The history of the guitar

The word 'guitar' was brought into English as an adaptation of the Spanish word 'guitarra', which was, in turn, derived from
the Greek 'kithara'. Tracing the roots of the word further back into linguistic history, it seems to have been a combination of
the Indo-European stem 'guit-', meaning music, and the root ’-tar’, meaning chord or string. The root '-tar' is actually
common to a number of languages, and can also be found in the word ’sitar', also a stringed musical instrument. Although
the spelling and pronunciation differ between languages, these key elements have been present in most words for 'guitar'
throughout history.

While the guitar may have gained most of its popularity as a musical instrument during the modern era, guitar-like
instruments have been in existence in numerous cultures throughout the world for more than 5,000 years. The earliest
instruments that the modern eye and ear would recognise as a 'normal' acoustic guitar date from about 500 years ago. Prior
to this time, stringed instruments were in use throughout the world, but these early instruments are known primarily from
visual depictions, not from the continued existence of music written for them. The majority of these depictions show simple
stringed instruments, often lacking some of the parts that define a modern guitar. A number of these instruments have
more in common with the lute than the guitar.

There is some uncertainty about the exact date of the earliest six-string guitar. The oldest one still in existence, which was
made by Gaetano Vinaccia, is dated 1779. However, the authenticity of six-string guitars alleged to have been made prior to
1790 is often suspect, as many fakes have been discovered dating to this era. The early nineteenth century is generally
accepted as the time period during which six-string guitars began taking on their modern shape and dimensions. Thus for
nearly two hundred years, luthiers, or guitar makers, have been producing versions of the modern acoustic guitar. The first
electric guitar was not developed until the early twentieth century. George Beauchamp received the first patent for an
electric guitar in 1936, and Beauchamp went on to co-found Rickenbacker, originally known as the Electro String Instrument
Company. Although Rickenbacker began producing electric guitars in the late 1930s, this brand received most of its fame in
the 1960s, when John Lennon used a Rickenbacker guitar for the Beatles' debut performance on the Ed Sullivan show in
1964. George Harrison later bought a Rickenbacker guitar of his own, and the company later gave him one of their earliest
12-string electric guitars. Paul McCartney also used a Rickenbacker bass guitar for recording. The Beatles continued to use
Rickenbacker guitars throughout their career, and made the instruments highly popular among other musicians of the era.

The Fender Musical Instruments Company and the Gibson Guitar Corporation were two other early electric guitar pioneers,
both developing models in the early 1950s. Fender began with the Telecaster in 1950 and 1951, and the Fender Stratocaster
debuted in 1954. Gibson began selling the Gibson Les Paul, based partially on assistance from jazz musician and guitar
innovator Les Paul, in 1952. The majority of present day solid-body electric guitars are still based largely on these three early
electric guitar designs.

Throughout the history of the guitar, an enormous number of individuals have made their mark on the way in which the
instrument was built, played and perceived. Though some of these individuals are particularly well known, like the Beatles or
Les Paul, the majority of these people are virtually invisible to most modern guitar fans. By looking at the entire history of
the guitar, rather than just recent developments, largely confined to electric guitars, it is possible to see more of the
contributions of earlier generations.

Questions 1-7 Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS from the passage for each answer.
1. Despite differences in _________________ , ‘guit-‘ and ‘
2. Instruments that we would call acoustic guitars have been made and played for approximately __________
3. No one knows the _______________ when the first six-string guitar was made.
4. The _____________ of acoustic guitars have not changed much in 200 years.
5. A ______________ for an electric guitar was issued in the mid-1930s.
6. Les Paul, the well-known ______________ guitarist, was involved in the development of the electric guitar.
7. Most ______________ of the guitar know little about its rich history.

Questions 8–13 Complete the summary. Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.

