9.
1 Sensation
Senses-brain receives information
Sensation-initiated by stimulating sensory
Perception-conscious awareness of simuli
Two basic groups of senses
 general-distributed large part of
body
(1) Somatic-sensory information
(2) Visceral-internal organ:pain and
pressure
 Special senses-
smell,taste,vision,hearing &balance
9.2 SENSORY RECEPTORS
-never ending or specialized cell
Mechanoreceptors -bending or
stretching
Chemoreceptors -smell
Photoreceptors -light
Thermoreceptors -temperature
Nociceptores -pain
9.3 General senses
Markel disk -involve detecting light
and superficial pressure
Hair follicle receptor -detect light touch
Meissner corpuscles - discriminitive
touch
Ruffini corpuscles -deeper tactile
Pacinian corpuscles -depest receptor:w/
tendon and joints
PAIN-unpleasant perceptual 7 emotional
experience
REFFERED PAIN- deeeper structure
9.5 OLFACTION
-sense smell
Olfactory neurons-are bipolar neurons
within
Olfactory epithelium
Olfactory neurons- human at least have
400
Mucus- keep nasal epi moist
9.6 TASTE-many taste sensation strong
influenced by olfactory
Taste buds-oval structure located on the
surface of papillae
Taste cell-contains hairlike called TASTE
HAIR
Taste pore -tiny opening in in the
surrounding of stratified epi.
5 Taste sensation
-Sweet,sour,bitter,salty,umami
9.7 Vision-visual system:housed with
bony structure called ORBITS
Eyebrows-preventing perspiration
Eyelids-protect from foreign objects
Conjunctiva- thin mucous covering
eyelids inner surface
Lacrimal apparatus- consist of lacrimal
gland(produce fluid called tears)
Lacrimal Caniculi- small ducts collect
excess tears
EXTRINSIC EYE MUSCLE- responsible
movement for eyeball
Oblique muscle- located long axis of the
eyeball
ANATOMY OF THE EYE
FIbrous Tunic-outer
Schlera -white outer connective
choroid -very thin structure
Vascular tunic-middle tunic of the eye
Cornea- transparent anterior
iris-colored part of the eye
Nervous tunic-innermost
retina- inner layer of the eye(sensitive to
light)
CHAMBERS OF THE EYE
Anterior chamber -filled w/ aquamos
humor
Posterior chamber -filled w/ aquamos
humor
Vitreous chamber -filled w/ vitreous
humor
FUNCTION OF THE EYE- like a camera
Light refraction
Focusing images of retina
9.8 HEARING AND BALANCE
3 area of ear
External ear-outside of the head
Middle ear-air filled chamber
Inner ear-set of fluid filled chamber
External ear
Auricle-fleshy part
Tympanic membrane-eardrum
Cereminous gland-produce cerumen
Middle ear-
Oval & round window-two covered
openings
Inner ear
Bony labyrinth-interconnecting tunnels
Cochlea-snail shell like
Hearing
Pitch- frequency of wavelength
Volume- amplitude of sound wave
Balance
Static equilibrium-vestibule:evaluating
position of the head relative to gravity
Dynamic equilibrium-semicircular:rate of
head movements
10.ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Endo(within)krino(secrete)
Endocrinology -study of endocrine
Endocrine- composed of endocrine
glands
Hormones-chemical messenger
Exocrine glands have ducts that carry
their secretions to the outside of the
body, such as the stomach or intestines.
Chemical messenger-allow to
communicate with each other
1. Autocrine(auto self)-stimulate the cell
that originally secreted it.
2. Paracrine-(para-next)-secreted by one
cell
3. Neurotransmitters-are chemical
messengers secreted by neurons
4. Endocrine Chemical Messengers-are
secreted into the bloodstream
10.2 function of endocrine
1.Regulation of metabolism
2.control of food intake
3.Modulation of tissue development
4.regulation of ion levels
5.control of water balance
6.Regulation of cardiovascular functions
7.Control of blood glucose and other
nutrients.
8.Control of reproductive functions
9.Stimulation of uterine contractions and
milk release.
10. Modulation of immune system
function
10.3 HORMONES
hormon"set into motion."
