Group 4: Steel Application

Members:
- Riben Paderanga Carating
- Jon Louis Aton Cupay
- Dale Kendrick Uy Cezar
- Louise Dianne Ong

Topic Assignment (CE 14)

Structural Steel Standards and Testing

Structural steel includes rolled shapes and plates used in structural frames, connectors,
plates, or bracing needed to hold the frame in place, and most other steel attached
directly to the frame.

Exceptions: (Pics ibutang lang nato dani)

● grating and metal deck,

● open-web steel joists,
● ornamental metal,
● stacks,
● tanks,
● and steel required for assembly or erection of materials supplied by trades
other than structural steel fabricators or erectors.

Yield Stress
 Yield stress (see Figure 1-3a for explanation) is used as a basis for the design of all
steel structures. It is the yield point for all structural steels that produce a yield point on
their stress-strain curves.

- the transition from elastic to plastic behaviour, is the minimum stress at

which a solid will undergo permanent deformation or plastic flow without a
significant increase in the load or external force.

“Maximum allowable stresses in compression, tension, and shear for various types of
structural members and connections and for various types of loads are published by the
AISC, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO),
and other organizations. These published stresses are all computed by reducing the
yield stress for each type of steel by a safety factor. The designer selects the type of
steel and the size and arrangement for each member and connection so that the
expected loads are carried economically, without exceeding the published allowable
stresses."

Structural Steel Standards

When choosing raw materials for building construction, engineers often consider factors
such as strength and constructability. With its strength, machinability and ductility, structural
steel is one of the most common materials used in commercial and industrial building
construction.

High tensile points and the addition of strengthening alloys ensure structural steel pieces
are strong enough to withstand a building’s stress without breaking. Skyscrapers, for example,
are often constructed from structural steel due to the material’s strength. In comparison to other
common building construction materials, such as concrete, steel is a strong – but relatively
lighter – material used for constructing tall building frames.

Structural steel’s machinability allows building constructors to weld or bolt the material
into a variety of shapes. Two common applications of steel used in building construction are
structural sections, which account for about 25% of the steel used in buildings, and reinforcing
bars, which account for about 44% of the steel used in buildings.

In areas prone to earthquakes, ductility is an important structural steel property in

materials used for building construction. High ductility allows structural steel frames to stretch
and move under the stress from an earthquake, making the building less prone to suffering
devasting structural damage.

Charpy testing building construction steel plate is important for structures built in cold
environments, as this test ensures the steel is tough enough to withstand extremely cold
temperatures without fracturing or breaking.

With their relatively high tensile points, ductility and presence of alloys that increase
strength and machinability, A36 and A572 are two structural steel grades typically used in
building construction.
 - variety of structural steel grades, the most popular being ASTM A36 and ASTM A572
● ASTM A36
● ASTM A992
● ASTM A572
● ASTM A709
● ASTM A588
● ASTM A500
● *ASTM A514
● *ASTM A285
● *ASTM A516
● ASTM A-108

Structural Steel Testing

Main Mechanical Properties Testing Methods (ASTM A370)

1. Tension
2. Bend
3. Hardness
4. Impact

CHARPY IMPACT TEST

- Especially important in structures is their ability to absorb energy. Brittle materials can
only absorb a low amount of energy before fracturing or failing. Structural steel combines
strength with ductility, allowing it to absorb great amounts of energy before failing.
 - The Charpy impact test – named after Georges Charpy, who standardized impact testing
– uses a heavy hammer pendulum to measure the amount of energy a type of steel can
absorb. The test goes a step further and tests impacts at varying temperatures. This is
important for steel-based structures that are outdoors in extreme temperatures.
- Charpy tests are quite common for structural steel projects. A small sample of the steel –
known as a coupon – is cut out of the master plate and taken to an independent lab for
testing. The results tell engineers if the material is adequate for their project.

STEEL TENSILE TEST

- Mechanical tests for steel include tension, bending, hardness, and impact. For
structural steel the tension, or tensile, test is the most important
- The typical tensile test specimen is a 0.500-in.-diameter cylinder machined to a
smooth, accurate circular cross section. The specimen is clamped at each end or
threaded into a testing machine that applies an axial pull at a uniformly
increasing rate until the specimen breaks. As the pulling proceeds, the force is
constantly indicated in digits or by a dial on the machine. Tensile stress is
calculated by dividing the force by the original cross-sectional area. Before the
force is applied, two marks are made on the specimen 2 in. apart in the direction
of the applied force. The two marks are drawn farther apart as the specimen
deforms under the tension. Strain is calculated by dividing the increase in
distance between the marks by the original 2-in. Distance.
- Stress and strain are determined at regular intervals from readings of force and
the measured increase in distance between the marks. A curve of stress versus
strain is plotted to determine whatever information is desired.

Metallurgical Testing for Steel

Metallurgical testing in steel quality checklist is the process of testing the steel by
subjecting the material to mechanical, thermal, or chemical actions in order to evaluate
its properties. The goal of metallurgical testing is to gain knowledge about the steel´s
composition and structure to predict its behavior under various conditions. A section of
the sample is firstly polished and then examined and different characteristics are
produced through mixing the steel with other substances and later analysed under a
microscope.

Hardness Value Testing for Steel

Hardness tests are a common method used in steel quality control to evaluate the
hardness of steel. The hardness value test helps to compare between the materials or
treatments. These tests are usually performed by impressing a test specimen, which is
resting on a rigid platform under a static load.
Test the Hardenability on Steel
The hardenability test determines the depth and distribution of hardness induced by
quenching. Also known as the Jominy Test. A long sample of the steel is heated
uniformly to the correct temperature before the sample is removed from the furnace and
placed on a fixture where water contacts the bottom face of the sample. After 10
minutes, the sample is removed and the results should show a curve of hardness
versus the distance from the quenched end.

Tension Test on Steel

Test for tension is a method used to measure the amount of tension, yield strength, and
ductility in the steel. A tension test runs at a constant load and temperature. The
strength of the material is tested to ensure its ability to withstand external forces without
breaking. By pulling on something, you can quickly determine how the material will react
to forces being applied in tension.

Ductility Testing on Steel

The ductility of a material is indicated by the amount of deformation that’s possible until
it breaks. The strength, elasticity and toughness of steel are determined by the amount
and rate that it can deform under tensile stress.

Compression Test on Steel

Compression tests are performed on small cylinders, blocks or strips to determine the
ability of the material and whether it can undergo large plastic deformations and its
limits. Samples are placed between pressure plates and compressed.

Fatigue Test on Steel

The fatigue test is used to determine the behaviour of the materials when subjected to
reparations of fluctuating loads. It is used to simulate stress conditions that’ll be
developed in materials under normal service conditions. The fatigue limit is shown by
counting the number of stress cycles applied in one direction and then another, until the
steel breaks.

