FUNFIRST GLOBAL SKILLERS

DC Inverter Air Conditioner

In recent years, DC inverter air conditioner is becoming more popular compared to the conventional air conditioner
due to its many advantages. As the compressor takes the most power in any air conditioning system, the change in
the compressor technology has enabled better and more efficient air conditioner or heatpump to be deployed.

AC Induction Motor
In a 3-phase AC induction motor, the stator of the motor has windings that are designed in such as way that a
rotating magnetic field is produced when a 3-phase AC voltages are applied to the windings.
The rotor usually has windings that is embedded within iron laminates. As power is supplied to the windings, the
magnetic field is produced in the rotor that causes it react with the magnetic field in the stator.
The rotating magnetic field of the stator pulls the rotor around with the rotor trying to keep up with the rotating
field. The falling behind or slips is about a few percent. This design is one of the conventional ways of driving a 3-
phase motor in a compressor.

DC Brushless Motor
In a DC brushless motor used in the DC inverter air conditioner or heat pump, the rotor of the motor is constructed
using permanent magnets with windings on the stator.
There are no brushes and commutator compared to typical DC motor hence eliminating concerns such as sparks,
brush life, brush residue and electrical noise. The windings of the motor are connected to the power electronics
control that determine the speed of the motor by the use of micro controller.
Various protection and monitoring circuits are built into the electronic controls to ensure efficiency and reliability.
This type of motor is being used in more design due to its better reliability and energy efficiency.
Hence, the main advantages of a DC brushless motor compressor is its quiet operation, compact, longer life time,
energy saving and better capacity control which translates to a more comfortable environment for the peoples using
the equipment. Its usage is no longer confined to air conditioner equipment but also in refrigerators, washing
machines, pumps and fans.
In many ductless split DC inverter design, the indoor fan used is DC fan instead of AC fan. Similarly, the outdoor fan
used is DC fan instead of the conventional AC fan. When purchasing your unit, check with the personnel whether the
compressor and fans used are DC type before making a decision of buying the air conditioner or heat pump.

DC Inverter Control Circuitry

The electronics control is the most complicated part of a DC inverter system hence making it one of the most costly
component of the air conditioner, the other part being the compressor.
Let us look at the control circuity for the DC compressor that takes its supply from a single phase power supply.
There are many variation of design and we will look at a design that uses power factor correction that gives better
power factor.

The first section consists of a DC converter

The DC converter converts the incoming power supply from AC to DC using four diodes connected like a bridge.
Inductors and capacitors are connected before the converter to reduce the electrical noise being introduced into the
power supply due to the switching of the transistors.
In the simplified diagram below, the single phase power supply is used. If 3-phase supply is used, six diodes will be
needed to convert the AC power to DC power.

The second section being PFC or power factor correction

Being an active power converter means that the power factor correction for this design is able to correct the power
factor of the equipment to more than 98% compared to the other solution based on LC (inductor and capacitor)
filter.
It also helps to reduce the harmonic current emission to a low level which is acceptable to the standards being
imposed by the Electromagnetic Compatibility technical committee. The only setback with this method is the higher
cost needed for its implementation.

The third section is the INVERTER consisting of IGBT transistors

This section generates 3 phase voltage supply to the DC compressor motor. In the initial design, the designers used
six discrete IGBT transistors which are controlled by the microcomputer.
The software is written in such a way that proper signals are being used to power ON or OFF each transistors at a
correct timing depending on the feedback such as the position of the rotors in relation to the stator motor and the
voltage levels detected.
The brushless DC motor of the compressor will receive close to a3 phase sinusoidal voltage that turns the motor ON.
The speed of the motor can be controlled from low to high by varying the power supplied to the motor through the
switching of the transistors. In this way, capacity controlled HVAC can be achieved. When cooling or heating is
needed immediately, the motor will turn at the highest speed. When the temperature of the room has stabilized, the
motor will turn at a lower speed.
Newer design makes use of power modules known as IPM or Intelligent Power Modules where the 6 IGBT
transistors, detection circuit, overload conditions and other parameters are being built in an encapsulated casing. It
looks like an integrated circuit except that it is very much bigger in size
Inverter Air Conditioning

The inverter air conditioning is the latest technology in the HVAC field that is becoming more popular due to its
environmental friendly and energy savings approach. Providing comfort to the users is another big advantage of this
kind of system.

Traditionally, the compressor that is used in an air conditioning system is an ON or OFF type in that it either works at
the maximum capacity or none at all. It ON when the room thermostat calls for cooling and OFF when the desired
temperature has been achieved. This cycle is repeated with the change of load in the room.
Electronic Controls for control of Inverter Air Conditioning DC Inverter Compressor.

Daikin Ceiling Cassette Unit

The advancement in power electronics has enabled the inverter technology to thrive by the use of microcontroller
and IGBT modules to drive the compressor DC or AC motor. The speed of the compressor motor can be varied by
using the variable frequency drive.
This is done by converting the incoming AC supply to DC voltage and then modulate it by changing the voltage,
current and frequency of the power to the compressor. Changing the frequency changes the speed of the
compressor by using a more complicated electronics control circuitry.

