1

J.SIKILE SCHOOL
SENIOR SECONDARY

GRADE XI
CHEMISTRY INVESTIGATORY PROJECT
2023-24
DETERMINATION OF “QUANTUMNUMBERS”

SUBMITTED BY SUBMITTED TO

_G.OBED_ Mrs. B.DHANUJA

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CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that OBED.G student of class XI has
successfully completed their chemistry investigatory
project on the topic “determination of quantum
numbers” under the guidance of Mrs.B.Dhanuja during
the year 2023-2024 in practical fulfilment of chemistry
practical examination conducted by CBSE

______________ ______________
INTERNAL EXAMINAR EXTERNAL EXAMINAR

________________
PRINCIPAL

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ACKNOWLEDGEM
ENT

I like to express my special thanks of

gratitudeto my teacher Mrs.B.Dhanuja as well
as our principal Mrs.S.Sucharitha who gave
me the golden opportunity tothis wonderful
project on this topic “Determination of
Quatum numbers” which also helped me in
doing a lot of research and I came to know
about so many new things Iam really thankful
to them.
Secondly I would also like to thank my parents
and friends who helped me a lot in finalizing
this project within the limited time frame

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CONTENTS
i
4
S.N TOPICS
O
1. Introduction
2. Principal quantum number
3. Azimuthal quantum number
4. Magnetic quantum number
5. Spin quantum number
6. Conclusion
7. Wikipedia

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Introduction on QUANTUM NUMBERS

In quantum physics and chemistry, quantum

numbers describe values of conserved quantities in the
dynamics of a quantum system. Quantum numbers
correspond to eigenvalues of operators that commute
with the Hamiltonian—quantities that can be known with
precision at the same time as the system's energyand
their corresponding eigenspaces. Together, a
specification of all of the quantum numbers of a
quantum system fully characterize a basis state of the
system, and can in principle be measured together.
An important aspect of quantum mechanics is
the quantization of many observable quantities of
interest. In particular, this leads to quantum numbers
that take values in discrete sets of integers or half-
integers; although they could approach infinity in some
cases. This distinguishes quantum mechanics
from classical mechanics where the values that
characterize the system such as mass, charge, or
momentum, all range continuously. Quantum numbers
often describe specifically the energy levels of electrons
in atoms, but other possibilities include angular
momentum, spin, etc. An important family is flavour
quantum numbers – internal quantum numbers which
determine the type of a particle and its interactions with
other particles through the fundamental forces. Any
quantum system can have one or more quantum
numbers; it is thus difficult to list all possible quantum
numbers.

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PRINCIPAL QUANTUM
NUMBER
INTRODUCTION
In quantum numbers, the principal quantum
number (symbolized n) is one of four quantum
numbers assigned to each electron in an atom to
describe that electron's state. Its values are natural
numbers (from 1) making it a discrete variable.
Apart from the principal quantum number, the other
quantum numbers for bound electrons are the azimuthal
quantum number ℓ, the magnetic quantum number ml,
and the spin quantum number s.

Overview and history

As n increases, the electron is also at a higher energy
and is, therefore, less tightly bound to the nucleus. For
higher n the electron is farther from the nucleus, on
average. For each value of n there
are n accepted ℓ (azimuthal) values ranging from 0
to n − 1 inclusively, hence higher-n electron states are
more numerous. Accounting for two states of spin,
each n-shell can accommodate up to 2n2 electrons.
In a simplistic one-electron model described below, the
total energy of an electron is a negative inverse
quadratic function of the principal quantum number n,
leading to degenerate energy levels for each n > 1.[1] In
more complex systems—those having forces other than
the nucleus–electron Coulomb force—these levels split.
For multielectron atoms this splitting results in
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"subshells" parametrized by ℓ. Description of energy
levels based on n alone gradually becomes inadequate
for atomic numbers starting from 5 (boron) and fails
completely on potassium (Z = 19) and afterwards.
The principal quantum number was first created for use
in the semiclassical Bohr model of the atom,
distinguishing between different energy levels. With the
development of modern quantum mechanics, the simple
Bohr model was replaced with a more complex theory
of atomic orbitals. However, the modern theory still
requires the principal quantum number.
Derivation: Hydrogen-like atom
There is a set of quantum numbers associated with the
energy states of the atom. The four quantum
numbers n, ℓ, m, and s specify the complete and
unique quantum state of a single electron in an atom,
called its wave function or orbital. Two electrons
belonging to the same atom cannot have the same
values for all four quantum numbers, due to the Pauli
exclusion principle. The Schrödinger wave
equation reduces to the three equations that when
solved lead to the first three quantum numbers.
Therefore, the equations for the first three quantum
numbers are all interrelated. The principal quantum
number arose in the solution of the radial part of the
wave equation as shown below.
The Schrödinger wave equation describes
energy eigenstates with corresponding real
numbers En and a definite total energy, the value of En.
The bound state energies of the electron in the
hydrogen atom are given by:

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The parameter n can take only positive integer values.
The concept of energy levels and notation were taken
from the earlier Bohr model of the atom. Schrödinger's
equation developed the idea from a flat two-dimensional
Bohr atom to the three-dimensional wavefunction model.
In the Bohr model, the allowed orbits were derived from
quantized (discrete) values of orbital angular
momentum, L according to the equation

where n = 1, 2, 3, … and is called the principal quantum

number, and h is Planck's constant. This formula is not
correct in quantum mechanics as the angular
momentum magnitude is described by the azimuthal
quantum number, but the energy levels are accurate
and classically they correspond to the sum
of potential and kinetic energy of the electron.
The principal quantum number n represents the relative
overall energy of each orbital. The energy level of each
orbital increases as its distance from the nucleus
increases. The sets of orbitals with the same n value are
often referred to as an electron shell.
The minimum energy exchanged during any wave–
matter interaction is the product of the
wave frequency multiplied by Planck's constant. This
causes the wave to display particle-like packets of
energy called quanta. The difference between energy
levels that have different n determine the emission
spectrum of the element.

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In the notation of the periodic table, the main shells of
electrons are labeled:
K (n = 1), L (n = 2), M (n = 3), etc.
based on the principal quantum number.
The principal quantum number is related to the radial
quantum number, nr, by:

Values
In chemistry, values n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 are used in
relation to the electron shell theory, with expected
inclusion of n = 8 (and possibly 9) for yet-
undiscovered period 8 elements. In atomic physics,
higher n sometimes occur for description of excited
states. Observations of the interstellar
medium reveal atomic hydrogen spectral lines
involving n on order of hundreds; values up to 766were
detected.

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AZIMUTHAL QUANTUM
NUMBER

In quantum mechanics, the azimuthal quantum

number is a quantum number for an atomic orbital that
determines its orbital angular momentum and describes
the shape of the orbital. The azimuthal quantum number
is the second of a set of quantum numbers that describe
the unique quantum state of an electron (the others
being the principal quantum number n, the magnetic
quantum number mℓ, and the spin quantum number ms).
It is also known as the orbital angular momentum
quantum number, orbital quantum number,
subsidiary quantum number, or second quantum
number, and is symbolized as ℓ (pronounced ell).
Derivation
Connected with the energy states of the atom's
electrons are four quantum numbers: n, ℓ, mℓ, and ms.
These specify the complete, unique quantum state of a
single electron in an atom, and make up
its wavefunction or orbital. When solving to obtain the
wave function, the Schrödinger equation reduces to
three equations that lead to the first three quantum
numbers. Therefore, the equations for the first three
quantum numbers are all interrelated. The azimuthal
quantum number arose in the solution of the polar part
of the wave equation as shown below[where?], reliant on

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the spherical coordinate system, which generally works
best with models having some glimpse of spherical
symmetry.