Impact Testing of Steel

Impact tests are used to indicate the behavior of the steel when subjected to high rates
of loading, usually bending, tension or torsion. A swinging pendulum of a fixed weight
raised to a standard height is used to strike the sample and the weight of the pendulum
times the difference in heights helps to indicate the amount of energy absorbed by the
specimen.

Wear Resistance Test on Steel

Wear resistance is a complex test and usually applied to specific equipment designed to
simulate actual service conditions. Various types of environmental testing are carried
out to witness how the material reacts to actual conditions.

Corrosion Test on Steel

Corrosion tests involve the destruction of a material by chemical, electrochemical or
metallurgical interaction between the environment and material. Various types of
environmental exposure tastings are done to simulate actual use conditions.

Creep Test on Steel

Creep tests are used to determine the continuing change in the deformation of the steel
at elevated temperatures when stressed below the yield strength. A creep test is a
tension test run at a constant load and temperature.

Test the Machinability on Steel

Machinability is the ease with which the steel may be machined and many factors are
considered in arriving at machinability ratings which are expressed as a percentage in
comparison with AISI 1112 steel, which is rated at 100%.

Test the Radiography on Steel

Radiography of steel materials involves the use of x-rays and the short-wavelength
electromagnetic rays that are capable of passing through large thicknesses of metal
and are typically used to test casting and welded joints for shrinkage voids.

Magnetic Particle Testing on Steel

Magnetic particle inspection is an effective method of detecting cracks, tears, seams,
and inclusions in steel and iron. This method will detect any discontinuities just below
the surface that are hard to spot with the naked eye.

Ultrasonic Testing on Steel

Ultrasonic testing utilizes sound waves above the audible range and this
non-destructive test employs electronically produced high-frequency sound waves to
penetrate metals and other materials. It is used to detect and locate such defects as
shrinkage voids, internal cracks, porosity and large non-metallic inclusions.

Eddy Inspection on Steel

Eddy inspection is used to inspect electrically conducting materials for defects and
variations in composition. Eddy testing involves placing a varying magnetic field near an
electrically conducting sample. Properties such as hardness, alloy composition,
chemical purity and heat treat conditions can influence the magnetic field and may be
measured through the use of eddy current tests.
Structural Steel Shapes and Applications

A wide variety of shape options further allow structural steel products to support building
and design. The shape is integral for the correct distribution of load weights and
pressures, with the proper selection ensuring that a building is durable and safe.
Different shapes of structural steel each have unique mechanical and chemical
properties that make them appropriate for different applications. These shapes include:

1. Angles
- Structural Angles have an L-shaped cross section that is used in many
structural steel applications. Standard Lengths are 20′ and 40′.
Infra-Metals offers many different sizes, lengths and specifications for
Structural Angles
2. Tubing
- Structural Tubing is a hollow section most commonly constructed from hot
rolled metal coils. The coils are slit to the proper width for the section
being manufactured and then formed into the final shape needed. Once
the size is formed and the seams are welded together the tube is cut to
the desired length to make a single piece of tubing. Structural tubing is
offered in round, rectangular and square shapes.
3. I-Beams
- I-Beams, also known as H-Beams, have an I or H cross-section. The
horizontal elements of the “I” are flanges while the vertical element is the
“web”. I-Beams are commonly made of structural steel but can be formed
out of aluminum. I-beams are most widely used in construction and can
have an application for use in both beams as well as columns.

4. Wide Flange Beams

- W-beams, or wide flange beams, are stout, sturdy beams with wide
flanges that are positioned perpendicularly to the web of the material
giving them their characteristic shape and distinguishing them from
I-beams. They’re frequently used as reinforcements in bridges,
commercial buildings, and residential structures and can be fabricated
from wood, aluminum, steel, or composite materials. Because of the wide
flanges on the top and bottom, builders can more easily distribute heavy
weight along the top of the beams without putting too much stress on the
supports directly below. Along with offering superior weight distribution
 capabilities, they also have a better strength-to-weight ratio than square
beams.
5. Channels
- Structural steel channels can be used for many different applications.
Some examples can be seen in the manufacturing of buildings, tractor
trailers, and frame chassis for vehicles. Infra-Metals offers many different
sizes, lengths and specifications for Structural Steel Channel.
6. Plates
- Carbon steel is one of the most commonly used steel, with little to no
presence of manganese, copper, silicon, aluminum, and similar
components. Steel can be defined as carbon steel when no minimum
content is required for any element that would be used to achieve an
alloying effect. Generally, carbon steel plates do not contain a significant
amount of alloy elements or content.
- Carbon steel plates have various applications in manufacturing and can
withstand tremendous weight and pressure, making them perfect for
ocean vessels. These are heavy-duty, wide surface areas of solid,
continuous structural steel meant to span large areas.
7. Bars
- Short for merchant bars, these are hot-rolled and cold-finished carbon
types of bars with different properties, dimensions, and shape
sub-categories, such as round, square, and flat cross-sections.
8. Tees
- A Structural Tee is a T-shaped cross-section made by cutting a beam
down the middle, along or through the web, to leave a flange and a stem
in the shape of a capital letter T.
- are ideal for load bearing steel structural applications. Due to its structural design, a
T section can withstand a large amount of shear stress and making resistant to
bending. Making them ideal for steel structural applications like steel roof truss and
steel floor joist.
APPLICATIONS OF STRUCTURAL STEEL

With all of its advantages over other construction materials, a variety of industries rely
on structural steel, including:

1. Construction
- It is generally used in designing and building industrial places. Structural
steel has a high strength/weight ratio that makes it excellent to use in the
construction of enormous structures such as buildings, warehouses,
bridges, factories, etc. Steel frames, beams, columns, bars, girders,
plates, and many others are created by structural steel fabricators which
are used in the construction industry. Every year, about 25% of structural
steel is used in the construction of buildings.
2. Automotive
3. Transportation
 - Structural steel is used to produce trucks, transmissions, trains, rails and
ships, anchor chains, aircraft undercarriages, and jet engine components.
Most of these vehicles contain a significant amount of structural steel.
4. Mining
- Most of the components in the mining substructure are reinforced using
structural steel. All workshops, offices, structural parts of mines such as
mining screens, fluidized bed boilers, buildings are made with structural
steel.
5. Shipbuilding/Marine
- Most marine vehicles are built using structural steel, for example;
submarines, boats, supertankers, ladders, steel flooring, and grating,
stairs, and fabricated sections of steel. Structural steel can resist external
pressures, can be formed easily. These properties make structural steels
purposive for the marine sector.
6. Packaging
7. Energy
- There are a lot of structural steel applications in the energy industry. It is
used in many industrial buildings in renewable and non-renewable energy
sources such as transmission towers, pipelines, wind turbines,
electromagnets, transformer cores, oil and gas wells.
8. Agriculture

Structural Connections Standards and Testing

Steel members must be connected to form a structure. They may be connected by

riveting, welding, or bolting. A connection is not designed on a purely rational basis as
the structural members are. Stresses at connections are so complex that the
connections are designed according to empirical methods based on successful
experience. A connection includes a group of rivets or bolts or a predetermined length
of weld.

