CE 14: CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING
PORTLAND CEMENT CONCRETE 600 B.C – Greeks discovered a natural substance that
History of Cement
• Cement, though not in the refined form found
today, has been employed in a variety of ways
since the dawn of human civilization.
18th Century
• James Parker – a British clergyman and cement
maker who produced one of the late-eighteenth
centuries pioneering new cements which is the
Roman Cement.
19th Century
• Frenchman Louis Vicat – laid the groundwork
for the chemical composition of Portland cement.
• Joseph Aspdin – brought Portland Cement to the
market in England.
• William Aspdin – developed the modern
Portland Cement
• Rosendale Cement - was discovered in New
York. Though its rigidity first made it fairly
popular, market demand quickly fell due to its
lengthy curing period.
• Catskill Aqueduct – a developed blend of
Rosendale and Portland Cement, both are durable
and required less curing time.
• Rosendale – Portland Cement – now often used
for highway or bridge construction.
History of Concrete
• Concrete is the most used building material in the
world.
• Some of the world's most famous structures may
never have been built or may not have withstand
the test of time without concrete.
Concrete has several advantages that make it a unique
building material:
• Sustainability
• Versatility
• Resiliency
6500 B.C – First concrete like buildings were made.
3000 B.C - Egyptians use mud mixed with straw to create
adobe-like building material. China used a form of cement
created with sticky rice.
700 B.C - Bedouins discovered cement that hardens
underwater.
could create concrete when mixed with lime.
200 B.C - Romans had perfected building with concrete.
1824 - Joseph Aspdin created Portland Cement.
Properties and Composition of Concrete
There are Four Basic Ingredients Within the Concrete
Material Mix:
1. Binding Material
- It is the main element of a concrete material
mix. Cement is the most commonly used
binding material.
2. Aggregates
- Sand is a fine mixture. Gravel or crushed
stone is the coarse mixture in most mixes.
Aggregates occupy about 60-80% of the
volume of concrete.
3. Water
- Water is required to with chemicals react with
the cement (hydration) and to supply
workability with the concrete. the pH of
mixing water should e between 6 and 8.5.
4. Admixture
- It includes all materials other than cement.
Manufacturing of Cement
The Common Raw Cement Materials
• Limestone (Calcium)
• Sand and Clay
• Shale
• Fly Ash
• Mill Scale
• Bauxite
The 6 Stages of Cement Manufacturing
Stage 1: Raw Material Extraction / Quarry
1. The ore rocks are quarried and crushed into
smaller pieces of about 6 inches.
2. Secondary crushers or hammer mills then reduce
them to an even smaller size of 3 inches.
3. The ingredients are prepared for pyro processing.
Stage 2: Grinding, Proportioning, and Blending
1. The crushed raw ingredients are made ready for
the cement-making process in the kiln by
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combining them with additives and grinding
them to ensure a fine homogenous mixture.
2. The composition of cement is proportioned here
depending on the desired properties of the
cement. Generally, limestone is 80%, and the
remaining 20% is clay.
3. Heavy wheel-type rollers and rotating tables
blend the raw mix and then the roller crushes it to
a fine powder to be stored in silos and fed to the
kiln.
Stage 3: Pre – Heating Raw Material
1. A pre-heating chamber is made up of a series of
cyclones that use hot gases from the kiln to reduce
energy usage and make the cement-making
process more environmentally friendly.
The Principal Stage of the Cement Production Process
Stage 4: Kiln Phase
• Clinker is produced from the raw mix through a
series of chemical reactions between calcium and
silicon dioxide compounds.
Sequence:
1. The evaporation of free water.
2. Evolution of combined water in the argillaceous
components.
3. Calcination of the calcium carbonate (CaCO3) to
calcium oxide (CaO).
4. The reaction of CaO with silica to form dicalcium
silicate.
5. The reaction of CaO with the aluminum and iron-
bearing constituents forms the liquid phase.
6. Formation of the clinker nodules.
7. Evaporation of volatile constituents (e. g.,
sodium, potassium, chlorides, and sulfates).
8. The reaction of excess CaO with dicalcium