Illustration of quantum mechanical

orbital angular momentum.
An atomic electron's angular momentum, L, is related to
its quantum number ℓ by the following equation:

where ħ is the reduced Planck's constant, L2 is the

orbital angular momentum operator and is the
wavefunction of the electron. The quantum number ℓ is
always a non-negative integer: 0, 1, 2, 3, etc. L has no
real meaning except in its use as the angular
momentum operator. When referring to angular
momentum, it is better to simply use the quantum
number ℓ.
Atomic orbitals have distinctive shapes denoted by
letters. In the illustration, the letters s, p,
and d (a convention originating in spectroscopy)
describe the shape of the atomic orbital.
Their wavefunctions take the form of spherical
harmonics, and so are described by Legendre

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polynomials. The various orbitals relating to different
values of ℓ are sometimes called sub-shells, and are
referred to by lowercase Latin letters (chosen for
historical reasons), as follows:
Quantum subshells for the azimuthal quantum number

Maximu
Azimuthal Historical m Historical
number (ℓ) letter electrons name Shape

0 s 2 sharp spherical

three dumbbell-shaped polar-

aligned orbitals; one lobe on
1 p 6 principal
each pole of the x, y, and z (+
and − axes)

nine dumbbells and one

doughnut (or "unique shape #1"
2 d 10 diffuse
see this picture of spherical
harmonics, third row center)

"unique shape #2" (see this

3 f 14 fundamental picture of spherical harmonics,
bottom row center)

4 g 18

5 h 22

6 i 26

The letters after the f sub-shell just follow letter f in alphabetical order, except the
letter j and those already used.

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Each of the different angular momentum states
can take 2(2ℓ + 1) electrons. This is because the
third quantum number mℓ (which can be thought of
loosely as the quantized projection of the angular
momentum vector on the z-axis) runs from
−ℓ to ℓ in integer units, and so there are 2ℓ + 1
possible states. Each distinct n, ℓ, mℓ orbital can be
occupied by two electrons with opposing spins
(given by the quantum number ms = ±1⁄2), giving
2(2ℓ + 1) electrons overall. Orbitals with
higher ℓ than given in the table are perfectly
permissible, but these values cover all atoms so
far discovered.
For a given value of the principal quantum
number n, the possible values of ℓ range from 0
to n − 1; therefore, the n = 1 shell only possesses
an s subshell and can only take 2 electrons,
the n = 2 shell possesses an s and a p subshell
and can take 8 electrons overall, the n = 3 shell
possesses s, p, and d subshells and has a
maximum of 18 electrons, and so on.
A simplistic one-electron model results in energy
levels depending on the principal number alone. In
more complex atoms these energy levels split for
all n > 1, placing states of higher ℓ above states of
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lower ℓ. For example, the energy of 2p is higher
than of 2s, 3d occurs higher than 3p, which in turn
is above 3s, etc. This effect eventually forms the
block structure of the periodic table. No known
atom possesses an electron having ℓ higher than
three (f) in its ground state.
The angular momentum quantum number, ℓ,
governs[how?] the number of planar nodes going
through the nucleus. A planar node can be
described in an electromagnetic wave as the
midpoint between crest and trough, which has
zero magnitudes. In an s orbital, no nodes go
through the nucleus, therefore the corresponding
azimuthal quantum number ℓ takes the value of 0.
In a p orbital, one node traverses the nucleus and
therefore ℓ has the value of 1. l has the value .
Depending on the value of n, there is an angular
momentum quantum number ℓ and the following
series. The wavelengths listed are for a hydrogen
atom:
 n=1, Lyman series (ultraviolet)
 n=2, Balmer series (visible)
 n=3, Ritz–Paschen series (near infrared)
 n=3, Brackett series (short-wavelength
infrared)
 n=4, Pfund series (mid-wavelength infrared).

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Total angular momentum of an electron in the
atom

"Vector cones" of total angular momentum J (purple),

orbit arise due to quantum uncertainty between
measuring angular momentum components
(see vector model of the atom).
Due to the spin–orbit interaction in the atom, the
orbital angular momentum no
longer commutes with the Hamiltonian, nor does
the spin. These therefore change over time.
However the total angular momentum J does
commute with the one-electron Hamiltonian and so
is constant. J is defined through

L being the orbital angular momentum and S the

spin. The total angular momentum satisfies the
same commutation relations as orbital angular
momentum, namely

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from which follows

where Ji stand for Jx, Jy, and Jz.