“The American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) is a non-partisan, not-for-profit technical

institute and trade association established in 1921 to serve the structural steel design community
and construction industry in the United States. AISC's mission is to make structural steel the material
of choice by being the leader in structural-steel-related technical and market-building activities,
including specification and code development, research, education, technical assistance, quality
certification, standardization, market development, and advocacy. AISC has a long tradition of
service to the steel construction industry providing timely and reliable information.”

- Specific AISC Standard is AISC 360-22.

- Specification for structural steel buildings, generally applicable requirements for the
design and construction of structural steel buildings and other structures.
- Both LRFD and ASD methods of design are incorporated.
a. LRFD - based on the principle that strength (resistance) of various
materials is scaled down by some factors while the applied loads are
scaled up by some factors, and thereby the structural elements are
designed using reduced strength and increased loads.
b. ASD - also known as Working Stress Design (WSD) method is based on
the principle that stresses developed in the structural members should not
exceed a certain fraction of elastic limit. This is old method of design
which only considers elastic strength of material and hence limits the
allowable stresses to a fraction of this limit (e.g. 40-50%).

AISC 360-22

Connections are classified as axial, shear (semi-rigid), or moment (rigid) connections

based on the primary load that the connection is to carry. Connections however are
most typically expected to carry two or more of these loads.

1. Moment connections primarily carry moment loading, however are usually designed to
resist shear and axial loading as well. For this reason, they are referred to as “rigid” or
 “fully restrained” connections and are used to create a frame. Common moment
connections include directly welded members, flange plates, and end plate connections.
- There is a transfer of bending moment forces between a column and beam (or
any other two members)

2. Shear connections primarily carry shear loading (although they typically also carry axial
loading). They are the most common type of structural steel connection, and are referred
to as “simple” or “semi-rigid” connections because no bending moment is considered at
the beam bends. Common shear connections include plates, web angles, and seat
angles.
- the transfer of shear forces between two members. So if a child member (for
instance a beam) has some internal shear forces, these will be passed on as
axial force into the column member.

3. Axial connections primarily carry axial loads and include splices, bracing, truss
connections, and hangers. They are typically used to connect columns to
columns, or beams to beams sometimes with different section sizes.
Testing

1. Pull-out of Anchored Blind Bolts from Concrete Filled Steel Tubes

- Full load-displacement behaviour of bolts including ultimate and yield capacities
and stiffness at different load levels can be obtained performing pull-out tests.
- The displacements at different points, normally the total displacement of the bolt
and solid displacement of the test specimen away from the locally deformed part
of the specimen, are measured using displacement transducers.
2. Beam to Column Connection Tests
- apply column axial load using a load cell; transverse loads applied at beam ends
using other load cells and braces to stop the lateral movement of the specimen.

-
- tensile capacity test of a group of four bolts, common in beam to concrete filled
steel tubular column connections
 - Support beams are connected to the base of the testing system using high
strength bolt

-
3. Testing Structural Connections and Sub-assemblages
- They require detailed planning and design of test specimens and loading and
measurement systems.
- The instrumentation used in the sub-assemblage test included load cells applying
monotonic and cyclic loads to beams and the column, LPs (Linear Potentiometer)
for measuring relative displacements, strain gauges for monitoring strains, bolt
load cells for measuring bolt loads and DTI washers to check the pre-tension
force in anchored blind bolts.
AISI S905-13, Test Standard for Cold-Formed Steel Connections
1. Test Fixtures – Lap-Joint Shear Tests - used for the investigation of shear strength and
stiffness of cold-formed steel connections
a. Standard Lap-Joint Shear Tests
b. Alternate Lap-Joint Shear Tests
c. Connection Flexibilities
2. Test Fixtures – Tension Tests
3. Static Shear Tests - to compare the performance of an adhesive/bolt/rivet in a joint
and to determine its mechanical response.
 4. Static Tension Tests

5. Combined Shear and Tension Tests

- Static interaction tests are permitted if the connection will be subjected to
combined shear and tension loading, such as structural connections for
cold-formed steel diaphragms
6. Cyclic Tests
- Reverse cyclic load tests are permitted to determine inelastic shear and tension
performance of cold-formed steel connections

Groove Markings of Reinforcing Steel Bars and other metals

https://www.crsi.org/reinforcing-basics/reinforcing-steel/bar-identification/

➢ Bar Identification
○ Bar Markings
■ There are a number of ways to identify reinforcing bar (rebar) from
the production mill to the fabrication shop to the jobsite. This
documentation and marking system helps provide a wealth of
 useful information about the manufacturing and composition of
each bar of reinforcing steel.

○ Each Individual Reinforcing Bar is manufactured with a Series of Individual

Markings.

■
■ The first letter or symbol identifies the producing mill
■ The next marking is the bar size. *
■ The third marking symbol designates the type of reinforcing steel -
usually either “S” for carbon-steel (ASTM A615) or “W” for low-alloy
steel (ASTM A706)
■ Finally, there will be a grade marking (60,75, 80, 100, 120) or by the
addition of one line (60) or two lines (75), three lines (80, 100), or
four lines (120) that must be at least five deformation long.

Reinforcing Steel Bars Standards, Composition and Testing as per

ASTM

➢ What is Rebar?
○ Steel Reinforcement bars or rebars are used to improve the tensile
strength of the concrete since concrete is very weak in tension, but is
strong in compression. Steel is only used as rebar because elongation of
steel due to high temperature (thermal expansion coefficient nearly equals
to that of concrete.
○ Grades of Rebar in Different Codes
■ ASTM A615
● Grade 75 (520)
● Grade 80 (550)
➢ Types of Steel Reinforcement Bars
○ Mild Steel Bar
■ The surface of the mild steel bars are plain and round in shape.
They are available in various sizes of 6 mm to 50 mm. They are
used in concrete for special purposes, such as dowels at expansion
 joints, where bars must slide in a metal or paper sleeve, for
contraction joints in roads and runways, and for column spirals.
They are easy to cut and bend without damage. For structural
buildings like bridges and other heavy structures, mild steel bar is
not recommended due to no great bonding between concrete and
steel, slippage and strength
○ Grades in Mild Steel Bars
■ Mild Steel bars Grade-I designated as Fe 410-S or Grade 60
■ Mild Steel bars Grade-II designated as Fe 410-o or Grade 40
■ Physical Requirement of Mild Steel Bars

