidance services. The administrator must not only
give his support, but he must also furnish the necessary machinery for the development of such
services. The responsibility and duty of the administrator "...is one of planning, organizing, and the
coordinating of the efforts of all, in order to place the appropriate emphasis on the guidance
program." to achieve this goal.
The Principal
A Principal forms the head of the administrative team within a school and is responsible for overseeing
the daily operations of the institution. They coordinate staff schedules, oversee the development of
curriculum and enforce school policies relating to themes like discipline or safety. The Principal also
coordinates staff training days and works directly with students who need help meeting or setting
goals. The Principal also serves as the direct liaison between the school and the school board and is
responsible for ensuring that the school operates according to school board protocols. He may,
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however, delegate many of the duties and even the authority to another, but it is important that he
remains ex-officio the head of the guidance services.
The Counselor
Organization of the guidance program is something outside of the direct work of the counselor, yet
there is no one who can do more to ensure a good counseling program than the counselor. Since he
has presumably had special training in guidance procedures, he will be an important 12 member on
the guidance council. His knowledge of the entire field of guidance service and its application in
specific school systems will be invaluable, both in building up common understandings and in
suggesting procedures for the frame-work of the guidance program in this particular school.
The Home Room Teacher/ Tuition teacher
Since the home room teacher is in a position to know each pupil more intimately than any other
teacher, he obtains much information about the pupil in all his relationships: his attitudes, his studies,
his difficulties with teachers, his problems of discipline, his home conditions and environment, his
associates in school and out, his interests and abilities. He is, therefore, in a unique position to co-
operate with the counselor. In fact, in schools where a full-time counselor cannot be employed, the
home room teacher is often chosen to head the guidance program of the school. In the guidance
program, he might well be expected to have an important place in the guidance council and in working
committees.
The Class Room Teacher
Too often the classroom teacher has considered himself only a subject teacher and has not been
concerned about pupils outside the classroom. In a guidance program where the personnel point of
view prevails the classroom teacher finds that he has a very definite place. Not only can he contribute
to the guidance program, but he finds that his participation in this phase of pupil development is a
definite aid to his teaching. Subjects take on a deeper, richer meaning. Better understandings of his
pupils, their homes, and problems open up new avenues of approach to their interests as well as
explain causes of failure, absenteeism, and school-leaving.
Reference:
 https://ecommons.luc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2226&context=luc_diss
 https://www.slideshare.net/monikakalsi1/organization-of-guidance-programme-in-
educational-intuitions
 file:///C:/Users/PAKISTAN/Downloads/HerbothMayCatherine1948%20(4).pdf
 http://www.yourarticlelibrary.com/education/guidance-in-schools/organizing-guidance-
services-in-schools-need-principles-and-limitations/63675
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Worksheet 24.1
Organization of Guidance services in Schools.
Task 1: Think about the descriptions of the various roles people play in schools in Handout 6.1 and
discuss how similar or different the following roles are in our school:
Administrator:
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
Principal:
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
Counselor:
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
The Homeroom Teacher:
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
The Classroom Teacher:
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________________________
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Task 2: Think about all the above roles and identify two qualities that are a must for each of these
people. Give reasons for your choice.
ROLE Qualities Reasons
Administrator 1.
2.
Principal 1.
Counselor 1.
Homeroom Teacher 1.
Classroom 1.
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Handout 24.2
Role, Need, objectives and importance of Guidance Services in School
A) Role of Guidance Services in School