silicate forms tricalcium silicate.
Stage 5: Cooling and Final Grinding
The clinker is rapidly cooled down from 2000°C to
100°C-200°C by passing air over it.
1. Gypsum added to and ground with clinker
regulates the setting time and gives the most
important property of cement, compressive
strength.
2. Triethanolamine (used at 0.1 wt.%), are added as
grinding aids to avoid powder agglomeration.
3. Other additives sometimes used are ethylene
glycol, oleic acid, and dodecyl- benzene
sulphonate.
Stage 6: Packing and Shipping
1. Cement is conveyed from grinding mills to silos
(large storage tanks) where it is packed in 20-40
kg bags.
2. Product is shipped in bulk quantities by trucks,
trains, or ships, and only a small amount is packed
for customers who need small quantities.
Physical Properties and Chemical Composition of
Cement
Chemical Composition of Cement
1. Tricalcium Silicate
- Hardens rapidly and is largely responsible for
initial set and early strength.
2. Dicalcium Silicate
- Hardens slowly and its effect on strength
increases occurs at ages beyond one week.
3. Tricalcium Aluminate
- It contributes to strength development in the
first few days.
- First compound to hydrate.
- It is less desirable component due to high heat
and reactiveness with soil and water
containing moderate-to-high sulfate
concentrations.
4. Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite
- It allows lower clinkering temperature.
- Contributes very little to strength even
though it hydrates very rapidly.
Physical Properties of Cement
Physical qualities distinguish different cement mixtures
used in building. Some critical parameters influence
cement quality. Good cement's physical qualities are
determined by:
1. Fineness of Cement – The size if the particles of
cement.
2. Soundness of Cement – The ability of cement to
not shrink upon hardening.
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Le Chatelier Test – Tests the expansion of
cement due to lime.
Standard Autoclave Test: AASHTO T107 and
ASTM C151.
3. Consistency of Cement – The ability of cement
pastes to follow its consistency.
Vicat Test
4. Strength of Cement
a. Compressive Strength – The test specimen is
taken and subjected to a compressive load
until failure.
✓ AASHTO T106 and ASTM C109:
Compressive Strength of Hydraulic
Cement Mortars (Using 50 mm or 2
in Cube Specimens).
✓ ASTM C349: Compressive Strength
of Hydraulic Cement Mortars (Using
Portions of Prisms Broken Flexure).
b. Tensile Strength
c. Flexural Strength – Measures tensile strength
in bending.
ASTM C348: Flexural Strength of Hydraulic
Cement Mortars
5. Setting Time of Cement
Factors That Affect the Setting Time of Cement:
- Fitness of Cement
- Cement – Water Ratio
- Chemical Content
- Admixtures
Initial Set: When the paste begins to stiffen
noticeably (typically occurs within 30-45
minutes).
Final Set: When the cement hardens, being able
to sustain some load (occurs below 10 hours).
✓ AASHTO T131 and ASTM C191: Time
of Setting of Hydraulic Cement by Vicat
Needle.
✓ AASHTO T154: Time of Setting of
Hydraulic Cement by Gillmore Needles
✓ ASTM C266: Time of Setting of
Hydraulic Cement Paste by Gillmore
Needles.
6. Heat of Hydration - The reaction that occurs
when water is introduced to cement is known as
hydration.
- Hydration generates heat, which can affect
the quality of the cement and also be
beneficial in maintaining curing temperature
during cold weather.
- When heat generation is high, especially in
large structures, it may cause undesired
stress.
✓ ASTM C186: Heat of Hydration of
Hydraulic Cement
7. Loss of Ignition - Improper and prolonged
storage or adulteration during transport or
transfer may lead to pre-hydration and
carbonation, both of which might be indicated by
increased loss of ignition.
✓ AASHTO T105 and ASTM C114:
Chemical Analysis of Hydraulic
Cement
8. Bulk Density – Cement has a varying range of
density depending on the cement composition
percentage. The density of cement may be
anywhere from 62 to 78 pounds per cubic foot.
9. Specific Gravity (Relative Density)
- Specific gravity is generally used in mixture
proportioning calculations.
- Portland cement has a specific gravity of
3.15, but other types of cement (for example,
Portland-blast-furnace-slag and Portland-
pozzolan cement) may have specific gravities
of about 2.90.
AASHTO T133 and ASTM C188: Density