Table 2:Physical Requirement of Mild Steel Bars

Types of Nominal Ultimate Tensile Yield Stress Elongation

size of bar Stress in N/mm2 N/mm2 Percentage min

Mild Steel Grade I

or Grade 60

For Bars upto 20mm 410 250 23

For Bars above

410 240 23
20mm upto 50mm

Mild Steel Grade II

or Grade 40

For Bars upto 20mm 370 225 23

For Bars above

370 215 23
20mm upto 50mm

Medium Tensile
Steel Grade -75

For Bars upto 16mm 540 350 20

For Bars above

540 340 20
16mm upto 32mm
For Bars above
510 330 20
32mm upto 50mm

○ Deformed Steel Bar

■ Deformed steel bars have ribs, lugs, and indentation on the surface
of the bar, which reduces the major problem that is faced by mild
steel bar due to slippage and good bonding is achieved between
concrete and rebar. The tensile properties is higher compared to
other rebars. These bars are produced in sections from 6mm to
50mm dia.
○ Types of Deformed Steel Bars
■ TMT Bars (Thermo Mechanically Treated Bars
● Thermo Mechanically Treated Bars are hot treated bars that
are high in strength used in reinforced cement concrete
(RCC) work. It is the latest induction in the MS steel bars
with superior properties such as strength ductility, welding
ability, bending ability and highest quality standards at
international level.
● Better ductility and malleability
● High yield strength and toughness
● More bonding strength
● Earthquake resistance
● Corrosion resistance
● High thermal resistance
● Economical and safe in use
● No loss in strength at welded joints
● Ordinary electrodes used for welding the joints
■ High Strength Deformed Bars
● High strength deformed bars are cold twisted steel bars with
lugs, ribs, projection or deformation on the surface. It is
extensively and majorly used for reinforcement purposes in a
construction. These bars are produced in sizes or section
from 4mm to 50mm in diameter.
● Low Carbon Value
● Superior bonding strength
● Welding capability
● High tensile strength
● Wide application range
● Satisfactorily malleability
○ Other types of Rebars
 ■ European Rebar
● European rebar is made of manganese, which makes them
bend easily. They’re not suitable for use in areas that are
prone to extreme weather conditions or geological effects
such as earthquakes, hurricanes or tornadoes. The cost of
this rebar is low
■ Carbon Steel Rebar
● As the name represents, it is made up of carbon steel and is
commonly known as Black Bar due to carbon colour. The
main drawback of this rebar is that it corrodes, which
adversely effect the concrete and structure. The tensile
strength ratio coupled with the value makes black rebar one
of the best choices.
■ Epoxy-Coated Rebar
● Epoxy-coated rebar is black rebar with an epoxy coat. It has
the same tensile strength, but is 70 to 1,700 times more
resistant to corrosion. However the epoxy coating is
incredibly delicate. The greater the damage to the coating,
the less resistant to corrosion
■ Galvanized Rebar
● Galvanized rebar is only forty times more resistant to
corrosion than black rebar, but it is more difficult to damage
the coating of galvanized rebar. In that respect, it has more
value than epoxy-coated rebar. However it is about 40%
more expensive than epoxy-coated rebar.
■ Glass-Fiber-Reinforced-Polymer (GFRP)
● GFRP is made up of carbon fibre. As it is made up of fibre,
bending is not allowed. It is very resistant to corrosion and is
costly when compared to other rebars.
■ Stainless Steel Rebar
● Stainless steel rebar is the most expensive reinforcing bar
available, about eight times the price of epoxy-coated rebar.
It is also the best rebar available for most projects. However
using stainless steel in all but the most unique of
circumstances is often overkill. But, for those who have
reason to use it, stainless steel rebar is 1,500 times more
resistant to corrosion than black bar; it is more resistant to
damage than any of the other corrosive-resistant or
corrosive-proof types of rebar; and it can be bent in the field.
➢ Reinforcing Steel (Item 404 - DPWH Blue Book 2013 Edition)
○ Description
■ This item shall consist of furnishing, bending, fabricating, and
placing of steel reinforcement of the type, size, shape and grade
required in accordance with this Specification and in conformity with
the requirements shown on the Plans or as directed by the
engineer.
●
Deformed Billet-Steel Bars AASHTO M 31 (ASTM
For Concrete Reinforcement A615)

Deformed Steel Wire for AASHTO M 225 (ASTM

Concrete Reinforcement A496)

Welded Steel Wire Fabric AASHTO M 55 (ASTM

for Concrete Reinforcement A185)

Cold-Drawn Steel Wire for AASHTO M 32 (ASTM A82)

Concrete Reinforcement

Fabricated Steel Bas or Rod AASHTO M 54 (ASTM

Mats for Concrete A184)
Reinforcement

Welded Deformed Steel AASHTO M 221 (ASTM

Wire Fabric of Concrete A497)
Reinforcement

Plastic Coated Dowel Bars AASHTO M 254 Type A

Low Alloy Steel Deformed ASTM A206

Bars for Concrete
Reinforcement

○ Order Lists
■ Before materials are ordered, all order lists and bending diagrams
shall be furnished by the Contractor, for approval of the Engineer.
The approval of order lists and bending diagrams by the Engineer
shall in no way relieve the Contractor or responsibility for the
correctness of such lists and diagrams. Any expense incident to the
revisions of materials furnished in accordance with such lists and
diagrams to make them comply with the Plans shall be borne by the
Contractor
○ Testing Method as per ASTM A1034/A1034M - 10a
■ Monotonic Tension Test - this test measures the performance of the
bar-splice assembly under an increasing tension load. The
specimen is placed in the testing machine and pulled to failure.
● Note 2: Testing of specimens in tension to failure should be
approached with caution. Some types of mechanical splices
may shatter while failing in tension
■ Monotonic Compression Test - This test is used to ascertain the
performance of the bar-splice assembly under and increasing
compressive load. The specimen is placed in the testing machine
and is loaded in compression until failure or a specified load is
applied.
● Note 3: Typical maximum compressive load imposed in this
test is 125% of the specified yield strength of the reinforcing
bar. Testing of specimens in the compression should be
approached with caution. The buckling load predicted by the
Euler Column formula may be less than the compression
load specified.
■ Cyclic Load test - This test is used to ascertain how the bar- splice
assembly performs when the specimen is subjected to alternating
tension and compression cycles. The specimen is placed in the
testing machine and is loaded in tension, then in compression until
the specified number of cycles is reached. Each cycle may exceed
the yield of the bar and is intended to simulate the demands of
earthquake loading on the specimen.
■ High-Cycle Fatigue Test - This test is conducted with alternating
tension load cycles or alternating tension to compress load cycles,
with the load staring below the yield strength of the reinforcing bar.
This test is conducted until failure or a specified number of cycles
are reached and simulates the demands on mechanical splices
placed in bridges or other structures subjected to frequent elastic
load cycles
■ Slip Test - This test is used to ascertain the plastic movement (Slip)
between reinforcing bars within the bar-slice assembly, when
loaded in tension.
■ Low-Temperature Test - This test is run using the test methods
describe in 4.1.1 (Monotonic Tension Test) through 4.1.5 (Slip Test)
■ Combination Test - Features of one or more of the test methods
described in 4.1.1 (Monotonic Tension Test) through 4.1.6
(Low-Temperature Test) can be combined.
Metal Pipes sizes, testing, methods, standards, gauge, and schedule
system