Lipid-Soluble Hormones are nonpolar,
and include steroid hormones,
Water-soluble hormones -are polar
molecules; they include protein
hormones, peptide
10.4 CONTROL OF HORMONE SECRETION
Stimuli
Humoral stimuli-humor ‘bodily fluids’
such as blood.control of hormone release
in response to changes in extracellular
fluids
Neural Stimuli-control of hormone
secretion of an cells
Hormonal stimuli-hormone in response
to another hormone
10.5 HORMONE RECEPTORS AND
MECHANISM
Receptors-binding to target cell
Receptor site-where hormone bind
Specifity-bind to one type of receptors
and no to others
CLASSES OF RECEPTOR
Lipids soluble hormone bind to nuclear
receptor-small and non polar
Water soluble hormone bind to
membrane bound receptors-polar
molecule and cannot pass through cell
membrane
Signal Amplification-The rate and
magnitude
ENDOCRINE GLANDS AND THEIR
HORMONES
Pituitary gland is also called the
hypophysis. It is housed in a depression of
the sphenoid bone;known as the body’s
master gland
(1) Anterior pituitary is made up of
epithelial cells derived from embryonic
oral cavity
(2) Posterior pituitary is an extension of
the brain composed of neurons.
Thyroid gland
one of the largest endocrine
synthesizes and secretes three hormones.
(1) triiodothyronine
(2) Thyroxine
(3) calcitonin.
Isthmus- two lobes connected by a
narrow
Four tiny parathyroid glands are
embedded in the Parathyroid Glands-
posterior wall of the thyroid gland
Adrenal Glands
Two small gland located superior to each
kidney.
Adrenal medulla -inner part
Adrenal cortex- outer part
Pancreas elongated, tapered organ
located across the back of the belly
Pancreatic Islets (Islets of Langerhans) -
dispersed throughout the exocrine
portion
1. Alpha Cells secrete glucagon
2. Beta Cells secrete insulin
3. Delta Cells secrete somatostatin
Acidosis- blood glucose levels are very
low
Diabetes Mellitus- body's inability to
regulate blood glucose levels
Hyperglycemia -tissues cannot take up
glucose effectively
testes of the male and the ovaries of
the female
secrete reproductive hormones
2 type of reprod of female
Estrogen and progesterone are also
responsible for the development of the
female reproductive
Thymus- in the upper part of the thoracic
cavity
Thymosin- aids the development of white
blood cells called T cells.
Pineal Gland- small, pinecone shaped
structure located in thalamus of the brain
Melatonin- A hormone which pineal
gland produces called
CHAPTER 11 BLOOD
FUNCTIONS OF BLOOD
TRANSPORTS OF GASES,NUTRIENTS,AND
WASTE PRODUCTS- blood acts as a major
transport medium in the body due tto
many substances that move into and out
of the blood.
TRANSPORT OF PROCESSED MOLECULES-
many substances must be processed at
multiple sites in the body.
TRANSPORT OF REGULATORY
MOLECULES- the blood carries many of
the hormones and enzymes that regulate
body processes from one part of the body
to another.
REGULATION OF PH AND OSMOSIS-
buffers, which help keep the blood’s pH
within its normal limits 7.35-7.45.
MAINTENANCE OF BODY TEMPERATURE-
as blood flows through areas of the body
that are metabolically active, the heat
generated by metabolism warms the
blood.
PROTECTION AGAINST FOREIGN
SUBSTANCES- certain cells and chemicals
in the blood constitute an important part
of the immune system.
CLOT FORMATION- when blood vessels
are damaged, blood clotting protects
against excessive blood loss.
PLASMA- the liquid matrix
FORMED ELEMENTS- the cells and the
cell fragments.
ALBUMIN- makes up 58% of the plasma
protein.
GLOBULINS- account of 38% of the
plasma protein.
FIBRINOGEN- is also a clotting factor that
constitutes 4% of plasma proteins.
FIBRIN- a threadlike proteins that forms
blood clots.
SERUM- is plasma without the clotting
factors.
RED BLOOD CELLS (ERYTHROCYTES)- are
most abundant of the formed elements.
RBC constitute nearly 95% of all the
formed elements. Normal red blood cells
are disk-shaped, with edges that are
thicker than the center.