of Hydraulic Cement
Water – Cement Reaction
Hydration – The chemical reaction that takes place
when Portland cement and water are mixed.
• It is considered complete at 28 days.
• Setting – the process when cement is mixed with
water to form a fluid paste, the mixture will
become stiff and hard.
• Cement should not set too fast; it would be
unworkable. It would stiffen and become hard
before it could be placed or finished. In contrary,
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when it sets slowly, valuable construction time is
lost.
• Heat of Hydration - The heat generated from the
chemical reaction between water and cement.
Types of Portland Cements and Corresponding
Application – ASTM
Two Different Types of Cement
1. Hydraulic Cement
- It hardens due to the addition of water.
- Hydraulic Cement is mainly made up of
silicates and oxides:
o Belite (2CaO·SiO2)
o Alite (3CaO·SiO2)
o Tricalcium aluminate/ Celite
(3CaO·Al2O3)
o Brownmillerite
(4CaO·Al2O3·Fe2O3)
- The ingredients are processed in the kiln in
cement plants. The complete chemistry of
the reactions is still a subject of research.
2. Non – Hydraulic Cement
- Hardened by carbonation with the carbon
present in the air, so it cannot be used
underwater.
- It is produced through the following steps
(Lime Cycle)
o Calcination: Lime is produced from
limestone at over 825°C for about 10
hours. (CaCO3 → CaO + CO2)
o Slaking: Calcium oxide is mixed
with water to make slaked lime.
(CaO + H2O → Ca (OH)2)
o Setting: Water is completely
evaporated.
o The cement is exposed to dry air, and
it hardens after time-consuming
reactions. (Ca (OH)2 + CO2 →
CaCO3+ H2O)
The most commonly used type of cement is hydraulic
cement (Hardens When Water is Added) – Portland
Cement or Portland Cement Blends.
• It is suitable for wet climates and can be used
underwater.
Types of Portland Cement ASTM C150
1. ASTM TYPE I (Normal) - used where the
concrete will not be subjected to sulfate attack
from soil or water or be exposed to severe
weathering conditions.
2. ASTM TYPE II (Moderate Heat or Modified)
- used to where resistance to moderate sulfate
attack is important, areas wherein sulfate
concentration in ground water is higher than
normal.
3. ASTM TYPE III (High Early Strength) – used
where an early strength gain is important and heat
generation is not a critical factor.
4. ASTM TYPE IV (Low Heat) - used where the
rate and amount of heat generated must be
minimized.
5. ASTM TYPE V (Sulfate Resisting) – used
where the soil or groundwater contains high
sulfate concentrations, and the structure would be
exposed to severe sulfate attack.
6. Air – Entraining Portland Cements (ASTM
C175) – TYPE IA, TYPE IIA, TYPE IIIA: these
cements provide the concrete with improved
resistance to freeze-thaw action to scaling caused
by chemicals and salts used for ice and snow
removal.
7. White Portland Cement (ASTM C150 &
C175) – It is recommended wherever white or
colored concrete or mortar is desired. This white
cement allows more accurate colors.
8. Portland Blast – Furnace Slag Cements –
Granulated blast-furnace slag of selected quality
is interground with Portland cement.
o TYPE IS & TYPE IS – A (ASTM
C595)
o These cements can be used in general
concrete construction when the specific
properties of other types are not required.
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9. Portland – Pozzolan Cements (-IP, IP – A, P,
and P – A) – Where the A denoting air-entraining
additives as specified in ASTM C595.
o These cements are used principally for
large hydraulic structures sucks as bridge
piers and dams.
10. Masonry Cements (TYPE I & TYPE II –
ASTM C91) – Contain Portland cement, air -
entraining additives and other materials selected
for their ability to impart physical properties to
the masonry mortars.
Different Admixtures in Concrete
What is an Admixture?
• Defined as any material other than cement,
aggregate, and water added to a concrete mix and
used to modify basic concrete designs
It is Generally Used Because?
• Improve Workability of Fresh Concrete.
• Reduce Water Content – Increasing Strength for
a Given Water – Cement Ration.
• Increase the Durability of Hardened Cement.
• Retard Setting Time or Increase It.
• Impart Color to Concrete.
• Maintain Volume Stability by Reducing or
Offsetting Shrinkage During Curing.
• Increase Concrete Resistance to Freezing and