➢ Metal Pipes
○ Metal pipes are cylindrical tubes made from steel that are used many
ways in manufacturing and infrastructure. They’re the most utilized
product made by the steel industry. The primary use of pipe is in the
transport of liquid or gas underground - including oil, gas and water.
However, pipes of varying sizes are used throughout manufacturing and
construction. A common household manufacturing example is the narrow
steel pipe that runs the cooling system in fridges. Construction uses pipes
for heating and plumbing. Structures can be build using steel pipe of
varying sizes such as handrails, bike racks, or pipe bollards.
➢ How are Metal Pipes made
○ From melting raw materials to molding or welding, this ubiquitous building
materials is created through two main processes:
■ Convert raw steel to a more usable form
● Both processes must start by making good quality steel.
Raw steel is produced by foundries through a process of
melting raw materials in a furnace. To get the composition
exactly right, elements may be added to the molten metal,
and impurities removed. The resulting molten steel is poured
into molds to make ingots or is transferred to a continuous
casting machine to make slabs, billets, and blooms. Pipe is
made from two of these products: slabs or billets.
■ Steel Slabs and Steel Skelp in Pipe manufacturing
● Steel Skelp is made from slabs that are heated to 2,200˚F.
The heat causes a scale to form on the surface, which must
be removed through a scale breaker and high pressure
cleaning. Once cleaned, the steel slab is hot rolled into thing,
narrow strips of steel called skelp. Skelp is picked (surface
cleaned) with sulfuric acid, washed with water and rolled
onto large spools as the raw material for pipe making. The
width of the skelp determines the diameter of the pipe that
can be made. Skelp is unwound from the spool, heated, and
rolled through grooved rollers, which bend the edges of the
skelp upwards, This process produces a cylindrical tube
where the two edges have been bent right around to meet
 each other forming a long cylinder. A welding process joins
the edges together and seals the pipe.
■ Steel Billets for Seamless Pipe
● Steel billets are long square pieces of steel produced directly
from a continuous casting machine or as a secondary
product made from rolled and stretched cast ingots. These
billets can be used to make seamless pipe, which is safer in
some application for not having a weld line
● The solid steel billet must be heated extreme temperatures,
becoming white hot but not melted. Machines roll them so
that they become a cylindrical solid. While still hot, a
bullet-shaped piercer is used to make the hollow center
regular according to its dimensions. A series of milling
operations follow to conform the pipe to the required
specifications.
■ Finishing Steps
● Pipes may be put through a straightening machine as a final
process step before being fitted with joints at the end. Small
bore piping is usually fitted with threaded joints, but larger
bore piping is normally fitted with flanges that are welded
onto the end of the pipe. Measuring machines check the
dimensions of the finished pipe, and stamp the details on the
side of the pipe for quality control purposes
■ Quality Control
● Quality Control steps include checking the pipe for defects
using x-ray machines - Especially along the weld. Another
technique is to pressure test the pipe by filling it with water,
the holding it under pressure for a specified time to expose
any defects that may cause catastrophic failure before it is
put in service
➢ How are Metal Pipes used?
○ Pipes are used in Structures, transportation and manufacturing.
○ Construction Piles
■ End Bearing piles - have the bottom end resting on a layer of
especially strong soil or rock. The load of the building is transferred
through the pile onto the strong layer
■ Friction piles transfer the load of the building to the soil across the
full height of the pile, by friction. The entire surface of the pile helps
to transfer the forces to the soil
○ Scaffolding poles
 ○ Guard Rails
○ Bollards
○ Bike Racks
➢ How are Metal Pipes specified?
○ Nominal Pipe Size
■ Pipe size is quoted as a “Nominal Pipe Size” or NPS. The origin of
the NPS numbers for smaller pipes (< NPS 12) is different to the
origin for larger diameter pipes. However, all pipes of a specific
NPS number have the same external or outer diameter (OD). The
internal diameter will vary depending on the wall thickness of the
metal. The reason for this is so that the same structural supports
can be used for all piping of a specific NPS number regardless of
the wall thickness.
○ Schedules
■ Steel Pipe schedules are a way to describe the wall thickness of
the pipe. This is a critical parameter as it is directly related to the
strength of the pipe and the suitability for specific applications. A
pipe schedule is a dimensionless number and is calculated based
on the design formula for wall thickness, given the design pressure
and allowable stress.
■ Examples of schedule numbers are as follows: 5, 5S, 10, 20, 30,
40, 50, 60, 80, 100, 120, 140, 160, STD, XS, and XXS - with the
most common being schedules 40 and 80. As the schedule number
increases, the wall thickness of the pipe increases. The schedule
number of a pipe therefore defines the internal diameter, as the OD
is fixed by the NPS number.
○ Pipe Weight
■ The weight of a pipe can be calculated based on the NPS, which
defines the outer diameter, and the schedule, which defines the
wall thickness. The formula uses the theoretical weight of steel of
40.8 pounds per square foot per 1 inch of thickness to determine
the constant. W = 10.69 x t (OD – t)
■
■ Where:
■
■ W = weight (in pounds per foot)
■ OD = outer diameter
■ t = thickness
➢ Metal Pipes Testing methodology (Cupay)
○ ASTM E1003-13 Standard Practice for Hydrostatic Leak Testing
 ■ This Practice is useful for quality control testing and field inspection
of piping systems, pipelines, valves, and containers that are
expected to retain liquids. It is not sensitive enough for leak testing
when toxic or explosive gas is expected to be retained under
pressure.
■ Hydrostatic testing requires that a component be completely filled
with a liquid, such as water. Pressure is slowly applied to the liquid
until the required pressure is reached. This pressure is held for the
required time at which point the component is inspected visually to
locate leaks or the pressure on the gauge is recorded to determine
the components total leakage.
■ The two basic procedures are described together with methods for
improving their sensitivity
● Pressure Drop Indication - This procedure is used primarily
to measure total system leakage.
● Visual Inspection for Leakage - This procedure is intended
primarily to locate leaks.
○ ASTM E213 - 22 Standard Practice for Ultrasonic Testing of Metal Pipe
and Tubing
■ This practice covers a procedure for detecting discontinuities in
metal pipe and tubing during a volumetric examination using
ultrasonic methods. Specific techniques of the ultrasonic method to
which this practice applies include pulse-reflection techniques, both
contact and non-contact (for example as described in Guide E1774
and Practice E1816), and angle beam immersion techniques, both
conventional and phased array. Artificial reflectors consisting of
longitudinal, and when specified by the using party parties,
transverse reference notches placed on the surfaces of a reference
standard are employed as the primary means of standardizing the
ultrasonic system.
■ To ensure detection of discontinuities that may not provide a
favorable response from one side, scanning shall be performed in
both circumferential directions for longitudinal discontinuities and
when an axial scan is specified by the using part or parties, in both
axial directions for transverse discontinuities.
➢
○
American Welding Society as standards of Welding

WELDING

What is welding?
Welding is a fabrication process of joining metals together using heat.