The quantum numbers describing the system,
which are constant over time, are now j and mj,
defined through the action of J on the
wavefunction

So that j is related to the norm of the total angular

momentum and mj to its projection along a
specified axis. The j number has a particular
importance for relativistic quantum chemistry,
often featuring in subscript in electron
configuration of superheavy elements.
As with any angular momentum in quantum
mechanics, the projection of J along other axes
cannot be co-defined with Jz, because they do not
commute.
Relation between new and old quantum
numbers[edit]
Further information: Quantum number § Total
angular momenta numbers
j and mj, together with the parity of the quantum
state, replace the three quantum

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numbers ℓ, mℓ and ms (the projection
the spin along the specified axis). The former
quantum numbers can be related to the latter.
of

Furthermore, the eigenvectors of j, s, mj and parity,

which are also eigenvectors of the Hamiltonian,
are linear combinations of
the eigenvectors of ℓ, s, mℓ and ms.
List of angular momentum quantum numbers
 Intrinsic (or spin) angular momentum
quantum number, or simply spin quantum
number
 orbital angular momentum quantum number
(the subject of this article)
 magnetic quantum number, related to the
orbital momentum quantum number
 total angular momentum quantum number
History
The azimuthal quantum number was carried over
from the Bohr model of the atom, and was posited
by Arnold Sommerfeld. The Bohr model was
derived from spectroscopic analysis of the atom in
combination with the Rutherford atomic model.
The lowest quantum level was found to have an
angular momentum of zero. Orbits with zero
angular momentum were considered as oscillating
charges in one dimension and so described as
"pendulum" orbits, but were not found in nature.

pg. 17
[2]
18
In three-dimensions the orbits become spherical
without any nodes crossing the nucleus, similar (in
the lowest-energy state) to a skipping rope that
oscillates in one large circle.
Magnetic quantum number
In atomic physics, a magnetic quantum
number is a quantum number used to distinguish
quantum states of an electron or other particle
according to its angular momentum along a given
axis in space. The orbital magnetic quantum
number (ml or m[a])distinguishes the orbitals avai
lable within a given subshell of an atom. It
specifies the component of the orbital angular
momentum that lies along a given axis,
conventionally called the z-axis, so it describes the
orientation of the orbital in space. The spin
magnetic quantum number ms specifies the z-
axis component of the spin angular momentum for
a particle having spin quantum number s. For an
electron, s is 1⁄2, and ms is either +1⁄2 or −1⁄2, often
called "spin-up" and "spin-down", or α and β.[1]
[2]
The term magnetic in the name refers to
the magnetic dipole moment associated with each
type of angular momentum, so states having
different magnetic quantum numbers shift in
energy in a magnetic field according to
the Zeeman effect.[2]

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The four quantum numbers conventionally used to
describe the quantum state of an electron in an
atom are the principal quantum number n,
the azimuthal (orbital) quantum number , and
the magnetic quantum numbers ml and ms.
Electrons in a given subshell of an atom (such as
s, p, d, or f) are defined by values of (0, 1, 2,
or 3). The orbital magnetic quantum number takes
integer values in the range from to ,
including zero.[3] Thus the s, p, d, and f subshells
contain 1, 3, 5, and 7 orbitals each, with values
of ml within the ranges 0, ±1, ±2, ±3 respectively.
Each of these orbitals can accommodate up to two
electrons (with opposite spins), forming the basis
of the periodic table.
Other magnetic quantum numbers are similarly
defined, such as mj for the z-axis component
the total electronic angular momentum j,
[1]
and mI for the nuclear spin I.[2] Magnetic
quantum numbers are capitalized to indicate totals
for a system of particles, such as ML or mL for the
total z-axis orbital angular momentum of all the
electrons in an atom.[2]