Advantages of Using Inverter Technology

Keeping abreast with the latest technology has more advantages than remaining status quo. Here are some of the
reasons why you should consider buying an inverter air conditioning system.
Energy Savings is one of the most important factors to consider when buying an equipment. In the long run, the
benefit outweighs the initial cost. The inverter technology uses less energy compared to the traditional system.

ON/OFF type of compressor has large starting current, sometimes 6 times more than the running current. This
causes flicker to lights and the energy consumed is greater. Typically, there is a 20% to 30% savings in power
consumption.
A study by Daikin (FTK-1115-B Brochure) on the energy saving obtained over a period of 1 year between a 1.5 HP
inverter vs a 1.5 HP non-inverter showed that there is a big significant of savings achieved on the inverter unit. The
units were tested in a room size of 16.5 square meter, set temperature = 25°C, Fan Speed = High and outdoor
temperature = 33°C.
Daily operational hours = 8 hours.
Non-Inverter Unit
Daily power consumption = 9.51 kWh
Total power consumption in a year = 365 days X 9.51 kWh = 3471 kWh
Inverter Unit
Daily power consumption = 4.83 kWh
Total power consumption in a year = 365 days X 4.83 kWh = 1763 kWh
Total savings/year = 3471-1763 = 1708 kWh
% of savings = (1708/3471) X100% = 49%.

Comfort to the users is another advantage of this system. During start-up, the compressor can run full speed to
provide quick cooling to the room. After the desired room temperature has been achieved, the speed of the
compressor is regulated using the variable frequency drive based on the required cooling load of the room.

The fluctuation of temperature is minimum compared to the ON/OFF type of compressor. This provides a
comfortable environment for the occupants at all times.

Ozone Friendly refrigerant such as R410a is used in most inverter system. This refrigerant contains only HFC
compared to R22 which contains HCFC, an additional chlorine component that destroys the ozone layer of the earth.
Always enquire the kind of refrigerant which is in used as some installers prefer to continue using R22 as it is cheaper
compared to R410a and hence lower their cost.

Quiet Operation is another feature that inverter technology offers. The outdoor unit which contains the inverter
compressor is much more quieter compared to the non-inverter compressor. Hence, you do not have to worry about
noise when you sleep.
Disadvantages of Using Inverter Technology
Typically, the disadvantages of using inverter air conditioning driven system is due to cost. Here are a few reasons
why the cost is higher compared to the non-inverter system.
Electronics Control circuitry is more complicated compared to the non-inverter type. Electronic
components such as electrolytic capacitors, diodes, opto-couplers and IGBT power modules are
rated at a higher ratings due to the design requirements of the system. Hence, the cost is higher.

Electromagnetic noise is generated as a result of chopping the voltage. This noise can create
electrical disturbances to other home appliances in the house hence there are regulations that
state the amount of noise that it is allowed to generate.

Filtering components such as capacitors and inductors are used to filter out the high frequency
electrical noise. This add the cost to the overall system.

R410a or other more ozone friendly refrigerants usually cost higher compared to R22. The
compressor used is also different but as the demand for them increase, there will be more
economy of scale and the price will come down in the near future.

As of this point of time, installers usually charge twice the amount for topping up R410a
compared to R22.
What is Inverter Technology AC and How it is Different
from BEE 5 star Non Inverter AC?
Conditioners are a pain point for most people in our country who are concerned about their electricity bills.
The moment an air conditioner is added to the list of appliances used in a household, the electricity bills
increase significantly. Although it is difficult to significantly reduce the “big” impact of an air conditioner on
your electricity bills, but still some of it can be managed by choosing the right technology, doing the right
installation/maintenance/operation and by doing the right insulation of the room where the air conditioner is
used (more details in our articles listed at the end of this article).
When it comes to technology, there were not many available till sometime back. When BEE actively started
analyzing and labeling the air conditioners, we got some good one in form of 5 star air conditioners. The
latest and the most efficient technology that is available in market today is the Inverter Technology for air
conditioners. Inverter technology is designed in such a way that it can save 30-50% of electricity (units
consumed) over a regular air conditioner. And since 2016, BEE has started give star ratings to inverter
technology ACs as well. However, let’s look at what is inverter technology and how is it different from a non
inverter BEE 5 star rated ACs.
How does an air conditioner work?
For most people, air conditioner just throws cool air at the temperature one sets it at. But does it really work
that way? In fact air conditioner during cooling process, takes the indoor air, cools it by passing it through
evaporator and throws it back in the room. It is quite opposite to how our good old air coolers used to work.
Air coolers used to take outside air, cool it with water and throw it in. But air conditioners just work on
internal air. Along with evaporator air conditioner also has a compressor that compresses the gas
(refrigerant) in the AC to cool it that in turn cools the incoming internal air from the room.
In a regular air conditioner:
The compressor is either off or on. When it is on, it works at full capacity and consumes full electricity it is
designed to consume. When the thermostat reaches the temperature level set in the AC, the compressor
stops and the fan (in AC) continues to operate. When the thermostat senses that the temperature has
increased, the compressor starts again.
What is Inverter Air Conditioner?
The inverter technology works like an accelerator in a car. When compressor needs more power, it gives it
more power. When it needs less power, it gives less power. With this technology, the compressor is always
on, but draws less power or more power depending on the temperature of the incoming air and the level set
in the thermostat. The speed and power of the compressor is adjusted appropriately. This technology was
developed in Japan and is being used there successfully for air conditioners and refrigerators. This
technology is currently available only in split air conditioners.
What is benefit of Inverter Technology?
Every air conditioner is designed for a maximum peak load. So a 1.5ton AC is designed for a certain size of
room and 1 ton for a different size. But not all rooms are of same size. A regular air conditioner of 1.5ton
capacity will always run at peak power requirement when the compressor is running. An air conditioner with
inverter technology will run continuously but will draw only that much power that is required to keep the
temperature stable at the level desired. So it kind of automatically adjusts its capacity based on the
requirement of the room it is cooling. Thus drawing much less power and consuming lesser units of
electricity.
Although air conditioner with Inverter Technology adjusts its capacity based on the room requirement, it is
very important to install a right sized air conditioner in a room. Please make sure that you evaluate the
room and air conditioner capacity before you make a purchase. Keep watching for this space as we are in
process of creating a comparator for electricity savings in various air conditioners.