There are many different kinds of welding: oxy-acetylene gas welding, arc or stick welding,

metal inert gas (MIG) welding, and tungsten inert gas (TIG) welding. Each of these types of

welding uses gas, electricity, or both, to fuse metals together. The type of welding you choose

depends on the type of metals you would like to weld together and the resources available.

● MIG Welding – Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)

● TIG Welding – Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

● Stick Welding – Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

● Flux Welding – Cored Arc Welding (FCAW)

● Energy Beam Welding (EBW)

● Atomic Hydrogen Welding (AHW)

● Oxy-Acetylene welding

● Plasma Arc Welding

The metal of a weld is stronger than the metal being linked, and it has a neat look. Weld metal is
produced to stricter standards than structural steel and is protected from the atmosphere during
cooling. Combining with constituents of the welding rod coating improves the weld metal
considerably as well. The result is a steel with better crystalline structure and higher mechanical
properties.

The tip of the rod and some depth of the base metal, called penetration, are melted. The two
metals combine and harden upon cooling. The liquid metal rapidly absorbs oxygen and
nitrogen, which causes it to be brittle and lose its resistance to corrosion unless it is protected
from the atmosphere.

Figure 5–11 shows typical welding arrow symbols used to describe required weld properties.
Chemical and mechanical properties of weld metal must be matched to the metal being welded.
Therefore, a wide variety of welding electrodes is available. The American Welding Society and
ASTM have established a numbering system for electrodes. All designations begin with the
letter E, which is followed by a four- or five-digit number. The first two or three digits indicate the
minimum tensile strength in Kips per square inch. The next digit indicates the recommended
welding positions. Digit 3 is for flat only; 2 is for flat and horizontal; and 1 is for all positions
including vertical and overhead. The next digit indicates current supply and recommended
welding techniques.
Four welding methods are allowed by the AISC for structural work.

In the shielded metal-arc method, the metal welding rod is coated with a flux, which melts as
the weld metal melts and covers the molten metal, shielding it from the atmosphere. The flux is
partially converted to gas, which surrounds the working area, helping to protect the weld from
oxygen and nitrogen.

Shielded metal-arc welding is a manual method suited for field use. The three other methods
discussed in the following section are suitable for semi automatic or automatic use.

In the submerged-arc method, powdered flux is automatically spread ahead of the electrode
and completely covers the welding arc and also protects the new weld metal.

In gas metal-arc welding, a coil of electrode wire is constantly fed to a holder as the electrode
melts. The new weld metal is protected from the air by CO2 or other gas constantly fed to the
location as the welding proceeds. Iron and Steel 155 FIGURE 5–13. Weld types

In flux-cored arc welding, the welding rod consists of a core of flux surrounded by weld metal.
This is used to facilitate continuous feeding of the electrode as welding takes place.
Welding Positions
The four welding positions are shown in Figure 5–12.

Welding consists of two components that need to be heated until they melt completely in order
to be connected . An electric arc that forms between a welding rod and the two pieces that need
to be welded generates heat. A portable electric generator is connected to the structural steel
and to the welding rod, and either an alternating or a direct current is passed through the rod
and the structural members when the rod touches or nearly touches the members.

Flat welding position

Generally, flat is an easier position to weld in since you’re not fighting gravity. The weld puddle
stays fluid and wets into the joint evenly. As a result, operators can typically run hotter with
higher deposition rates in the flat position because there is no worry about the puddle becoming
too fluid and gravity pulling it out of the joint.

Any welding process can be used to weld in the flat position. Just be sure to use the
recommended techniques for whichever process you’re using. For example, the stick process
produces a slag during welding so you may want to use a drag technique rather than a push
technique.

The proper work angle for a flat position weld will change depending on whether the weldment
is a 1G or a 1F. If the wire or electrode is off to one side or the other, the heat won’t be focused
where the two pieces come together, and you may get incomplete fusion.

Horizontal welding position

In a horizontal weld, the weld axis is roughly horizontal. Welds in the horizontal position share
many similarities with flat position welds.

A 2G weld is slightly more difficult than a 2F weld because the 2F provides a bottom shelf to
ensure the weld puddle doesn’t get out of control or sag too much. To combat the effect of
gravity on the weld puddle in a horizontal groove weld, favor the top edge of the joint slightly
with the work angle, knowing the puddle may sag a bit. In a horizontal fillet weld, keep a
45-degree angle to the joint to make sure the heat is focused where the two pieces come
together.

Be careful not to run too hot in horizontal welds since a puddle that’s too fluid can be the victim
of gravity. Tweak your weld parameters to make sure the puddle doesn’t get too hot or too fluid.

All of the welding processes can also be used in the horizontal position.

Vertical welding position

Vertical welds can be done in either vertical up (moving bottom to top in the weld joint) or
vertical down (moving top to bottom in the weld joint). Vertical up is typically more common,
especially on thicker materials. This welding position may be required when you’re working on a
large weldment that cannot be easily moved into the flat or horizontal position.

Moving up the plate for a vertical weld, the weld puddle will naturally want to sag out of the joint.
If you use the same techniques and parameters that are ideal for flat and horizontal welds on a
vertical weld, it likely won’t produce a very good weld.

Adjust the weld parameters to achieve the best results in vertical welds. Use a reduced wire
feed speed and voltage to make sure the puddle does not get too fluid and falls or sags out of
the joint. If you’re using a welding power source with Auto-Set™ technology, be sure to use the
parameters designed for a thinner material, even if you’re welding thicker base metal. This helps
keep the heat input lower to fight gravity.

A 90-degree travel angle is typically recommended for a 3G weld, while a 45-degree angle is
recommended for a 3F weld.

Slowly manipulate the puddle in a way that washes it to each edge of the joint. Going straight up
with a vertical weld will typically result in a ropey bead that doesn’t wash into the edges well.
Instead, hold the toes of the weld longer and quickly move across the middle of the puddle as
you travel up. There are several common techniques for this puddle manipulation — including a
zigzag motion, an upside-down T or repeated triangles stacked on top of each other — that can
be used depending on the operator’s preference.
Overhead welding position

Overhead welds may be required when you’re working on a fixed piece of equipment or metal
that cannot be moved. Operators may find themselves lying on the ground or floor or their shop
for overhead welding, so it’s important to find the most comfortable position with a range of
motion.