Instruments similar to the guitar have been played by musicians for over (8)................... years. What we know
about many of these instruments comes from (9)...................... rather than actual physical examples or music played on
them. In some ways, these early stringed instruments were closer to (10).................... than the guitar as we know it today.
We do have examples of six-string guitars that are 200 years old. However, the (11)...................... of six -
string guitars made by guitar makers (who are also known as (12)......................) before the final decade of the
eighteenth century is often open to question. Although the electric guitar was invented in the 1930s, it took several
decades for electric guitars to develop, with the company Rickenbacker playing a major part in this development.
Most (13)..................... electric guitars in use today are similar in design to guitars produced by the Fender Musical
Instruments Company and the Gibson Guitar Corporation in the 1950s.
 The Innovation of Grocery Stores
A At the beginning of the 20th century, grocery stores in the United States were full-service. A customer would ask a clerk
behind the counter for specific items and the clerk would package the items, which were limited to dry goods. If they want
to save some time, they have to ask a delivery boy or by themselves to send the note of what they want to buy to the
grocery store first and then go to pay for the goods later. These grocery stores usually carried only one brand of each good.
There were early chain stores, such as the A&P Stores, but these were all entirely full-service and very time-consuming.

B In 1885, a Virginia boy named Clarence Saunders began working part-time as a clerk in a grocery store when he was 14
years old, and quit school when the shopkeeper offered him full-time work with room and board. Later he worked in an
Alabama coke plant and in a Tennessee sawmill before he returned to the grocery business. By 1900, when he was nineteen
years old, he was earning $30 a month as a salesman for a wholesale grocer. During his years working in the grocery stores,
he found that it was very inconvenient and inefficient for people to buy things because more than a century ago, long before
there were computers, shopping was done quite differently than it is today. Entering a store, the customer would approach
the counter (or wait for a clerk to become available) and place an order, either verbally or, as was often the case for boys
running errands, in the form of a note or list. While the customer waited, the clerk would more behind the counter and
throughout the store, select the items on the list – some form shelves so high that long-handled grasping device had to be
used – and bring them back to the counter to be tallied and bagged or boxed. The process might be expedited by the
customer calling or sending in the order beforehand, or by the order being handled by a delivery boy on a bike, but
otherwise, it did not vary greatly. Saunders, a flamboyant and innovative man, noticed that this method resulted in wasted
time and expense, so he came up with an unheard-of solution that would revolutionize the entire grocery industry: he
developed a way for shoppers to serve themselves.

C So in 1902, he moved to Memphis where he developed his concept to form a grocery wholesale cooperative and a full-
service grocery store. For his new “cafeteria grocery”, Saunders divided his grocery into three distinct areas: 1) A front
“lobby” forming an entrance and exit and checkouts at the front. 2) A sales department, which was specially designed to
allow customers to roam the aisles and select their own groceries. Removing unnecessary clerks, creating elaborate aisle
displays, and rearranging the store to force customers to view all of the merchandise and over the shelving and cabinets
units of sales department were “galleries” where supervisors were allowed to keep an eye on the customers while not
disturbing them. 3) And another section of his store is the room only allowed for the clerks which were called the
“stockroom” or “storage room” where large refrigerators were situated to keep fresh products from being perishable. The
new format allowed multiple customers to shop at the same time and led to the previously unknown phenomenon of
impulse shopping. Though this format of grocery market was drastically different from its competitors, the style became the
standard for the modern grocery store and later supermarket.

D On September 6, 1916, Saunders launched the self-service revolution in the USA by opening the first self-service Piggly
Wiggly store, at 79 Jefferson Street in Memphis, Tennessee, with its characteristic turnstile at the entrance. Customers paid
cash and selected their own goods from the shelves. It was unlike any other grocery store of that time. Inside a Piggly
Wiggly, shoppers were not at the mercy of shop clerks. They were free to roam the store, check out the merchandise and
get what they needed with their own two hands and feet. Prices on items at Piggly Wiggly were clearly marked. No one
pressured customers to buy milk or pickles. And the biggest benefit at the Piggly Wiggly was that shoppers saved money.
Self-service was positive all around. “It’s good for both the consumer and retailer because it cuts costs,” noted George T.
Haley, a professor at the University of New Haven and director of the Center for International Industry Competitiveness. “If
you looked at the way grocery stores were run previous to Piggly Wiggly and Alpha Beta, what you find is that there was a
tremendous amount of labor involved, and labor is a major expense.” Piggly Wiggly cut the fat.