What’s the difference between Inverter Technology AC and

BEE 5 star non inverter AC:
Inverter technology air conditioners are variable speed/ variable tonnage air conditioners and thus
operationally they are quite different from regular air conditioners that have single speed compressors and
single tonnage.
Inverter technology air conditioners adjust their speed/tonnage depending on heat load of a room. Whereas
regular air conditioners do not.
Every room has a different heat load, even if they are of the same size. The heat load depends on various
factors as we have listed on our article: Things that impact electricity consumption in air conditioners. To
give you an analogy, every human being is different; even then the waist sizes of most trousers available in
the market are fixed (leaving the ones with elastic). Inverter Technology AC is just like a trouser with an
elastic waist that can adjust to the size. The other benefit is that even if the waist size increases or
decreases, the trouser with elastic will adjust accordingly. Regular Air Conditioners are fixed size.
Based on the data on power consumption by BEE, Inverter ACs of BEE 3 star ratings are about 7% more
energy efficient than BEE 5 star rated non inverter ACs.
The heat load in a room does not remain constant and it varies from seasons, varies based on number of
people, varies between day and night, varies based on climate profiles of your location. To take the same
analogy we mentioned above, the waist size increases or decreases with the amount of food one eats or
the amount of exercise one does. So as a trouser with elastic waist can work well, an air conditioner with
inverter tech can work well.
Power Consumption of Inverter and non inverter air
conditioners.
Based on data from BEE in 2017, below is the representative (median) sample of power consumption of Air
Conditioners of various tonnage and star ratings:
0.75 ton 1 ton 1.5 ton 2 ton

3 Star Non
627 828 1235 1548
Inverter

5 Star Non
576 760 1130 1412
Inverter

3 Star Inverter 550 726 1077 1344

4 Star Inverter 499 658 972 1208

5 Star Inverter 421 557 815 1005

Annual Electricity Consumption (Units or kWh for 1600 hrs) based on data from
BEE

Are Inverter technology air conditioners slow in cooling?

Several people have concerns that Inverter Technology air conditioners do not cool well or cool slowly.
However, let us take this image as reference to understand how inverter AC works:

Non inverter ACs are fixed speed ACs, where as inverter ACs are variable speed ACs. Non inverter ACs
have compressors that go “On” and “Off”. Whereas inverter ACs have compressors that are “On” all the
time. As non inverter ACs are sized for peak summer heat load, they are over-sized all the other times (in
fact most of the time people oversize even for peak summer season). The drawback of the same is that the
AC “Over cools” most of the time. So if you set AC at temperature of 25, it will cool it down to 23 or 22. Now
one would question: then what is the use of thermostat? Well the thermostat (in a non inverter AC) switches
off the compressor when the outside temperature has reached 25. But a lot has happened before that. In
an AC, refrigerant moves from liquid to gas (by taking heat from the room) and then back from gas to liquid
as the compressor compresses it. But if the refrigerant is more and heat in the room is less (which happens
in over sized AC), it does not get enough heat from the room to convert from liquid to gas and it keeps
moving as liquid. Now when the thermostat detects temperature and switches off the compressor, the
refrigerant still remains in liquid state and thus has capacity to take heat from room to convert to gas. And
so it takes more heat from the room and cools the room below the set temperature.
In comparison, the inverter tech AC changes the flow rate of refrigerant based on the heat of the room.
When heat is less, the flow rate is less, when heat is more, the flow rate is more. And it does not switch off
the compressor ever. It just makes sure that if temperature setting is 25, it is maintained at that level.
So the difference is: non inverter AC would over cool as shown in the picture. Whereas inverter AC will cool
optimum. And thus one may feel that inverter AC does not cool or is slow.
Is there a Window AC with inverter technology available in
market?
No there is no window Air Conditioner with inverter tech available in market. Will they be available in
future? We don’t know.
Are there Star Ratings for Inverter ACs?
In 2016, BEE introduced a new star rating standard for Inverter Technology ACs as well. Currently most
models are in BEE 3, 4 and 5 Star rating ranges on BEE. In future (in 2018), BEE plans to merge the star
rating standards of inverter and non inverter ACs. To know more about new star rating standards for
Inverter ACs,
Understand What is ISEER and Star Labeling of Inverter Air
Conditioners in India
3266
A few years back when Inverter ACs were introduced in Indian markets, there was a lot of skepticism about
their success in Indian conditions. Although they are quite successful and popular internationally, these
ACs did have to go through the tests of Indian consumers. Despite some negative rumors by a section of
the market, Inverter ACs have come out with flying colors and have become popular in India. One thing that
everyone knows (and many have observed) is that Inverter ACs save “HUGE” amount of electricity. But
one question has been there in everyone’s mind: Why is there no BEE star rating for Inverter ACs as
available for fixed speed ACs? In the year 2015, BEE did provide answer to the question by starting a Star
Rating labeling system for Inverter Air Conditioners. With this post, we will try to answer few questions that
people have regarding the new Star Rating for Inverter Air Conditioners.
Why Did Inverter ACs Not Have Star Rating Earlier?
Although purpose of any air conditioner is to cool the space, the way cooling happens in fixed speed ACs is
different from the way it happens in Inverter ACs. The technology is a bit different. Fixed Speed ACs have
fixed cooling capacity (or tonnage) and fixed input wattage, Inverter ACs have varying cooling capacity and
input wattage. The definition of efficiency for a fixed speed AC was quite simple:
EER (or COP) = Output Wattage (or cooling capacity) ÷ Input Wattage.
(EER Stands for Energy Efficiency Ratio & COP stands for Coefficient of Performance)
By calculating EER/COP of fixed speed ACs and defining fixed ranges, BEE was able to divide all the fixed
speed models in the market in 5 groups of different star ratings. But this works well when there is fixed
output wattage and fixed input wattage. But defining the same for Inverter AC was very difficult as both the
input and output wattages vary.
What Will Be the Method To Define Star Rating Now?
World over the method of defining energy efficiency of air conditioners is not EER (Energy Efficiency Ratio),
but it is SEER (or Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio). The basic theory behind SEER is that the
temperature does not remain the same round the year. As there is seasonal variation of temperatures,
there is variation in the amount of cooling required. Amount of energy (or electricity) required by an air
conditioner to cool a room to 25 degrees (or any other standard temperature) is different when outside
temperature is 30 degrees in comparison to when the temperature is 40 degrees. Also the usage (in hours
per day) would vary as per the seasons.
SEER calculation thus involves defining annual temperature profile and usage patterns. SEER standards
have to be different for different countries as every country has a different climate profile. And thus BEE
has defined Indian SEER or ISEER in short. Let’s look at the various terminologies used as part of the
definition:
Cooling Seasonal Energy Consumption (CSEC) – Total annual amount of energy (electricity) consumed
by the equipment when it is operated for cooling in active mode.
Cooling Seasonal Total Load (CSTL) – Total annual amount of heat that is removed from the indoor air
when the equipment is operated for cooling in active mode.
Indian Seasonal Energy Efficiency Ratio (ISEER) – Ratio of the total annual amount of heat that the
equipment can remove from the indoor air when operated for cooling in active mode to the total annual
amount of energy consumed by the equipment during the same period.
To calculate the total annual electricity consumption the assumption used is that the Air Conditioner will be
used for 1600 hrs through the year. Annual temperature profile used is based on weather profile for 54
cities across India. Below is the temperature distribution used:
The ISEER thus calculated will be used to provide star ratings to various models of air conditioners. Below
are the defined ranges of ISEER for various star ratings:

What Information Will You Get From Manufacturers?