Thawing.
What are the Types of Admixtures?
1. Air – Entraining Admixtures – increase the
workability of the wet concrete, reduce freeze-
thaw damage in hardened concrete, and when
used in larger amounts, create very lightweight
nonstructural concretes with thermal insulating
properties.
2. Water – Reducing Admixtures – allow a
reduction in the amount of mixing water while
retaining the same workability, which results in a
higher strength concrete.
3. High Range Water – Reducing Admixtures –
Superplasticizers - are organic compounds that
transform a stiff concrete mix into one that flows
freely into the forms.
- They are used either to facilitate placement of
concrete under difficult circumstances or to
reduce the water content of a concrete mix to
increase its strength.
4. Accelerating Admixtures – cause concrete to
cure more rapidly, and retarding admixtures slow
its curing to allow more time for working with the
wet concrete.
5. Workability Agents - improve the plasticity of
wet concrete to make it easier to place in forms
and finish.
- They include pozzolans and air- entraining
admixtures, along with certain fly ashes and
organic compounds.
6. Shrinkage – Reducing Agents - reduce drying
shrinkage and the cracking that results therefrom.
7. Corrosion Inhibitors – are used to reduce
rusting of reinforcing steel.
- Making and Placing Concrete / 503 in
structures that are exposed to road deicing
salts or other corrosion causing chemicals.
8. Freeze Protection Admixtures – allow concrete
to cure satisfactorily at temperatures as low as 20
degrees Fahrenheit (7°C).
- Extended set-control admixtures may be used
to delay the curing reaction in concrete for
any period up to several days.
- Stabilizer Component – added at the time of
initial mixing, defers the onset of curing
indefinitely.
- Activator Component – added when
desired, reinitiates the curing process.
9. Coloring Agents - are dyes and pigments used to
alter and control the color of concrete for building
components whose appearance is important.
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Water Standards
What is the Purpose of the Standard?
• This is to ensure that the water is reasonably free
from such impurities as suspended solids, organic
matter and dissolved salts, which may adversely
affect the properties of the concrete, especially
the setting, hardening, strength, durability, pit
value, etc.
• Water shall be tested in an approved Laboratory
for its use in preparing concrete.
• The pH value of water for making cement
concrete should be between 6 to 8.5.
ACI 311 Standards
What is ACI?
• American Concrete Institute
• ACI Committee Reports, Guides, Standard
Practices, and Commentaries are intended for
guidance in planning, designing, executing, and
inspecting construction.
What is the Purpose of ACI 311?
• Guide for Concrete Inspection.
• It discusses the need for concrete construction
inspection and other associated operations, the
numerous types of inspection activities involved,
and the roles of various individuals and
organizations participating in these activities.
• It presents recommended plans for the various
types of inspection activities and means of
implementing the program.
Concrete Mixing Methods and Standards
• Concrete can be mixed by hand in small portable
mixers, in transit mix trucks, and in large
stationary mixers.
• The mixing equipment is usually rated for two
functions:, the actual mixing of the ingredients
to produce concrete, and the agitating of the
already-mixed concrete.
Methods of Concrete Mixing
1. Transit Mix Trucks
- Mobile concrete production system
sometimes referred to as a concrete mobile.
- Bins on the truck carry coarse and fine
aggregates and cement, while tanks carry
water and admixtures.
- The system produces concrete on-site to
required specifications; for larger projects the
bins and tanks are reloaded at the jobsite.
2. Portable Mixer or Construction Mixer
- Commonly used for smaller concrete jobs.
- Used for small concrete placement or when
time of placement must be controlled.
- The biggest problem with concrete produced
with construction mixers on-site is quality
control.
3. Paving Mixers
- Concrete mixers mounted on crawler treads.
- The materials are fed into the mixer from dry-
batch trucks, and the machine travels along
the finish grade and deposits fresh concrete