E Piggly Wiggly and the self-service concept took off. Saunders opened nine stores in the Memphis area within the first year
of business. Consumers embraced the efficiency, the simplicity and most of all the lower food prices. Saunders soon
patented his self-service concept and began franchising Piggly Wiggly stores. Thanks to the benefits of self-service and
franchising, Piggly Wiggly ballooned to nearly 1,300 stores by 1923. Piggly Wiggle sold $100 million – worth $1.3 billion
today – in groceries, making it the third-biggest grocery retailer in the nation. The company’s stock was even listed on the
New York Stock Exchange, doubling from late 1922 to march 1923. Saunders had his hands all over Piggly Wiggly. He was
instrumental in the design and layout of his stores. He even invented the turnstile.

F However, Saunders was forced into bankruptcy in 1923 after a dramatic spat which the New York Stock Exchange and he
went on to create the “Clarence Saunders sole-owner-of-my-name” chain, which went into bankruptcy.

G Until the time of his death in October 1953, Saunders was developing plans for another automatic store system called the
Foodelectric. But the store, which was to be located two blocks from the first Piggly Wiggly store, never opened. But his
name was well-remembered along with the name Piggly Wiggly.
 Insect decision-making
A. It has long been held that decision made collectively by large groups of people are more likely to turn out to be accurate
than decisions made by individuals. The idea goes back to the 'jury theorem’ of Nicolas de Condorcet, an 18th-century
French philosopher who was one of the first to apply mathematics to the social sciences. Condorcet’s theory describes
collective decisions, outlining how democratic decisions tend to outperform dictatorial ones. If, for example, each member
of a jury has only partial information, the majority decision is more likely to be correct than a decision arrived at by a single
juror. Moreover, the probability of a correct decision increases with the size of the jury.

B. Now it is becoming clear that group decisions are also extremely valuable for the success of social animals, such as ants
,bees .birds and dolphins .Bees make collective decisions ,and they do it rather well, according to Christian List of the London
School of Economics ,who has studied group decision-making in humans and animals. Researchers led by Dr List looked at
colonies once the original colony reaches a certain size. The queen goes off with about two-thirds of the worker bees to live
in a new home or nest, leaving a daughter queen in the old nest with the remaining workers. Among the bees that depart
are some that have searched for and found some new nest sites, and reported back using a characteristic body movement
known as a 'waggle dance' to indicate to the other bees the suitable places they have located. The longer the dance, the
better the site. After a while, other bees start to visit the sites signaled by their companions to see for themselves and, on
their return, also perform more waggle dances. The process eventually leads to a consensus on the best site and the
breakaway swarm migrates. The decision is remarkably reliable, with the bees choosing the best site even when there are
only small difference between alternative sites.

C. But exactly how do bees reach such a robust consensus? To find out, Dr List and his colleagues used a computer
generated model of the decision-making process. By experimenting with it they found that, when bees in the model were
very good at finding nesting sites but did not share their information, this dramatically slowed down the migration .leaving
the swarm homelss and vulnerable .Conversely .bees in the model blindly following the waggle dances of others without first
checking. The researchers concluded that the ability of bees to identify successfully and quickly the best site depends on
both the bees ‘interdependence in communicating the whereabouts of the bees site, and their independence in confirming
this information for themselves.

D. Another situation in which collective decisions are taken occurs when animals are either isolated from crucial sources of
information or dominated by other members of the group. José Halloy of the Free University of Brussels in Belgium used
robotic cockroaches to subvert the behaviour of living cockroaches and control their decision-making process. In his
experiment, the artificial bugs were introduced to the live ones and soon became sufficiently socially integrated that they
were perceived by the real cockroaches as equals. By manipulating the robots, which were in the minority, Halloy was able
to persuade the living cockroaches to choose an inappropriate shelter-even one which they had rejected before being
infiltrated by the robots.

E. The way insects put into effect collective decisions can be complex and as important as the decisions themselves .At the
University of Bristol, in the UK, Nigel Franks and his colleagues studied how a species of ant establishes a new nest. Franks
and his associates reported how the insects reduce the problems associated with making a necessarily swift choice. If the
ants’ existing nest become suddenly threatened, the insects choose certain ants to act as scouts to find a new nest.
How quickly they accomplish the transfer to a new home depends not only on how soon the best available site is found, but
also on how quickly the migration there can be achieved.