The differential equation for can be solved in

the form . Because values of the
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azimuth angle differing by 2 radians (360
degrees) represent the same position in space,
and the overall magnitude of does not grow
with arbitrarily large as it would for a real
exponent, the coefficient must be quantized to
integer multiples of , producing
an imaginary exponent: . These
integers are the magnetic quantum numbers.
The same constant appears in the colatitude
equation, where larger values of tend to
decrease the magnitude of and values
of greater than the azimuthal quantum
number do not permit any solution for

Relationship between Quantum Numbers

Number
of Electrons
Orbita
Values Values per
l
subshell
for

l = 0, ml = 0
s 1 2

p l = 1, ml = -1, 0, +1 3 6

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l = 2, ml = -2, -1, 0, +1,
d 5 10
+2

l = 3, ml = -3, -2, -1, 0, +1, +2,

f 7 14
+3

l = 4, ml = -4, -3, -2, -1, 0 +1, +2,

g +3, +4
9 18

As a component of angular momentum

Illustration of quantum
mechanical orbital angular momentum. The cones and
plane represent possible orientations of the angular
momentum vector for and
. Even for the extreme values of , the
-component of this vector is less than its total
magnitude.

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The axis used for the polar coordinates in this
analysis is chosen arbitrarily. The quantum
number refers to the projection of the angular
momentum in this arbitrarily-chosen direction,
conventionally called the -direction
or quantization axis. , the magnitude of the
angular momentum in the -direction, is given
by the formula:[7]
Lz = Mlh
This is a component of the atomic electron's
total orbital angular momentum , whose
magnitude is related to the azimuthal quantum
number of its subshell by the equation:

Where is the reduced Planck constant. Note that

his for and approximates for high
. It is not possible to measure the angular momentum of
the electron along all three axes simultaneously. These
properties were first demonstrated in the Stern–Gerlach
experiment, by Otto Stern and Walther Gerlach.

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SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER

In physics, the spin quantum number is

a quantum number (designated s) that
describes the intrinsic angular momentum (or
spin angular momentum, or simply spin) of
an electron or other particle. It has the same
value for all particles of the same type, such
as s = 1/2 for all electrons. It is an integer for
all bosons, such as photons, and a half-odd-
integer for all fermions, such as electrons and
protons. The component of the spin along a
specified axis is given by the spin magnetic

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[1]
24
quantum number, conventionally written ms.
The value of ms is the component of spin
angular momentum, in units of the reduced
Planck constant ħ, parallel to a given direction
(conventionally labelled the z–axis). It can
take values ranging from +s to −s in integer
increments. For an electron, ms can be
either ++1/2 or −+1/2 .
The phrase spin quantum number was
originally used to describe the fourth of a set
of quantum numbers (the principal quantum
number n, the azimuthal quantum number ℓ,
the magnetic quantum number m, and the
spin magnetic quantum number ms), which
completely describe the quantum state of an
electron in an atom. Some introductory
chemistry textbooks describe ms as the spin
quantum number,[2][3] and s is not mentioned
since its value 1/2 is a fixed property of the
electron, sometimes using the variable s in
place of ms.[4] Some authors discourage this
usage as it causes confusion.[4] At a more
advanced level where quantum mechanical
operators or coupled spins are introduced, s is
referred to as the spin quantum number,
and ms is described as the spin magnetic