A lot of what is mentioned above is technical jargon. For an average consumer the most important thing to
know is to understand the information provided by the manufacturers. Here are the things that will be
available from the manufacturers:
Rated Cooling Capacity (100% Load): This is the marketing tonnage or marketing cooling capacity.
Inverter Air Conditioners have variable cooling capacity and a 1 ton inverter AC may vary its tonnage from
0.2 ton to 1.2 ton. But they are marketed as 1 ton inverter AC. Rated Cooling capacity for a 1 ton inverter
AC would be 1 ton. As per BEE standards there is a tolerance of ± 5% for this value.
Rated Cooling Capacity (50% Load): BEE has asked manufacturers to provide power consumption at
50% capacity. This is not the minimum cooling capacity, but the 50% of the total capacity. In case of 1 ton
AC it would be 0.5 ton. But this does not mean that it cannot go below 0.5 ton.
Maximum Cooling Capacity: This is the maximum cooling capacity. As in the example above of 1 ton, it
would be 1.2 ton.
Rated Power Input (100 % load): This is power consumption in watts when the AC runs at 100% load or
at the marketing tonnage.
Half Power Input (50 % load): This is power consumption in watts when the AC runs at 50% load or at the
marketing tonnage.
Maximum Power Input: This is power consumption in watts when the AC runs at the maximum tonnage
that the Air Conditioner can achieve.
Cooling Seasonal Energy Consumption (in kWh): This is the annual power consumption as measured
per BEE standards mentioned above. Please note, that this number is for 1600 hrs and actual number for
you will depend on your usage and temperature of your city when you use the AC.
ISEER: This is the ratio of total heat removed and total energy consumed. This is the ideal number to
compare two ACs as your usage of AC may vary and thus the electricity consumption may not be the same
as the number mentioned in Cooling Seasonal Energy Consumption.
How Does Star Rating Of Inverter ACs Compare With That
Of Fixed Speed ACs?
Comparing the Star Ratings of ACs across segments (window, split and Inverter) has been the biggest
source of confusion for most consumers. Unfortunately the standards that have been defined do not help
remove the same. The concept of ISEER can be used for fixed speed ACs as well, but from what we know
as of now, it will not be used. The rating standards of fixed speed ACs will remain the same based on EER.
However from what we have seen, even a BEE 2 or 3 star rated inverter AC would be equivalent or better
than BEE 5 star rated split AC of fixed speed type. And any inverter AC would be much better than any
window AC.
Has BEE Started Rating New Inverter AC Models?
The new standards are voluntary till the end of 2017. Which means, manufacturers can sell AC models with
or without star rating till end of 2017. As star ratings for ACs are quite popular amongst the masses, many
manufacturers will try to get their models certified by BEE, but it is also possible that you may get models
that are not rated. It will be beneficial for consumers if they start insisting on star rating and demanding
manufacturers to sell only star rated ACs.
When Will BEE Make It Mandatory For All Inverter AC
Models To Be Star Rated?
From the year 2018 onwards, all models of inverter ACs will have to be star rated. Manufacturers will not be
able to sell non-star rated inverter ACs.
Conclusion
Star Rating labels for Inverter ACs is a welcome move by BEE. Inverter ACs have raised the bar for energy
efficiency of air conditioners in India and labelling will further improve the efficiency. The future looks bright
and soon air Conditioners will not be a big strain on electricity bills.

Lesser known benefits of Inverter Technology

Regular motors need 3-4 times more current (more than running current) at startup. So the
inverter/generator size needed to run any AC or Refrigerator increases significantly. But Inverter
Technology air conditioners and refrigerators have variable speed motors that start up gradually needing
much lesser current at startup. Thus the size of inverter/generator required to startup is less. For e.g. A 1.5
ton fixed speed AC that runs at about 10 Amp current may need up to 30 Amp current at startup and thus a
5 kVA inverter/generator. But an inverter technology Air Conditioner needs about 6-7 Amp current and not
much more at startup and thus a 1.5 kVA or 2 kVA inverter/generator is good enough to support it.
Regular motors have much lower power factor. In commercial and industrial connections there is penalty
for low power factor and rebates for higher power factor. An inverter technology motor will have power
factor close to unity (or 1) which not only results in lesser electricity consumption but also help get rebates
on better power factor.
If you are planning to use Solar PV for air conditioner, then it is the best to use inverter technology air
conditioner or refrigerator as it not only reduces the size of PV panels because it consumes lesser
electricity, it also reduces the size of inverter to be put along with the PV panel.

An Introduction to Brushless DC Motor Control

By Steven Keeping
Contributed By Electronic Products
2013-03-27

The brushless DC (BLDC) motor is becoming increasingly popular in sectors such as automotive
(particularly electric vehicles (EV)), HVAC, white goods and industrial because it does away with the
mechanical commutator used in traditional motors, replacing it with an electronic device that improves the
reliability and durability of the unit.

Another advantage of a BLDC motor is that it can be made smaller and lighter than a brush type with the
same power output, making the former suitable for applications where space is tight.

The downside is that BLDC motors do need electronic management to run. For example, a microcontroller
– using input from sensors indicating the position of the rotor – is needed to energize the stator coils at the
correct moment. Precise timing allows for accurate speed and torque control, as well as ensuring the motor
runs at peak efficiency.

This article explains the fundamentals of BLDC motor operation and describes typical control circuit for the
operation of a three-phase unit. The article also considers some of the integrated modules – that the
designer can select to ease the circuit design – which are specifically designed for BLDC motor control.

The advantages of brushless operation

The brushes of a conventional motor transmit power to the rotor windings which, when energized, turn in a
fixed magnetic field. Friction between the stationary brushes and a rotating metal contact on the spinning
rotor causes wear. In addition, power can be lost due to poor brush to metal contact and arcing.
Because a BLDC motor dispenses with the brushes – instead employing an “electronic commutator” – the
motor’s reliability and efficiency is improved by eliminating this source of wear and power loss. In addition,
BLDC motors boast a number of other advantages over brush DC motors and induction motors, including
better speed versus torque characteristics; faster dynamic response; noiseless operation; and higher speed
ranges.1

Moreover, the ratio of torque delivered relative to the motor’s size is higher, making it a good choice for
applications such as washing machines and EVs, where high power is needed but compactness and
lightness are critical factors. (However, it should be noted that brush-type DC motors do have a higher
starting torque.)

A BLDC motor is known as a “synchronous” type because the magnetic field generated by the stator and
the rotor revolve at the same frequency. One benefit of this arrangement is that BLDC motors do not
experience the “slip” typical of induction motors.

While the motors can come in one-, two-, or three-phase types, the latter is the most common type and is
the version that will be discussed here.