As an integral part of education, guidance plays an important role in the schooling system. Attending
school is not our only target in the modern and complex world. Rather present school should take a lot
of initiatives and responsibilities to build its students properly. For which they would be able to
shoulder their careers in the right direction utilizing their potentialities to the maximum extent in
relation to their limitations otherwise they would not be considered fit to adjust and cooperate
positively and perfectly in educational, occupational, personal as well as social life. It is keenly
observed that without proper guidance services- no student has ever been able to maximize his
talents and potentialities. Therefore, organization of guidance services in the school has become an
urgent need for the present society.
Mainly guidance services given in the school include all sorts of school guidance activities and
programmes which are meant for students in order to maximize their potentialities, achieve self-
realization, self- direction and self-development, choose suitable career plans, carry a satisfactory
occupation, get job satisfaction, make better adjustment in the home, school and community.
In fact the organization of guidance programme in the school is not a recent attempt by the developed
countries of the world. But in Pakistan, it has not got any clear picture and due status like other
developed countries. Only suitable saying and mere attempt of the same will not contribute fruitful
result to students as well as nation.
That is why careful attempts should be taken by the Government, related agencies, schools and
concerned personnel to receive grand success in the organization of the guidance programmes in the
schools.
B) Need and Importance of Organization of School Guidance Service:
In past, school was considered as an institution to meet the literary ambition, to satisfy thirst for
theoretical information and knowledge, to spend leisure hours of the pupils. Unfortunately, at present
the same achievements are not enough for the students to survive in the ever-changing world.
Keeping this in view now- a-days schools should act for the preparation for the goals of students as
well as education.
So it is natural that education should become a purposeful activity. It is not possible in the part of an
immature student to determine right goal of life and as such the goal of education. In this context,
Toynbee rightly remarks “a civilization survives only so long as it makes adequate response to the
233 | P a g e
challenges of its times”. So the students need effective school guidance services which would be
organized smoothly in the right way.
C) School guidance Service at primary as well as secondary school level due to following needs:
i. It enables teachers to know the talents and potentialities of the students.
ii. It enables guidance workers to recognize the field and degree of interest and potentialities
of the students.
iii. It gives ample opportunities to find essential, reliable and authentic and scientific data on
students.
iv. It gives hints to the students to choose an appropriate career plan for future.
v. It helps students to find out a suitable occupation by which they can get maximum job
satisfaction.
vi. It offers adequate information and knowledge to the students for better adjustment in the
school and its surroundings.
vii. It provides proper knowledge and information to the school going children to adjust in the
home and its sphere.
viii. It provides knowledge and information the students to adjust in the community
satisfactory.
ix. It helps parents and relatives to make a suitable career plan for better future of the
children.
x. It helps in studying and understanding the students in regards to their natures, needs and
physical, intellectual, emotional and social abilities.
xi. It helps staff of the school to utilize and develop their knowledge, skill, self interest, and
training abilities for the same.
xii. It helps guidance personnel of the school’s guidance programme in considering their
activities and functions.
xiii. It gives ample opportunities to the students for achieving self-realization, self-direction and
self-development for a bright future.
xiv. It is a joint and concentrated venture of the headmaster, teacher, guidance personnel and
parents for the upliftment of students and society considering best possible use of available
community resources.
xv. It saves time, energy and money if the school guidance programmes are systematically
organized.
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D) Objectives of Organization of School Guidance Service:

In-fact the students are the best human assets for the society. Aspiring for a better future of the
students and as well as nation it has become an urgent need to organize school guidance services in
the school keeping certain objectives. We can have a developed nation if the human resources of the
country are properly utilized and developed.
Feeling this importance in the mind recently the school guidance services are taken into consideration
for this high time.
Certain aims and objectives of organization of school guidance service are stated below:
i. To understand the needs, demands, potentialities, interests, attitudes, aspiration and
position of the students.
ii. To assist students to understand themselves and develop self-concepts within them.
iii. To help students in framing future education plans.
iv. To assist students in determining their occupational choices.
v. To help students for satisfactory adjustment in the home.
vi. To assist students for better adjustment in the school.
vii. To help students for suitable adjustment in the community.
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Induction Program for Teachers 2019 – 2020

Technical Assistance by Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Education Programme:

Developed under the supervision of:

Reviewed under the supervision of:

Handout 8.3(b) ........................................................................................................................................................ 86

Types of Transfer of Learning:............................................................................................................................... 112

Handout 15.2......................................................................................................................................................... 150

Handout 19.2......................................................................................................................................................... 177

Worksheet 22.1 ..................................................................................................................................................... 218

E&SED Elementary and Secondary Education Department

About Course Module

 Outline briefly different theories of personality and their relationship to schooling.

Wish you good luck!

Helping students 'bounce back' in the face of difficulties

information much like a computer.

individual unique. Classic theories of personality include

Definition of Educational Psychology

The following are definitions of education psychology by well-known psychologists:

Nature and Scope of Educational Psychology

Branch of Psychology Goes Here:

A Sample filled in Frayer Model template:

Advantages of Educational Psychology.

Methods of Educational Psychology

My strongest belief is…

I want to live my life…

What distinguishes me from others is…

The words I live by are…

How do I want people to

taken when deriving classifications. These do not automatically emerge

05 Third They begin to Teaching and Emotional Controlled emotional

2. Later childhood (6-12 YEARS)

 Erikson’s stages of social development

6. Intimacy vs. Isolation

 Allow older children to work out everyday problems on their own

4. Why is social development so important?

 Grip a pencil or paintbrush

The Effects of Physical Development on the Middle Childhood

Defined By: Definition Explanation

John Parankimalil Learning is the process by

Handout 8.3 (a)

Sample Concept Web

Instruction: After reading the Handout 8.3 (a)

Worksheet 8.2 (a)

Worksheet 8.2 (b)

My learning style(s) is/are:

My strengths as a learner are:

1. Visual learners ________________________________________________________

2. Auditory learners _______________________________________________________

3. Kinesthetic learners _______________________________________________________

4. Reading/writing learners _________________________________________________

Handout 10.2 (A)

Handout 10.2 (B)

2. Motivation and Interest:

1. Presentation and Organization of Material:

Factors identified How they impact learning Remedies

1. Describe the various aspects of experiential learning

2. Explain how these can be applied to classroom practices

3. Name the major factors that affect learning.

5. How do these factors impact learning?

6. How can the adverse effects on learning be reduced?

Handout 11.1 (a)

 “Transfer” is a cognitive practice whereby a learner’s mastery of knowledge or skills in one

 “Transfer is generalization for it is extension of ideas to a new field.” (Peterson)