The same techniques used for vertical welding often apply to overhead welding. A 4G weld will
require a slight weave or manipulation of the weld puddle to wash in at the toes better, just as
with a vertical weld. The parameters should also be dialed back to run cooler with overhead
welds, since you don’t want a weld puddle that is too fluid that will fall out of the weld joint and
onto you.

One of the biggest factors to think about when welding in the overhead position is that the
sparks will drop down. You may want extra protection on the top of your head, such as a
bandana under your welding helmet. Use a fully leather welding jacket, especially with a
process like stick welding, which produces more sparks and spatter.

https://www.millerwelds.com/resources/article-library/what-are-the-4-basic-welding-positions-an
d-when-should-you-use-them

Riveting standards and testing

Riveting was once the most common method of making connections. It is now used only
for shop connections, and that too only rarely. Holes are punched or drilled through the
members to be connected, and a steel rivet (Figure 5–10) slightly smaller than the holes
is heated to a cherry red color FIGURE 5–10. Rivets. (1000 to 1950°F) and inserted
through the holes. The head is braced and the shank end is hammered until it flattens to
a head, compressing the members between the two rivet heads, as shown in the figure.
Cooling of the rivet causes it to shorten, compressing the members still further.

Standard Specification for Rivets, Steel, Structural

The steel used to make the rivets shall be manufactured by the open-hearth,
basic-oxygen, or electric-furnace process, and the corresponding rivets shall be made
by the hot or cold heading process and are expected to be hot driven. The rivets are
available in the following grades: Grade 1, carbon steel rivets for general purpose use;
Grade 2, carbon manganese steel rivets for use with high strength carbon and high
strength low alloy structural steels; and Grade 3, weathering steel rivets.
Standard Test Method for Shear Testing of Aluminum and Aluminum-Alloy Rivets
and Cold-Heading Wire and Rods (B565-20)

This test method is intended solely for the shear testing of rivets and cold-heading wire
and rod, and is not generally recommended for the determination of the shear strength
of other products. For rivets, this test method is limited to rivets having a shank length
equal to or greater than 2d.
Standard Test Methods for Determining the Mechanical Properties of Externally
and Internally Threaded Fasteners, Washers, Direct Tension Indicators, and
Rivets (F606/F606M-21) (SECTION 6-8 : FOR RIVETS)
These test methods establish the standard procedures for conducting tests to determine
the mechanical properties of externally and internally threaded fasteners, washers and
direct tension indicators, and rivets.

These test methods describe mechanical tests for determining the following properties:
For Rivets: SECTION 6
Product Hardness 6.1 Product Hardness—Determine hardness at the mid radius of a
transverse section of the product taken at a distance of one diameter from the point end
of the rivet
Test for Embrittlement of Metallic-Coated Externally Threaded Fasteners 7 This is one
test method for determining if embrittlement exists in a metallic coated externally
threaded fastener covered by the product specifications of ASTM
Test Method for Determining Decarburization and Carburization (ASTM F2328-17) 8
This test method covers procedures for measuring, classifying, and determining the
presence of decarburization and carburization in the threaded section of hardened and
tempered metric steel bolts, screws, studs, nuts and similar parts which have been
heated to facilitate fabrication or to modify their mechanical properties. This test method
is not intended to address products which are intentionally carburized to achieve
specific results.

Bolts
A bolt is manufactured with a head at one end and threads at the other end, to which a
nut can be threaded. When the bolt is in position to hold two members together, a
tightening of the nut pulls the bolt with a tensile force and presses inward on the two
members, causing friction between them to resist movement.

TYPES OF BOLTS
There are many different types of bolts, each having different characteristics that make
them suitable for use across a wide range of applications.

● Anchor Bolts - are bolts that are designed to be used to attach a structural
member or component to a concrete slab or poured foundation. Anchor bolts
may be preset into place while the concrete structure is being cast, as with the
plate used on top of the poured foundation of a house. Or, anchors may be
attached after the concrete has been cured through the use of a drilling operation
to create a channel into which the anchor bolt may be inserted. They are
commonly used in the construction industry. They are usually found in the bases
of steel poles.
● Blind Bolts - Blind bolts refer to a style of bolt that allows for the use of a fastener
in cases where the application does not allow access to both sides of the bolt to
tighten or torque the bolt. A simple example of this is with the common toggle bolt
that is used to secure items to a wall at a location between the supporting
beams.
● Carriage Bolts - are a form of self-locking bolt that affords a level of security by
using a flush-mount domed head, which permits access to remove or loosen
these bolts from the nut side of the bolt only. Beneath the domed head of the
carriage bolt is a square section that can be inserted into a corresponding square
cut that is slotted in the material being joined so as to provide the self-locking
feature that allows the bolt to be tightened from the nut side without a need to
restrain the head with a wrench.

● Double End Bolts - are sometimes called stud bolts and feature a threaded
portion on each end of the bolt without a traditional head. One end is designed to
be threaded into a suitable hole that has been tapped with a mated thread, while
the other end protrudes and is threaded to support a nut. The appearance is
similar to that of threaded rod but is traditionally not threaded over the entire
length of the stud and may be threaded differently on each end.
● Eye Bolts - feature a fully closed or partially closed-looped end in place of the
traditional bolt head. The loop can be used in some cases for lifting the object to
which the eye bolt is attached. Some eye bolts are not designated for lifting but
rather can be used to route wire, cables, or other similar elements cleanly to
avoid accidental interference.

● Flange Bolts - Flange bolts are ones that contain a washer-like surface or flange
beneath the head of these fasteners that provides a means to distribute the
clamping load over a larger surface area, thereby reducing potential damage to
the surface with which these fasteners will mate. Flange bolts are often used in
applications such as plumbing and automotive. Flange bolts are traditionally
fabricated from steel or stainless steel and are available in fine and coarse
threads and in a variety of grades. The flange may be smooth or serrated, the
latter of which helps the fastener grip the mating surface.
● Hex Bolts - Hex bolts, also called hexagon head bolts or hexagonal head bolts,
are a very common form of bolt that is available in standard dimensional inch and
metric sizes. As the name implies, these bolts feature a hexagonal head or a hex
head that is suitable for tightening with a wrench or socket. A hex bolt may be
fully threaded or may feature an unthreaded shoulder. Hex bolts are often used
to fasten wood to wood, metal to wood, or metal to metal.