behind itself to be screeded and finished by
the rest of the paving train.
4. Shotcrete
- Placed by high velocity compressed air and
adheres to the surface on which it is
projected.
- In the dry-mix process, the dry materials are
thoroughly mixed with enough water to
prevent dusting.
- The dry mixture is forced through the
delivery hose by compressed air, and the
water is added at the mixing nozzle.
5. Ready Mix Concrete
- Concrete delivered to the jobsite ready for
placement and produced by one of three
methods: central mix, transit mix, and shrink
mix.
a. Central – Mix Concrete - is mixed in a
stationary mixer at the producer’s yard
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and delivered to the jobsite in a transit
mixer operating at agitating speeds.
b. Transit – Mixed Concrete – is
completely mixed in the truck. The
ingredients are batched, water is added,
and the concrete is mixed in the drum
mounted on a truck.
c. Shrink – Mixed Concrete – is a
combination of central mix and transit
mix, with mixing requirements split
between the central plant and the transit
truck.
The Standards
To produce quality concrete, the batching and measuring
of ingredients must be done accurately:
• Concrete mixing equipment loads should not
exceed rated capacities.
• Interior of the mixing drum should be
periodically checked for worn blades and
hardened concrete buildup
• All weighing equipment should be checked
periodically and adjustments made when
required.
• Admixture equipment should be checked daily.
Creation of Beam and Cylindrical Concrete Samples
Methods and Standards
Concrete Beam Samples
• Flexural strength specimens shall be beams of
concrete cast and hardened in the horizontal
position.
• The length shall be at least 50 mm greater than
three times the depth as tested.
• The ratio of width to depth as molded shall not
exceed 1.5.
Concrete Cylinder Samples
• Compressive or splitting tensile strength
specimens shall be cylinders cast and allowed to
set in an upright position.
• Acceptance testing for specified compressive
strength, cylinders shall be 150 by 300 mm or 100
by 200 mm.
The Creation of Concrete Beam and Cylinder Process
1. Place the cylinder and beam mold in a leveled,
rigid, and free of vibrations and disturbance
surface.
2. Fill in the molds in 3 layers and 25 roddings per
layer, hit 10 - 15 times with rubber mallet.
3. Consolidate the layer of concrete as necessary for
the mold’s diameter after pouring it into the mold.
4. Flatten the concrete mixture using a trowel.
5. Put the cylinder and beam mold in a suitable
location for the curing procedure for at least 48
hours.
Slump Test
Slump test is used to check if an appropriate amount of
water has been added to the concrete mix.
1. Put a slump cone on a flat surface and then
dampen the apparatus.
2. Mark the layers at a distance of 155.58 mm and
66.68 mm from the slump cone’s base.
3. Place a suitable amount of the sample from the
concrete mix into the test slump cone.
4. Rod the concrete inside by 25 times using the
tamping rod.
5. Add another layer of concrete and repeat previous
step until 3rd layer is rod 25 times.
6. Remove the mold, then raise the mold in 5 – 10
seconds and measure the slump if within 6 mm.
Cylindrical and Beam Compressive Strength Test:
Procedures and Standards
• Compressive strength is the measured maximum
resistance to axial loading, expressed as force
per unit of cross-sectional area in pounds per
square inch.
• Compressive strength is measured by breaking
cylindrical concrete specimens in a compression-
testing machine.
• Compressive strength is calculated from the
failure load divided by the cross-sectional area
resisting the load and reported in units of pound-
force per square inch (psi) or megapascals
(MPa).
2 Point vs 3 Point Beam Sample Test
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Schmidt Rebound Hammer: Procedures, Standards,
and Testing: ASTM C805
Rebound Hammer
• The device is used to estimate in-place strength, a
relationship between strength and rebound
number needs to be established for the specific
concrete mixture design of interest.
5. The 10 readings are averaged, and any reading
that differs by more than 6 from the average is
discarded; then average the remaining values.
6. If more than 2 readings differ from the average by
more than 6, discard all 10 readings and repeat the
test.