F. Once the suitable new nest is identified, the chosen ants begin to lead others , which have made it to the new site or
which may simply be in the vicinity, back to the original threatened nest. In this way, those ants which are familiar with the
route can help transport, for example ,the queen and young ants to the new site, and simultaneously show the way to those
ants which have been left behind to guard the old nest. In this way moving processes are accomplished faster and more
efficiently. Thus the dynamics of collective decision-making are closely related to the efficient implementation of those
decisions .How this might apply to choices that humans make is , as yet,unclear. But it does suggest, even for humans ,the
importance of recruiting dynamic leaders to a cause,because the most important thing about collective decision-making ,as
shown by these insect experiments, is to get others to follow.
Questions 14-18 Passage has seven paragraphs A-G. Write the correct letter A-G. You may use any letter more than once.
Which paragraph contains the following information?
14 How Clarence Saunders’ new idea had been carried out.
15 Introducing the modes and patterns of groceries before his age.
16 Clarence Saunders declared bankruptcy a few years later.
17 Descriptions of Clarence Saunders’ new conception.
18 The booming development of his business.

Questions 19-23 Answer the questions below. Write ONLY ONE WORD AND/OR A NUMBER from the passage for each
answer.
19 When Clarence Saunders was an adolescent, he took a job as a _________ In a grocery store.
20 In the new innovation of the grocery store, most of the clerks’ work before was done by _________
21 In Saunders’ new grocery store, the section where customers finish the payment was called _________
22 Another area in his store which behind the public area was called the _________ Where only internal staff could access.
23 At _________ where customers were under surveillance.

Questions 24-26 Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. Write your answers in boxes 11-13 on your answer sheet.
24 Why did Clarence Saunders want to propel the innovation of grocery stores at his age?
A Because he was an enthusiastic and creative man.
B Because his boss wanted to reform the grocery industry.
C Because he wanted to develop its efficiency and make a great profit as well.
D Because he worried about the future competition from the industry.

25 What happened to Clarence Saunders’ first store of Piggly Wiggly?

A Customers complained about its impracticality and inconvenience.
B It enjoyed a great business and was updated in the first twelve months.
C It expanded to more than a thousand franchised stores during the first year.
D Saunders was required to have his new idea patented and open stores.

26 What left to Clarence Saunders after his death in 1953?

A A fully automatic store system opened soon near his first store.
B The name of his store the Piggly Wiggly was very popular at that time.
C His name was usually connected with his famous shop the Piggly Wiggly in the following several years.
D His name was painted together with the name of his famous store.

Questions 27-32 Choose the correct heading for each paragraph Reading Passage with six paragraphs, A-F.
List of Headings
(I) The effect of man-made imitations on insects 27. Paragraph A
(II) The need to instruct additional insect guides 28. Paragraph B
(III) Signals used by certain insects to indicate a discovery 29. Paragraph C
(IV) How urgency can affect the process of finding a new home 30. Paragraph D
(V) The use of trained insects in testing scientific theories 31. Paragraph E
(VI) The use of virtual scenarios in the study of insect behavior 32. Paragraph F
(VII) How the number of decision-makers affects the decision

Questions 33-36 Match the following findings and the list of academics below, A-D. You may use letter more than once.
33. Certain members can influence the rest of the group to alter a previous decision.
34. Individual verification of a proposed choice is important for successful decision outcome.
35. The more individuals taking part in a decision, the better the decision will be.
36. The decision-making process of certain insects produces excellent results even when fine distinctions are required.

List of Academics
A Nicolas de Condorcet B Christian List and colleagues C José Halloy D Nigel Franks and colleagues

Questions 37-39 Complete the summary below. Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
A study of insect decision-making
A Bristol University study looked at how insects make decisions when their home has been (37)................. The ants in the
experiment relied on the use of individuals called (38).................. new nest and efficiently direct the others to go there. The
study concluded that the effective implementation of the ants' decision meant that the insects could change homes quickly.
The study emphasized the necessity, for people well as insects,of having active (39).................order to execute decisions
successfully.