● Machine Bolts and Machine Screws - Machine bolts are used to fasten together
two pieces of material, and are similar to hex bolts, except that they will not have
a chamfered point and are not designed with a washer-bearing surface on the
underside of the head. They are typically available in both hex head and square
head options. A different fastener product, machine screws, is often used
synonymously with machine bolts which is a source of confusion. Machine
screws tend to be smaller in size than machine bolts, but usually have uniform
threading along the full length of the fastener. Unlike other types of screws such
as wood screws or sheet metal screws, the fasteners feature a flat tip, not a
pointed or tapered tip as is common with these other types of screws. Screws
generally are designed to be used either with pre-tapped holes or to be driven
into materials where the screw will create its own thread in the material as it is
tightened. By contrast, bolts are designed to be tightened by applying and
 torquing a mating nut on the end of the bolt. So while nuts and bolts are paired
fastener items, nuts are not typically used with screws which instead are
threaded into pre-tapped holes. Both machine bolts and machine screws are
available in different head styles, including hex head which is frequently paired
with hex nuts, as well as flat head, oval head, and cheese head, to name a few.

● Penta-Head Bolts - Penta-head bolts are an example of a tamper-resistant bolt,

which may be used in applications where it is desired to reduce the likelihood
that a person armed with standard tools can loosen or remove the bolt. With the
head of the bolt in the shape of a pentagon, standard wrench or socket sets will
be incapable of being used on these bolts.
● Round Head Bolts - Similar in appearance to carriage bolts, round head bolts do
not have the square taper beneath the domed head of the bolt and are typically
used to join wood. The softer nature of wood permits the bolt to compress
against the surface of the wood and grip by friction to preclude the bolt from
turning when the nut is tightened.

● Shoulder Bolts - Shoulder bolts, also called stripper bolts, feature a threaded bolt
section of smaller diameter than the shoulder of the bolt (the section of the bolt
between the head and the beginning of the threaded portion). Shoulder bolts are
useful for functioning as a shaft or axle that can contain a rotating part, such as a
bearing or a bushing.

● Socket Head Bolts - Socket head bolts feature a recessed head that is tightened
using an Allen wrench or hex socket tool. The head style of these bolts can vary
from a cylindrical profile to a flat-head countersunk style to a domed button head
design, depending on the desired use. The deeper recessed Allen socket head
affords the ability to increase the torque applied to these fasteners while
 minimizing the risk of stripping or damaging the head. Socket head bolts are
often referred to as socket head cap screws, depending on the supplier.

● Square Head Bolts - Square head bolts, also called square bolts, were once very
commonly used predating the creation of hex head bolts. While square bolts are
still available, they are primarily used in railway applications or to achieve the
aesthetic of an older or more traditional appearance.The square heads are
sometimes fashioned to a decorative appearance so as to mimic the styles
common in older construction. Square heads can be pyramid-shaped,
hammered, or have an irregular appearance that reflects the way in which these
fasteners would have been created by using hand-forging techniques before the
age of mass production.
● T-Head Bolts - T-head bolts or T-slot bolts feature a head design that enables it
to be inserted into a slot or recess, thereby securing the bolt in place to prevent it
from turning when the securing nut is tightened. T-bolts are used in applications
such as securing fuel tanks in place where having access to both sides of the
fastener may not be possible in all cases. The T-slot variety of T-head bolts can
be fed into a channel in a machine called a T-slot track and may be used to
secure an object at any position along the length of the channel.

● U-Bolts - U-bolts are fasteners that are in the shape of the letter U, which contain
two male threads, one on each end of the bolt on to which a mounting plate
bracket and attachment nuts are placed. These fasteners are typically not fully
threaded, as they function to clamp an object in place. They are used in a range
of applications from supporting pipe to automotive use on drive shafts and
exhaust systems. Some designs include rubber coating to preclude wear from
the movement of metal against metal. Other designs of U-bolt add thick rubber
gaskets to reduce the effect of vibration and to control noise.
In many connections where little strength is required and there are no vibrations, impact
loads, or stress cycles, common bolts should be used because they are less expensive
and easier to install than high strength bolts. However, common bolts are much weaker
than high-strength bolts; they loosen under vibration, impact loads, or cyclic loads,
especially if there is stress reversal.

HIGH STRENGTH BOLT

High strength bolts or structural bolts are made to be used with heavy hex nuts to
connect structural members. High-strength steel bolts can be installed to produce a
predetermined tension greater than that of a common bolt due to the great friction
between members. High-strength bolts are several times as strong in tension as
common bolts.

Tables of minimum tension loads for various size high strength bolts have been
prepared by AISC. In a properly constructed joint, nuts are tightened until each bolt has
at least the minimum tension. Greater tension is permitted because the tabulated
minimum tension loads are only 70 percent of the specified minimum tensile strength of
the bolts. The designer must select the number and size of bolts so that the friction
required at that joint is provided when all bolts are under the minimum allowable
tension.

Bolts are tightened with wrenches powered by electricity or compressed air. These
power wrenches operate by impacting against the object to be turned and are called
impact wrenches.

DIFFERENT BOLTING METHODS

1. turn-of-nut method - This method involves turning the nut or bolt of a fastener
assembly at a specific angle that is based on the length and diameter of the
fastener, while at the same time making sure the unturned element doesn’t
rotate. The turn-of-nut method depends on the fact that tightening of the nut
elongates the bolt, inducing tension in the bolt and therefore friction between the
members in proportion to the bolt elongation. Any turning of the nut beyond this
original tightening draws the end of the bolt into the nut, thereby stretching the
bolt. All nuts are then rotated the additional amount prescribed by AISC to obtain
correct elongation and tension.
2. Calibrated wrench method - To calibrate a wrench, at least three bolts of each
size to be used on that job are tightened in a calibrating device that indicates the
tension in each bolt. Torque delivered by the wrench becomes greater as the nut
 is turned. The wrench is set to stall at the average torque load that produces the
correct tension. Each bolt on the job is then turned until the wrench stalls.
Tightening may also be controlled by the use of a direct tension indicator on each
bolt as it is tightened. As the nut is turned, the washer projections are
compressed, causing the washer to move closer to the bolt head. The width of
the gap can be related to bolt tension. The gap will be a predetermined width at
proper bolt tension.
3. Torque Wrench - A torque wrench is used to inspect a percentage of bolts chosen
at random. A torque wrench is a long, hand-operated wrench that includes an
indicator dial to indicate torque while the wrench is used. The wrench is
calibrated to determine the torque needed to produce the required bolt tension.
This wrench is applied to each bolt to be tested until the bolt moves slightly in the
tightening direction. The torque required to do this must be as large as the torque
determined by calibration.

High-strength bolts are of two types: A325, described in ASTM A325, and A490,
described in ASTM A490. The A325 bolts are of carbon steel and the A490 bolts
are of alloy steel.

There are four types of A325 bolts: medium-carbon steel, low carbon martensite,
weathering steel, and hot-dip galvanized.

There are two types of A490 bolts: alloy steel and weathering steel.

An A325 bolt has the strength of one and one-half rivets of the same size, and an
A490 bolt has the strength of one and one-half A325 bolts of the same size.
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