Proper Placement of Concrete | Use of Pumpcrete

and Quality Points
Segregation
• The separation of coarse aggregate from the
mortar or water from the ingredients can be
detrimental to the quality of the hardened
concrete.

Concrete Pump
• The concrete pump transports plastic concrete
• The device consists of a plunger rod and an through a pipeline system from the ready – mix
internal spring-loaded steel hammer and a truck to the point of placement without changing
latching mechanism. the basic characteristics of the concrete mix.

Normal Pumping Distance

How to Determine the in – Place Strength of Concrete
1. Held perpendicular to the concrete surface and
pushed toward the surface, stretching the internal
spring to its limit.
The Importance of Aggregate Sizes
2. The spring releases and pulls the hammer toward
the concrete, while the plunger bounces off the
concrete.
3. The plunger is locked in its rebound position, and
the rebound number is read and recorded.
4. Ten readings are taken, and no two readings
should be obtained closer together than 1 in.
• It ranges from 300 ft to 1000 ft horizontally or
100 ft to 300 ft vertically.
• A 90° bend in the pipe is the equivalent of about
40 ft of straight horizontal line, and each 1 ft of
vertical lift is the equivalent of about 8 ft of
horizontal line.
• The pipe used to carry the concrete is generally
steel and/or rubber.
• Aluminum Pipe is no longer used because
concrete passing through the pipe grinds
aluminum particles from the pipe wall.
• Normal pump capacities range from 10 to 125 cu
yd/hour, with special pumps having capacities
more than 250 cu yd/hour.
• The maximum – size aggregate should not exceed
40 percent of the diameter of the pipe if the
aggregate has a well – rounded shape.
• Pumping lightweight aggregate concrete presents
no problem if it has been presoaked.
- Any concrete that does not segregate before
pumping will not tend to segregate during
pumping.

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Pumpable Mix
• The pump lines are lubricated with a concrete mix
that contains no coarse aggregate.
• The amount of mortar used will depend on the
length of the run. A cubic yard of mortar will
lubricate approximately 1000 ft of pipe.
Conveyor Belts
• It is used by the concrete industry to move plastic
concrete for several years.
• The volume of concrete transported by a
conveyor is determined by the belt width,
conveyor speed, angle of incline or decline, and
the properties of the concrete mix itself, such as
aggregate size and shape, mix proportions, and
slump.
• The conveying system must be properly designed
with enough power to start and stop with fully
loaded belts during placement delays.
Contractor Joint
• It is a cut made into the surface of the concrete.
The slab is weakened at that point and cracks
should develop in the joint rather than randomly.
• The joint may be sawed, made with a groover, or
formed with divider strips.
Isolation Joint
• It is designed to physically separate areas of
concrete from one another or from columns,
poles, and walls.
• The joint is usually formed with a pre- molded
filler which is left in place just slightly below the
concrete surface’s tooled edges.
Construction Joint
• Used when concrete cannot be placed
continuously.
• They separate one concrete placement from the
next concrete placement.
• The purpose of a construction joint is to allow for
some horizontal movement, while being rigid
against rotational and vertical movement.
Importance and Quality Points of the Use of Concrete
Vibrator
• Vibrators may either be immersion or external
form mounted systems powered by air or
electricity.
• The contractor must determine a vibrator pattern
and the amplitude and frequency of vibration, as
well as the depth of the vibrator into the concrete,
to ensure good consolidation.
• The revibrated concrete exhibits a higher strength
and less settlement cracking, and the effects of
internal bleeding are reduced.
Self – Compacting Concretes (SCC)
• These are made with viscosity – modifying
admixtures and / or new – generation
superplasticizers and aggregate to and ratios of
about 1 to 1, plus additional fines.
• Self – Compacting concrete is widely used in the
precast industry and has virtually eliminated the
use of Vibration equipment.
Seasoning / Curing of Concrete
• It begins after surfaces have been worked to
proper finish for concrete to adequately gain its
design strength, increase its resistance to freeze –
thaw, and improve its watertightness and wear
resistance.
• The continued hydration of the cement requires
moisture and favorable temperatures to be
maintained for an adequate time.
• The optimum concrete temperature at placement
will vary with conditions, but generally 90°F
(32.2°C) is set as the upper limit.
Hot – Weather Concreting
• The loss of moisture after placement is critical,
and various methods can be used to prevent the
moisture loss such as wind screens, fog misting
systems or evaporation retarding chemicals or to
add additional curing water to the concrete to
determine if slabs have the potential for plastic
shrinkage cracking.
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• Methods used to prevent moisture loss may Shrinkage and Creep Properties of Concrete
include the use of waterproof papers, plastic film,
Creep – It is the effect due to which concrete undergoes
and liquid curing compounds which form a
continuous deformation under sustained loading applied
membrane and the leaving of forms in place. for a considerable time.
• The additional water methods are by ponding,
sprinkling, and using wet coverings such as
burlap, sand, and straw.