The stator of a BLDC motor comprises steel laminations, slotted axially to accommodate an even number
of windings along the inner periphery (Figure 1). While the BLDC motor stator resembles that of an
induction motor, the windings are distributed differently.

Figure 1: The stator of a BLDC motor showing slotted steel ring with axial windings. (Courtesy of
Microchip.)

The rotor is constructed from permanent magnets with two-to-eight N-S pole pairs. More magnet pairs
increase torque and smooth out so-called torque ripple, evening the power delivery from the motor. The
downside is a more complex control system, increased cost, and lower maximum speed.

Traditionally, ferrite magnets were used to make the permanent magnets, but contemporary units tend to
use rare earth magnets. While these magnets are more expensive, they generate greater flux density,
allowing the rotor to be made smaller for a given torque. The use of these powerful magnets is a key
reason why BLDC motors deliver higher power than a brush-type DC motor of the same size.

Detailed information about the construction and operation of BLDC motors can be found in an interesting
application note (AN885) released by Microchip Technology.2

Fundamentals of operation

The BLDC motor’s electronic commutator sequentially energizes the stator coils generating a rotating
electric field that ‘drags’ the rotor around with it. N “electrical revolutions” equates to one mechanical
revolution, where N is the number of magnet pairs.
For a three-phase motor, three Hall-effect sensors are embedded in the stator to indicate the relative
positions of stator and rotor to the controller so that it can energize the windings in the correct sequence
and at the correct time. The Hall sensors are usually mounted on the non-driving end of the unit (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Hall sensors are embedded in the stator of a BLDC motor to determine the winding energizing
sequence. (Courtesy of Microchip.)

When the rotor magnetic poles pass the Hall sensors, a high (for one pole) or low (for the opposite pole)
signal is generated. As discussed in detail below, the exact sequence of commutation can be determined
by combining the signals from the three sensors.

All electric motors generate a voltage potential due to the movement of the windings through the associated
magnetic field. This potential is known as an electromotive force (EMF) and, according to Lenz’s law, it
gives rise to a current in the windings with a magnetic field that opposes the original change in magnetic
flux. In simpler terms, this means the EMF tends to resist the rotation of the motor and is therefore referred
to as “back” EMF. For a given motor of fixed magnetic flux and number of windings, the EMF is proportional
to the angular velocity of the rotor.

But the back EMF, while adding some “drag” to the motor, can be used for an advantage. By monitoring the
back EMF, a microcontroller can determine the relative positions of stator and rotor without the need for
Hall-effect sensors. This simplifies motor construction, reducing its cost as well as eliminating the additional
wiring and connections to the motor that would otherwise be needed to support the sensors. This improves
reliability when dirt and humidity are present.

However, a stationary motor generates no back EMF, making it impossible for the microcontroller to
determine the position of the motor parts at start-up. The solution is to start the motor in an open loop
configuration until sufficient EMF is generated for the microcontroller to take over motor supervision. These
so-called “sensorless” BLDC motors are gaining in popularity.

Controlling a BLDC motor

While BLDC motors are mechanically relatively simple, they do require sophisticated control electronics
and regulated power supplies. The designer is faced with the challenge of dealing with a three-phase high-
power system that demands precise control to run efficiently.

Figure 3 shows a typical arrangement for driving a BLDC motor with Hall-effect sensors. (The control of a
sensorless BLDC motor using back EMF measurement will be covered in a future article.) This system
shows the three coils of the motor arranged in a “Y” formation, a Microchip PIC18F2431 microcontroller, an
insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) driver, and a three-phase inverter comprising six IGBTs (metal
oxide semiconductor field effect transistors (MOSFETs) can also be used for the high-power switching).
The output from the microcontroller (mirrored by the IGBT driver) comprises pulse width modulated (PWM)
signals that determine the average voltage and average current to the coils (and hence motor speed and
torque). The motor uses three Hall-effect sensors (A, B, and C) to indicate rotor position. The rotor itself
uses two pairs of permanent magnets to generate the magnetic flux.
Figure 3: BDLC power supply control system using an 8-bit microcontroller. (Courtesy of Microchip.)

The system employs a six-step commutation sequence for each electrical revolution. Because the motor
has two pairs of magnets, two electrical revolutions are required to spin the motor once.

Figure 4 shows the current flow in an identical arrangement of coils to the motor in Figure 3 (this time
labeled U, V, and W) for each of the six steps, and Figure 5 shows the subsequent Hall-effect sensor
outputs and coil voltages.

Figure 4: Coil-energizing sequence for one electrical revolution of a three-phase BLDC motor. (Courtesy of
Atmel.)
Figure 5: The state of the Hall-effect sensors determines when and how the coils are energized. A pair of
Hall-effect sensors is linked to each coil. (Courtesy of Atmel.)

A pair of Hall-effect sensors determines when the microcontroller energizes a coil. In this example, sensors
H1 and H2 determine the switching of coil U. When H2 detects a N magnet pole, coil U is positively
energized; when H1 detects a N magnet pole, coil U is switched open; when H2 detects a S magnet pole
coil U is switched negative, and finally, when H1 detects a S magnet pole, coil U is again switched open.
Similarly, sensors H2 and H3 determine the energizing of coil V, with H1 and H3 looking after coil W.