pg. 24
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quantum number[5] or as the z-component of
spin sz.[6]
Spin quantum numbers apply also to systems
of coupled spins, such as atoms that may
contain more than one electron. Capitalized
symbols are used: S for the total electronic
spin, and mS or MS for the z-axis component. A
pair of electrons in a spin singlet state has S =
0, and a pair in the triplet state has S = 1,
with mS = −1, 0, or +1. Nuclear-spin quantum
numbers are conventionally written I for spin,
and mI or MI for the z-axis component.
The name "spin" comes from a
geometrical spinning of the electron about an
axis, as proposed
by Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit. However, this
simplistic picture was quickly realized to be
physically unrealistic, because it would require
the electrons to rotate faster than the speed of
light.[7] It was therefore replaced by a more
abstract quantum-mechanical description.
Magnetic nature of atoms and molecules[edit]
The spin quantum number helps to explain
the magnetic properties of atoms and
molecules. A spinning electron behaves like a
micromagnet with a definite magnetic
pg. 25
 26
moment. If an atomic or molecular orbital
contains two electrons, then their magnetic
moments oppose and cancel each other.
If all orbitals are doubly occupied by electrons,
the net magnetic moment is zero and the
substance behaves as diamagnetic; it is
repelled by the external magnetic field. If
some orbitals are half filled (singly occupied),
the substance has a net magnetic moment
and is paramagnetic; it is attracted by the
external magnetic field.
History
Early attempts to explain the behaviour of
electrons in atoms focused on solving
the Schrödinger wave equation for
the hydrogen atom, the simplest possible
case, with a single electron bound to
the atomic nucleus. This was successful in
explaining many features of atomic spectra.
The solutions required each possible state of
the electron to be described by three
"quantum numbers". These were identified as,
respectively, the electron "shell" number n, the
"orbital" number ℓ, and the "orbital angular
momentum" number m. Angular momentum is
a so-called "classical" concept measuring
pg. 26
 27
the momentum[citation needed] of a mass in circular
motion about a point. The shell numbers start
at 1 and increase indefinitely. Each shell of
number n contains n2 orbitals. Each orbital is
characterized by its number ℓ, where ℓ takes
integer values from 0 to n − 1, and its angular
momentum number m, where m takes integer
values from +ℓ to −ℓ. By means of a variety of
approximations and extensions, physicists
were able to extend their work on hydrogen to
more complex atoms containing many
electrons.
Atomic spectra measure radiation absorbed or
emitted by electrons "jumping" from one
"state" to another, where a state is
represented by values of n, ℓ, and m. The so-
called "transition rule" limits what "jumps" are
possible. In general, a jump or "transition" is
allowed only if all three numbers change in
the process. This is because a transition will
be able to cause the emission or absorption of
electromagnetic radiation only if it involves a
change in the electromagnetic dipole of the
atom.
However, it was recognized in the early years
of quantum mechanics that
atomic spectra measured in an external
pg. 27
 28
magnetic field (see Zeeman effect) cannot be
predicted with just n, ℓ, and m.
In January 1925, when Ralph Kronig was still
a Columbia University Ph.D. student, he first
proposed electron spin after hearing Wolfgang
Pauli in Tübingen. Werner Heisenberg and
Pauli immediately hated the idea: They had
just ruled out all imaginable actions from
quantum mechanics. Now Kronig was
proposing to set the electron rotating in space.
Pauli especially ridiculed the idea of spin,
saying that "it is indeed very clever but of
course has nothing to do with reality". Faced
with such criticism, Kronig decided not to
publish his theory and the idea of electron
spin had to wait for others to take the credit.
[8]
Ralph Kronig had come up with the idea of
electron spin several months before George
Uhlenbeck and Samuel Goudsmit, but most
textbooks credit these two Dutch physicists
with the discovery.
Pauli subsequently proposed (also in 1925) a
new quantum degree of freedom (or quantum
number) with two possible values, in order to
resolve inconsistencies between observed
molecular spectra and the developing theory
of quantum mechanics.
pg. 28
 29
Shortly thereafter Uhlenbeck and Goudsmit
identified Pauli's new degree of freedom
as electron spin.
Electron spin
Main article: Electron magnetic moment
A spin- 1 /2 particle is characterized by
an angular momentum quantum number for
spin s = 1 /2. In solutions of the Schrödinger-
Pauli equation, angular momentum is
quantized according to this number, so that
magnitude of the spin angular momentum is