Shrinkage – It is drying of concrete and is independent

of applied loads. Since shrinkage will cause contraction
in concrete, if the contraction is restrained then tensile
stress gets developed, and this tensile stress can cause the
Cold – Weather Concreting cracking of concrete.
• This requires the maintenance of internal heat or
the use of additional heat to provide the proper
curing temperatures.
• To maintain internal heat, insulating blankets and
straw may be used.
• The external heat may be supplied by
salamanders, space heaters, or live steam.

Two Prerequisites: To Accurately Consider the Effects of

Creep and Shrinkage.
1. Reliable data for the creep and shrinkage
characteristics of the concrete mix.
2. Analytical and/or numerical procedures for the
inclusion of these time effects in the analysis and
design of the structure.
Characteristics of Creep

Note: No two concrete jobs are alike, and the

specifications must be checked carefully to determine
what will be required for hot or cold weather concrete
placement and what methods of curing will be allowed.

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• Creep strain develops gradually with time.
(i) We can infer from the figure that when the
time is tending to infinity, creep would be
approaching a limiting value.
(ii) Hence, after several years, the rate of change
of creep is quite small.
(iii) Due to this reason around 50 percent of the
final creep develops in the first 2–3 months
and about 90 percent develops after 2–3
years.
Creep Effects
1. Creep Primary
- The primary effects are independent of the
boundary conditions of the structure and can
be calculated based on the formulations given
in various design codes.
2. Creep Secondary
- The secondary effects are dependent on the
boundary conditions of the structure.
Common Field Problems

1. Bleeding
Factors Affecting Creep
1. Concrete Mix
- Creep is inversely proportional to the
characteristic strength of concrete.
- So, for a specific stress level, creep would be
more in lower strength concrete.
2. Aggregate
- An increase in aggregate content or the
maximum aggregate size reduces creep.
- It occurs when the excess water comes to the
surface of the concrete due to the settlement
of heavier components like aggregates,
cement.
Prevention:
- Strictly maintaining water to cement ratio.
- Adding sand of finer particles.
- Supplementary cementitious materials to
incase water absorption.
- Adding air entertaining mixtures.

3. Water – Cement Ratio

- Creep also decreases as the water-to-cement
ratio is reduced.