At each step, two phases are on with one phase feeding current to the motor, and the other providing a
current return path. The other phase is open. The microcontroller controls which two of the switches in the
three-phase inverter must be closed to positively or negatively energize the two active coils. For example,
switching Q1 in Figure 3 positively energizes coil A and switching Q2 negatively energizes coil B to provide
the return path. Coil C remains open.

Designers can experiment with 8-bit microcontroller-based development kits to try out control regimes
before committing on the design of a full-size motor. For example, Atmel has produced an inexpensive
starter kit, the ATAVRMC323, for BLDC motor control based on the ATxmega128A1 8-bit
microcontroller.4 Several other vendors offer similar kits.

Driving a BLDC motor

While an 8-bit microcontroller allied to a three-phase inverter is a good start, it is not enough for a complete
BLDC motor control system. To complete the job requires a regulated power supply to drive the IGBT or
MOSFETs (the “IGBT Driver” shown in Figure 3). Fortunately, the job is made easier because several
major semiconductor vendors have specially designed integrated driver chips for the job.

These devices typically comprise a step-down (“buck”) converter (to power the microcontroller and other
system power requirements), gate driver control and fault handling, plus some timing and control logic.
The DRV8301 three-phase pre-driver from Texas Instruments is a good example (Figure 6).
Figure 6: Texas Instruments’ DRV8301 motor driver integrates a buck regulator, gate driver, and control
logic in a single package.

This pre-driver supports up to 2.3 A sink and 1.7 A source peak current capability, and requires a single
power supply with an input voltage of 8 to 60 V. The device uses automatic hand shaking when high-side or
low-side IGBTs or MOSFETs are switching to prevent current shoot through.

ON Semiconductor offers a similar chip, the LB11696V. In this case, a motor driver circuit with the desired
output power (voltage and current) can be implemented by adding discrete transistors in the output circuits.
The chip also provides a full complement of protection circuits, making it suitable for applications that must
exhibit high reliability. This device is designed for large BLDC motors such as those used in air conditioners
and on-demand water heaters.

In summary

BLDC motors offer a number of advantages over conventional motors. The removal of brushes from a
motor eliminates a mechanical part that otherwise reduces efficiency, wears out, or can fail catastrophically.
In addition, the development of powerful rare earth magnets has allowed the production of BLDC motors
that can produce the same power as brush type motors while fitting into a smaller space.
One perceived disadvantage is that BLDC motors, unlike the brush type, require an electronic system to
supervise the energizing sequence of the coils and provide other control functions. Without the electronics,
the motors cannot operate.
However, the proliferation of inexpensive, robust electronic devices specially designed for motor control
means that designing a circuit is relatively simple and inexpensive. In fact, a BLDC motor can be set up to
run in a basic configuration without even using a microcontroller by employing a modest three-phase sine-
or square-wave generator. Fairchild Semiconductor, for example, offers its FCM8201 chip for this
application, and has published an application note on how to set things up. 5

Similarly, ON Semiconductor’s MC33033 BLDC motor controller integrates a rotor position decoder on the
chip, so there is no need for microcontroller to complete the system. The device can be used to control a
three-phase or four-phase BLDC motor.
However, employing an 8-bit microcontroller (programmed with factory-supplied code or the developer’s
own software) adds very little cost to the control system, yet offers the user much greater control over the
motor to ensure it runs with optimum efficiency, in addition to offering more precise positional-, speed-, or
torque-output.
FAULTS SIMULATION IN INVERTER AC
AC SIMULATED FAULTS

1. COMMUNICATION CABLE OPEN

2. AMBIENT TEMP. SENSOR OPEN
3. ODU COIL SENSOR OPEN
4. DISCHARGE LINE TEMP. SENSOR OPEN
5. ODU LINE OPEN
6. IDU ROOM SENSOR OPEN
7. EVAPORATOR COIL SENSOR OPEN
8. REMOTE NOT WORKING

TEST POINTS

• IDU TEST POINTS:

1. FAN COILS CHECK
2. REMOTE SENSOR CHECK (3 PPOINTS)
3. ROOM SENSOR CHECK
4. COIL SENSOR CHECK
5. 5 V DC TEST POINTS

• ODU TEST POINTS:

1. COMPRESSOR CHECK (3 POINTS)
2. ODU FAN CHECK (3 POINTS)
3. 12V DC With respect to
4. 5V DC common -ve points
5. AMBIENT TEMP. SENSOR CHECK
6. COIL (ODU) TEMP. SENSOR CHECK
7. DISCHARGE LINE TEMP SENSOR CHECK
 AC FAULT FINDING FLOWCHART

Fault: AC not working (Display not working, compressor not working, blower fan not getting
started)

Check the AC
voltage at IDU
input point

Yes NG

Remove the top cover of IDU and Check AC voltage

check the relay connection, at socket and
connect it properly if reversely switch on the
connected supply