The hydrogen spectrum fine structure is

observed as a doublet corresponding to two
possibilities for the z-component of the
angular momentum, where for any given
direction z:

whose solution has only two possible z-

components for the electron. In the electron,
the two different spin orientations are
sometimes called "spin-up" or "spin-down".
The spin property of an electron would give
rise to magnetic moment, which was a
requisite for the fourth quantum number.
pg. 29
 30
When atoms have even numbers of electrons
the spin of each electron in each orbital has
opposing orientation to that of its immediate
neighbour(s). However, many atoms have an
odd number of electrons or an arrangement of
electrons in which there is an unequal number
of "spin-up" and "spin-down" orientations.
These atoms or electrons are said to have
unpaired spins that are detected in electron
spin resonance.
Detection of spin
When lines of the hydrogen spectrum are
examined at very high resolution, they are
found to be closely spaced doublets. This
splitting is called fine structure, and was one
of the first experimental evidences for electron
spin. The direct observation of the electron's
intrinsic angular momentum was achieved in
the Stern–Gerlach experiment.
Stern–Gerlach experiment
The theory of spatial quantization of the spin
moment of the momentum of electrons of
atoms situated in the magnetic field needed to
be proved experimentally. In 1922 (two years
before the theoretical description of the spin
pg. 30
was 31 created) Otto Stern and Walter
Gerlach observed it in the experiment they
conducted.
Silver atoms were evaporated using an
electric furnace in a vacuum. Using thin slits,
the atoms were guided into a flat beam and
the beam sent through an in-homogeneous
magnetic field before colliding with a metallic
plate. The laws of classical physics predict
that the collection of condensed silver atoms
on the plate should form a thin solid line in the
same shape as the original beam. However,
the in-homogeneous magnetic field caused
the beam to split in two separate directions,
creating two lines on the metallic plate.
The phenomenon can be explained with the
spatial quantization of the spin moment of
momentum. In atoms the electrons are paired
such that one spins upward and one
downward, neutralizing the effect of their spin
on the action of the atom as a whole. But in
the valence shell of silver atoms, there is a
single electron whose spin remains
unbalanced.
The unbalanced spin creates spin magnetic
moment, making the electron act like a very

pg. 31
 32
small magnet. As the atoms pass through the
in-homogeneous magnetic field, the force
moment in the magnetic field influences the
electron's dipole until its position matches the
direction of the stronger field. The atom would
then be pulled toward or away from the
stronger magnetic field a specific amount,
depending on the value of the valence
electron's spin. When the spin of the electron
is ++ 1 /2 the atom moves away from the
stronger field, and when the spin is −+ 1 /2 the
atom moves toward it. Thus the beam of silver
atoms is split while traveling through the in-
homogeneous magnetic field, according to the
spin of each atom's valence electron.
In 1927 Phipps and Taylor conducted a
similar experiment, using atoms
of hydrogen with similar results. Later
scientists conducted experiments using other
atoms that have only one electron in their
valence shell:
(copper, gold, sodium, potassium). Every time
there were two lines formed on the metallic
plate.
The atomic nucleus also may have spin, but
protons and neutrons are much heavier than

pg. 32
 33
electrons (about 1836 times), and the
magnetic dipole moment is inversely
proportional to the mass. So the nuclear
magnetic dipole momentum is much smaller
than that of the whole atom. This small
magnetic dipole was later measured by Stern,
Frisch and Easterman.
Electron paramagnetic resonance[edit]
For atoms or molecules with an unpaired
electron, transitions in a magnetic field can
also be observed in which only the spin
quantum number changes, without change in
the electron orbital or the other quantum
numbers. This is the method of electron
paramagnetic resonance (EPR) or electron
spin resonance (ESR), used to study free
radicals. Since only the magnetic interaction
of the spin changes, the energy change is
much smaller than for transitions between
orbitals, and the spectra are observed in
the microwave region.
Derivation[edit]
For a solution of either the nonrelativistic Pauli
equation or the relativistic Dirac equation, the
quantized angular momentum (see angular

pg. 33
 34
momentum quantum number) can be written
as:

where
 is the quantized spin vector or
spinor
 is the norm of the spin vector
 s is the spin quantum number
associated with the spin angular
momentum
 is the reduced Planck constant.
Given an arbitrary direction z (usually
determined by an external magnetic field) the
spin z-projection is given by