4. Environment
- Creep increases as the relative humidity
decreases.

5. Surface Area
- Creep is greater in thin members with large
surface-area-to-volume ratios, such as slabs.
- However, the dependence of creep on relative
humidity and the size and shape of the
specimen decreases as the concrete strength 2. Segregation
increases. - The cement paste comes to the top while the
aggregates settle down at the bottom of the
6. Ambient Temperature concrete.
- A rise in temperature increases the Prevention:
deformability of the cement paste and - Using the recommended proportion of
accelerates drying, and thus increases creep. cement and water.
- Avoiding over – vibration or compaction of
7. Age of Concrete and Loading
concrete.
- Concrete loaded at an early age undergoes
- Adhering to the advised concrete mixing
creep more than concrete loaded at a later
guidelines, like mixing at a speed.
age.

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- Avoiding dropping concrete from long
heights.
3. Scaling
- The surface layer of concrete gets
deteriorated by getting peeled or by breaking
off.
Prevention:
- Using air trained concrete.
- Not performing finishing steps till the water
is present on the surface.
- Not using deicing salts, such as calcium,
magnesium, or sodium chloride.
- Properly curing the concrete with the use of
liquid membrane curing compound or by
covering the surface of freshly placed slab
with wet burlap and polyethene sheets or a
non-woven geotextile.
- Protecting the concrete surface during harsh
weather conditions.
4. Plastic Shrinkage Cracking
- It Occurs when there is an excessive and
rapid loss of water from concrete before it has
even set.
Prevention:
- Avoiding overmixing of the concrete.
- Providing sunshades around the concrete in
hot weather.
- Placing or constructing temporary walls to
block or reduce wind velocity.
- Placing concrete either early in the morning
or in the late afternoon to avoid hot
temperatures.
5. Laitance
- The consequence of the problems of
segregation and bleeding leads to laitance in
the concrete.
Prevention:
- Using water-reducing admixtures in
concrete.
- Not doing the finishing steps till the water has
evaporated from the surface.
- Removing clay, silt, dust content before
mixing concrete.
- Using well – graded aggregates in the
concrete mixture.
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6. Dusting
- It refers to the formation of a loose powdery
layer on the surface of the concrete.
Prevention:
- Maintaining perfect water – cement ratio.
- Using dust – free aggregates.
- Giving the concrete proper time to cure or
dry.
- Using searers to make concrete dusting
proof.
Major Cement Manufacturers / Producers of Cement
in the Philippines
1. Eagle Cement Corporation
- The sole cement company in the Philippines
with a fully integrated cement manufacturing
process from quarrying, clinker production,
cement milling up to distribution.
- Our business model provides effective cost
management in every production process
allowing higher efficiency, profitability, and
operating synergy.
- San Ildefonso, Bulacan
• Type 1P is sold under “Eagle
Cement Advance” brand and is
used for general construction
applications such as floorings
and plastering as well as the
production of concrete products
like hollow blocks, culverts,
and concrete pipes.
2. Republic Cement & Building Materials, Inc.
- Republic is acknowledge in the industry as
the leader in bulk cement for reliable
consistency and predictability.
- Republic provides high – quality cement for
the Filipino builder’s versatility, ease, and
sustainable use.
- Batangas, Bulacan, Danao City, Iligan City
(Republic Cement Iligan, Inc.), Rizal
• REPUBLIC® Portland
Cement TYPE I is a high-
performance Portland
cement. Its high early day
and final strength and high
compatibility to most
chemical admixtures and
mineral additives in the
market make it to the most
preferred bulk cement by the country's
construction experts and ready-mixed concrete
players.
3. CEMEX Holdings Philippines, Inc.
- CEMEX began operations in the Philippines
in 1997 and grew to become one of the
leading cement producers in the Philippines,
based on an installed annual capacity of 5.7
million tons.
- Apo Cement Corporation & Solid Cement
Corporation.
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- CEMEX is one of the most popular brads of
Portable Cement in the Philippines

4. Holcim Philippines, Inc.

- Holcim is one of the world's leading suppliers
of cement and aggregates (crushed stone,
gravel, and sand).
- Bulacan, Davao, La Union, Lugait, Manila.
- Holcim Excel is a special formulation of
Portland Cement with advanced mineral
additives, conforming to both ASTM C595
and PNS 063.

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