OK NG

Mains chord faulty, Mains voltage

replace problem
Fault: No cooling. Display ON, IDU blower fan ON

Check the voltage at output point

after 3 minutes of switching ON the
AC

OK NG

Check the Check the voltage at

voltage input of relay output point on
the ODU PCB
OK NG
OK NG

Relay faulty, Switch OFF the supply

Check the and check the Faulty IDU to
wire harness replace the ODU cable,
relay compressor by ohms
meter replace the cable
(Refer: ODU & IDU
Test Points)
Fault: IDU fan motor faulty or IDU fan motor or motor sensor fault

Switch ON the AC and see if

IDU blower fan is working

YES NG

Working Not working

After 2 minutes, display Check the motor
will show stand by winding resistance (C-R,
Therefore, sensor circuit C-S, R-S, C-E)
faulty, Check the connector,
refit the connector and Resistance NG
recheck. OK
Still not working, motor
faulty, replace motor Any one
Motor capacitor resistance not
is open (change shown except C-E.
the PCB) Therefore, motor
faulty
Fault: IDU coil sensor faulty-

Switch ON the supply by remote, if display

indicates SB

Check the connector of IDU coil sensor

and refit it again

Still SB seen then, switch OFF the supply

and check resistance (3-6k ohms) or 2.6V
DC in "ON" mode. See Chart in last page

Normal resistance shown

PCB faulty, replace

Infinite ohms
Sensor faulty, replace the
sensor
Faults: IDU room sensor faulty-

Switch ON the supply by remote, if

display indicates SB

Check the connector of IDU room

sensor and refit it again

Still SB is seen then, switch OFF the

supply and check resistance (3-6k
ohms) or 2.6 V DC in 'ON' mode. See
chart in last page

Normal resistance
shown
PCB faulty, replace

Infinte ohms
Sensor faulty, replace the
sensor
Symptoms: Remote sensor not working
Procedure:

Check remote batteries and

contacts

OK NG

Check Remote LED by Replace both

Cellphone Camera. batteries if NG
Should blink on pressing
any key

OK NG

Check Remote sensor in Open Remove clean

Control PCB. Cold test 2 to key pad base on
6k ohms or 4.9 V DC in PCB
"ON" mode & nil in fault
condition

NG

Replace Remote
Sensor
Fault: Communication Cable open

Check the voltages on IDU outlet point

Neutral & Communication Cable
approximate 20 to 50 V DC variable

YES NO

Check the voltage on ODU IDU PCB

supply terminal faulty/Terminal
Neutral & Communication faulty
Cable (app. 20 to 50 V DC)
variable

YES NO/LOW

Communication
ODU PCB faulty Cable connect or
cable faulty
 ODU & IDU Test Points (Inverter AC)
All simulated switches operated on machine in standby mode or switch off condition.

ODU & IDU Test Points (Inverter AC)

On Mode
Aux Main Main On Error
UNIT Component Spec Faulty
Wiring Winding winding Mode Code
Condition
Black to
Red to Red to
Blue
Black Blue Aux /
Common
Common Running Main
to
to Start to Start
running
163 V AC
362 Ohm 235 Ohm
Blower Motor Spec 572 Ohm / 243 V. NA
(Aux) (Main)
AC
2.7 K Ohm 4.9 Volt
5.9 K Ohm
Remote sensor Spec (Open 8 K Ohm DC/ 4.8 V NA
IDU (Close CKT)
CKT) DC
2.2 Volt
Room Sensor Spec 5.9K Ohm 12 K Ohm 0.0 Volt F-1
DC
16.68K 2.8 Volt
Coil Sensor Spec 9.6 k Ohm 0.0 V. DC F-2
Ohm DC

Comp. Motor Spec NA NA NA NA

226 V.
393 Ohm 185 Ohm
ODU Fan Motor Spec 577 Ohm AC/ 175 NA
(Aux) (Main) *
V.AC
Ambient Temp. 12.24 K 00.00
Spec 6.5 K Ohm NA 2.5 V.DC F3
sensor Ohm V.DC
Coil Temp. 8.5 K 00.00
Spec 4.3 K Ohm NA 2.5 V.DC F4
Sensor Ohm V.DC
ODU Discharge Line 40 K
Spec 11.9 K Ohm 2.1V.DC 0v F5
Temp.Sensor Ohm
Over Hear 5.4 K
Spec 2 ohms NA NA NA
Sensor ohms
ODU Line
Reading NA NA NA NA NA
Open

Communication
Reading NA NA NA NA NA
Line Open

Pl note: all Sensors utilized in ODU unit are used for safety of ODU Compressor
against excess heat generation due any reason.
Compressor Motor Resistance Check
Test U-V V-W W-U
Compressor Motor 3.6 Ohm (Aux) 3.6 Ohm (Main) 3.6 Ohm
Caution: Don’t take the Voltages on these points.
 Pl Note Comp. Motor is BLDC Motor The meter impedance will load the Coil voltage
Mechanical Faults Simulation
Valve Fault P1 P2 P3 P4 Symptom
Closed Simulated
F1 Suction line Decrease Increase Increase increase No
chock up Cooling
F2 Liquid line Decrease Increase Increase Increase No
chock up Cooling
F3 Capillary Decrease Decrease Increase Increase No
Chock up Cooling

Notes:
1. If Comm. Cable fault simulated in MC OFF condition, then ODU will not start.
2. If Comm. Cable fault simulated in MC ON condition, then Error Code- E- 6