Plant Life Cycles

The plant life cycle alternates between haploid and diploid generations. Embryonic development
is seen only in the diploid generation. The embryo, however, is produced by the fusion of
gametes, which are formed only by the haploid generation. So understanding the relationship
between the two generations is important in the study of plant development.

Unlike animals(see Chapter 2), plants have multicellular haploid and multicellular diploid stages
in their life cycle. Gametes develop in the multicellular haploid gametophyte (from the Greek
phyton, “plant”). Fertilization gives rise to a multicellular diploid sporophyte, which produces
haploid spores via meiosis. This type of life cycle is called a haplodiplontic life cycle (Figure
20.1). It differs from our own diplontic life cycle, in which only the gametes are in the haploid
state. In haplodiplontic life cycles, gametes are not the direct result of a meiotic division. Diploid
sporophyte cells undergo meiosis to produce haploid spores. Each spore goes through mitotic
divisions to yield a multicellular, haploid gametophyte. Mitotic divisions within the gametophyte
are required to produce the gametes. The diploid sporophyte results from the fusion of two
gametes. Among the Plantae, the gametophytes and sporophytes of a species have distinct
morphologies (in some algae they look alike). How a single genome can be used to create two
unique morphologies is an intriguing puzzle.
Figure 20.1

Plants have haplodiplontic life cycles that involve mitotic divisions (resulting in multicellularity)
in both the haploid and diploid generations (paths A and D). Most animals are diplontic and
undergo mitosis only in the diploid generation (paths B and (more...)

All plants alternate generations. There is an evolutionary trend from sporophytes that are
nutritionally dependent on autotrophic (self-feeding) gametophytes to the
opposite‐gametophytes that are dependent on autotrophic sporophytes. This trend is exemplified
by comparing the life cycles of a moss, a fern, and an angiosperm (see Figures 20.2– 20.4).
(Gymnosperm life cycles bear many similarities to those of angiosperms; the distinctions will be
explored in the context of angiosperm development.)

Figure 20.2
Life cycle of a moss (genus Polytrichum). The sporophyte generation is dependent on the
photosynthetic gametophyte for nutrition. Cells within the sporangium of the sporophyte undergo
meiosis to produce male and female spores, respectively. These spores (more...)

Figure 20.4

Life cycle of an angiosperm, represented here by a pea plant (genus Pisum). The sporophyte is
the dominant generation, but multicellular male and female gametophytes are produced within
the flowers of the sporophyte. Cells of the microsporangium within (more...)

The “leafy” moss you walk on in the woods is the gametophyte generation of that plant (Figure
20.2). Mosses are heterosporous, which means they make two distinct types of spores; these
develop into male and female gametophytes. Male gametophytes develop reproductive structures
called antheridia (singular, antheridium) that produce sperm by mitosis. Female gametophytes
develop archegonia (singular, archegonium) that produce eggs by mitosis. Sperm travel to a
neighboring plant via a water droplet, are chemically attracted to the entrance of the
archegonium, and fertilization results.* The embryonic sporophyte develops within the
archegonium, and the mature sporophyte stays attached to the gametophyte. The sporophyte is
not photosynthetic. Thus both the embryo and the mature sporophyte are nourished by the
gametophyte. Meiosis within the capsule of the sporophyte yields haploid spores that are
released and eventually germinate to form a male or female gametophyte.

Ferns follow a pattern of development similar to that of mosses, although most (but not all) ferns
are homosporous. That is, the sporophyte produces only one type of spore within a structure
called the sporangium (Figure 20.3). One gametophyte can produce both male and female sex
organs. The greatest contrast between the mosses and the ferns is that both the gametophyte and
the sporophyte of the fern photosynthesize and are thus autotrophic; the shift to a dominant
sporophyte generation is taking place.†

Figure 20.3

Life cycle of a fern (genus Polypodium). The sporophyte generation is photosynthetic and is
independent of the gametophyte. The sporangia are protected by a layer of cells called the
indusium. This entire structure is called a sorus. Meiosis within the (more...)
At first glance, angiosperms may appear to have a diplontic life cycle because the gametophyte
generation has been reduced to just a few cells (Figure 20.4). However, mitotic division still
follows meiosis in the sporophyte, resulting in a multicellular gametophyte, which produces eggs
or sperm. All of this takes place in the the organ that characterizes the angiosperms: the flower.
Male and female gametophytes have distinct morphologies (i.e., angiosperms are heterosporous),
but the gametes they produce no longer rely on water for fertilization. Rather, wind or members
of the animal kingdom deliver the male gametophyte—pollen—to the female gametophyte.
Another evolutionary innovation is the production of a seed coat, which adds an extra layer of
protection around the embryo. The seed coat is also found in the gymnosperms. A further
protective layer, the fruit, is unique to the angiosperms and aids in the dispersal of the enclosed
embryos by wind or animals.

The remainder of this chapter provides a detailed exploration of angiosperm development from
fertilization to senescence. Keep in mind that the basic haplodiplontic life cycle seen in the
mosses and ferns is also found in the angiosperms, continuing the trend toward increased
nourishment and protection of the embryo.

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