WHITE BLOOD CELLS (leukocytes)- are
spherical cells that lack hemoglobint. The
remaining 5% of the formed elements.
PLATELETS- minute fragments of cells,
each consisting of a small amount of
cytoplasm surrounded by a cell
membrane.
HEMOGLOBIN- one-third of a red blood
cells volume is the pigmented protein,
which is responsible for the cells red
color.
NEUTROPHILS- the most common type of
white blood cells, have small cytoplasmic
granules that stain with both acidic and
basic dyes.
BASOPHILS- the least common of all the
white blood cells, contain large
cytoplasmic granules that stain blue or
purple with basic dyes.
EOSINOPHILS – contain cytoplasmic
granules that stain bright red and eosin,
an acidic stain.
LYMPHOCYTES- are the smallest of the
white blood cells.
MONOCYTES- are the largest of the white
blood cells.
MEGAKARYOCYTES- they are produced in
the red bone marrow from large cells.
VASCULAR SPASM- is an immediate but
temporary constrition of a blood vessel
that results when smooth smooth muscle
within the wall of the blood vessel
contracts.
PLATELET PLUG- is an accumulation of
platelets that can seal up a small break in
a blood vessel.
BLOOD CLOTTING (coagulation)- results
in the formation of a clot.
CLOT- is a network of threadlike protein
fibers, called FIBRIN that troops cells,
platelets, and fluid.
THROMBUS- when platelets encounter
damaged or diseased areas of blood
vessels or heart walls, an attached clot.
EMBOLUS- a thrombus that breaks loose
and begins to float through the
circulation.
CLOT RETRACTION- after a clot has
formed, it begins to condensed into a
more compact structure through a
process.
FIBRINOLYSIS- as the damaged tissue is
repaired, clots are dissolved by this
process.
PLASMINOGEN- an inactive plasma ANEMIA- an abnormally low hemoglobin
protein measurement.
TRANSFUSION- is the transfer of blood or HEMATOCRIT- the percentage of the
blood components from one individual to blood volume that is composed of red
another. blood cells.
INFUSION- is the introduction of a fluid WHITE BLOOD COUNT- measures the
other than blood. total number of white blood cells in the
ANTIGENS- the surfaces of red blood blood. Over 5000-9000 white blood cells
cells have molecules, and the plasma per microliter of blood.
includes protein called ANTIBODIES. LEUKOPENIA- is lower than normal WBC
ANTIBODIES- bind to antigens; however, resulting from decreased production of
antibodies are very specific, meaning that destruction of the red bone marrow.
each antibody can bind only to a certain LEUKOCYTOSIS- is an abnormally high
antigen. WBC.
ABO BLOOD GROUP- system is used to
categorized human blood
TYPE A BLOOD- red blood cells with type
a surface antigens and plasma with anti-B
antibodies.
TYPE B BLOOD- red blood cells with type
B antigens and plasma with anti-A
antibodies.
TYPE AB BLOOD- red blood cells with
both type A and type B surface antigens
and neither anti-A nor anti-B plasma
antibodies.
TYPE O BLOOD- red blood cells with
neither type A nor type B surface antigens
but both anti-A and anti-B plasma
antibodies.
NO AGGLUTINATION REACTION- type A
blood donated to a type A recipient does
not cause an agglutination reaction
because the anti-B antibodies in the
recipient do not combine with the type A
antigens on the red blood cells in the
donated blood .
AGGLUTINATION REACTION- type A
blood donated to a type B recipient
causes an agglutination reaction because
the anti-A antibodies in the recipient
combine with the type A antigens on the
red blood cells in the donated blood.
RH BLOOD GROUP- name because it was
studied in the rhesus monkey.
BLOOD TYPING- determines the ABO and
RH blood groups of a blood sample.
CROSSMATCH- the donor’s blood cells
are mixed with the recipient’s serum, and
the donor’s serum is mixed with the
recipient’ cells.
COMPLETE BLOOD COUNTS (CBC)- is an
analysis of blood that provides much
useful information.
HEMOGLOBIN MEASUREMENT- the
amount of hemoglobin in a given volume
of blood is usually expressed in terms of
grams of hemoglobin per 100 ml of blood.