where ms is the secondary spin quantum

number, ranging from −s to +s in steps of
one. This generates 2 s + 1 different values
of ms.
The allowed values for s are non-
negative integers or half-integers. Fermions
have half-integer values, including
the electron, proton and neutron which all
have s = ++ 1 /2 . Bosons such as
pg. 34
 35
the photon and all mesons) have integer
spin values.
Algebra[edit]
The algebraic theory of spin is a carbon
copy of the angular momentum in quantum
mechanics theory. First of all, spin satisfies
the fundamental commutation relation:

where is the (antisymmetric) Levi-Civita

symbol. This means that it is impossible to
know two coordinates of the spin at the
same time because of the restriction of
the uncertainty principle.
Next, the eigenvectors of and
satisfy:

where are the ladder (or "raising" and

"lowering") operators.

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 36
Energy levels from the Dirac equation
In 1928, Paul Dirac developed a relativistic
wave equation, now termed the Dirac
equation, which predicted the spin magnetic
moment correctly, and at the same time
treated the electron as a point-like particle.
Solving the Dirac equation for the energy
levels of an electron in the hydrogen atom,
all four quantum numbers
including s occurred naturally and agreed
well with experiment.
Total spin of an atom or molecule
For some atoms the spins of several
unpaired electrons (s1, s2, ...) are coupled to
form a total spin quantum number S.[9]
[10]
This occurs especially in light atoms (or
in molecules formed only of light atoms)
when spin–orbit coupling is weak compared
to the coupling between spins or the
coupling between orbital angular momenta,
a situation known
as L S coupling because L and S are
constants of motion. Here L is the
total orbital angular momentum quantum
number.[10]

pg. 36
For 37 atoms with a well-defined S,
the multiplicity of a state is defined as 2S + 1
. This is equal to the number of different
possible values of the total (orbital plus
spin) angular momentum J for a given (L, S)
combination, provided that S ≤ L (the typical
case). For example, if S = 1, there are three
states which form a triplet. The eigenvalues
of Sz for these three states are +1ħ,
0, and −1ħ .[9] The term symbol of an atomic
state indicates its values of L, S, and J .
As examples, the ground states of both the
oxygen atom and the dioxygen
molecule have two unpaired electrons and
are therefore triplet states. The atomic state
is described by the term symbol 3P, and the
molecular state by the term symbol 3Σ−
g.

Nuclear spin
Atomic nuclei also have spins. The nuclear
spin I is a fixed property of each nucleus
and may be either an integer or a half-
integer. The component mI of nuclear spin
parallel to the z–axis can have (2I + 1)
values I, I–1, ..., –I. For example,
a 14N nucleus has I = 1, so that there are 3
pg. 37
 38
possible orientations relative to the z–axis,
corresponding to states mI = +1, 0 and −1

CONCLUSION

Significance of Quantum Numbers

Quantum numbers are significant because they can be
used to estimate an atom’s electron configuration and
where its electrons are most likely to be located. The
atomic radius and ionization energy of atoms, among
other properties, is also determined by quantum
numbers.
Each Quantum Number has its own significance:
 Principal Quantum Number (n) describes the
electron levels of an atom.
 Azimuthal Quantum Number (l) represents the
shape of the electron cloud.

pg. 38



39
Magnetic Quantum Number (ml) explains the
orientation of the electron cloud.
Spin Quantum Number (s) tells the spin
electrons can have.

pg. 39
40

pg. 40
 41
WIKIPEDIA
I am very happy to do this project. I am used these
components to do this project
I read quantum mechanics book

I investigate in internet for so much information

I read our chemistry text book carefully for this project

Used website links :

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal_quantum_number

https://en. wikipedia.org/wiki/Azimuthal_quantum_number

https:// en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_quantum_number

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spin_quantum_number
- :~:text=In%20physics%2C%20the%20spin
%20quantum,12%20for%20all%20electrons.

pg. 41
i