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Chapter-01 XII (From Email)
Chapter-01 XII (From Email)
Chapter-01 XII (From Email)
HOMEOSTASIS
Homeostasis (Greek: Homo=Same + Stasis=Standing).
Homeostasis term coined by Walter Cannon.
Homeostasis is the process in which living organisms maintain their internal environment.
For example: If the concentration of glucose, temperature, water, salts, PH etc increased or
decreased in the body of living organisms, it will try to normal (maintain) again.
Thermoregulation
Regulation of temperature with in body up to tolerable (reasonable) limit is called as
thermoregulation.
Excretion
Removal of unwanted, toxic, poisonous and harmful substances produced from the metabolic
activities in the body is called as excretion.
FEED BACK SYSTEM (Regulating the Internal Environment and Control System)
There are numbers of physiological systems functioning in the living organisms to maintain the
homeostasis.
It is the process in which check and balance mechanism is known as feedback system.
Homeostasis required the check and balance system operating the body.
Any change takes place in internal environment of body by special organ known as receptor (it
receive stimulus or external or internal environment) and immediate report to brain (in higher
animals).
Brain is control system which decides appropriate response to effectors and finally effecter
performs work according to command of brain.
Osmoregulation
Maintaining a balance between water and salute concentration within the body is called as
osmoregulation.
OR
Regulate the osmotic pressure between water and concentration within the body is called as
osmoregulation.
Water Potential
Capacity (ability) of water to move from one place to another place is known as Water Potential.
If water potential is pure than value Water Potential is 0.
Solute Potential
The decrease in water potential when solute is added and it is always -ve in value.
Pressure Potential
Pressure builds inside the cell due to entry of water.
Osmosis
It is movement of only water from its higher concentration to lower concentration when solute
particles are not allowed to diffuse.
OR
Movement of water molecules from region of high water potential to region of low water
potential through semi-permeable membrane is called as osmosis.
Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules across the semi-permeable membrane.
Movement of water into and out of cells depends on osmosis.
Water moves from outside to inside the cell is called as endo-osmosis.
Osmosis works only liquid medium.
A semi-permeable membrane is must for process of osmosis.
Diffusion
It is the movement of all types of substances from higher concentration to lower concentration.
Diffusion is applicable to all types of substances such as solid, liquid and gas.
Diffusion works in any medium.
This process continues until the concentration of the substances is same on the both sides of the
membrane.
It does not require any semi-permeable membrane.
TONICITY
Relationship of solute (sugar) to solvent (water).
Isotonic
Both internal and external environments have same solute concentration.
Amount of water transported into cell equal to the amount of water transported out from the cell.
Solute concentration inside the cell is equal to the environment and cells will stay same and
awesome.
Hypertonic
Removal of Water from cell and solute concentration inside the cell is LOWER and cell becomes
flaccid (lifeless).
Cytoplasm with plasma membrane (cell) shrinks from cell wall and condition is known as
plasmolysis.
HYPOTONIC
Water is transported into cell and solute concentration inside the cell is HIGHER.
Cells will SWELL and BURSTS because solute concentration inside the cell is HIGHER than
the environment.
Osmoregulation in Plants
Efficient functioning of plant cells and whole plant depends upon maintaining the water
content at a steady state. According to availability of water.
Plants are classified into four groups.
1. HYDROPHYTES
Hydrophytes are those plants which are found in fresh water.
Plants may partially or totally sub-merged in water.
They do not have any difficulty in obtaining water to remove excessive water.
Their leaves are larger so surface area is larger for removal of excessive water by
transpiration.
They have large number of stomata at upper surface of leaves.
Stems and leaves are without cuticles.
The stomata always remain opening.
Root is absent, if present root hairs are absent.
Example: Water Lilly.
2. HALOPHYTES
Halophytes are those plants which are found in salty and marshy water and close to the sea
are called HALOPHYTES.
They have to absorb water.
They have high salt concentration (higher osmotic pressure).
These plants actively absorb the salts by their roots.
Salt concentration becomes high in their roots (lower water potential).
They absorb water by osmosis.
Excess amount of salts absorbed by roots, stored in the cells is excreted out from salt glands
(epidermal gland) in leaves.
Example: glasswort, cord-grass etc.
3. MESOPHYTES
Mesophytes are those plants which are found in moderate supply of water.
Majority of angiosperms plants are mesophytes.
They are land plants and can easily maintain their water balance.
When there is sufficient supply of water, the stomata are kept open but when there is
restricted supply, the stomata are closed.
To excessive loss, the stems and leaves are covered with cuticles.
Shape of leaves is variable which also help in regulating the water and also leaves help to
regulate the water.
Example:
4. XEROPHYTES
Plants living in dry places such as desert area, steep hills etc.
Water potential is very low.
Roots are deep vertical to absorb much water from the soil.
They are also spread horizontally.
Mostly leaves are absent or shed during dry season and stems become green and perform the
functions of photosynthesis.
If leaves are present which are small in size or modified into spines to reduce the rate of
transpiration.
Leaves are covered by with cuticles (thick waxy layer) by hairs.
Numbers of stomata are reduced and sunken type stomata.
During the rainy season stems, leaves, roots of plants store the water in Parenchymatous
Cells such plants are known as Succulents (Moist) as a result stems or leaves becomes juicy.
Leaves folded themselves to reduce the rate of transpiration.
Germination of seeds during the rainy season.
Example: Acacia, Banyan etc.
All terrestrial animals, fresh water habitat and most of the marine vertebrates have body fluid
whose solute concentration is different from that of their environment.
Therefore they must use energy in controlling water lose or gain and such animals are known
as osmoregulator.
Osmo-regulator
They regulate osmolarity of their body.
They do not face the loss of water because they are osmo-regulator.
Example: Bony fishes, Marine fishes, Fresh water fishes etc.
EXCRETION IN PLANTS
Removal of unwanted, toxic, poisonous and harmful substances produced from the metabolic
activities in the body is called as excretion.
Plants also need to excrete waste product such as carbon dioxide, water, oxygen, ions etc.
Carbon dioxide is the waste product of an aerobic respiration in plants.
Oxygen is waste product of photosynthesis in plants.
Oxygen is by product generated during photosynthesis.
Plants do not have special excretory organs excess carbon dioxide and oxygen is excreted
from the plants through stomata.
Substances which are produced in excess amount are
EXCRETION IN ANIMALS
It is the process in which removal of nitrogenous metabolic waste product form the body is
called as excretion.
There is different nitrogenous metabolic waste product in different animals such as ammonia,
urea, uric acid, creatinine or trimethylamine oxide, hypoxanthine etc are produced.
These waste products are produced where there is metabolism of proteins and nucleic acids.
We will discuss only ammonia, urea, and uric acid due to their high toxicity.
Excretion in Hydra
In hydra excretory product is ammonia.
There is no special excretory organ in hydra because absence of excretory system.
While ammonia is removed by simple diffusion through general surface.
Ammonia is excreted from endoderm in gastro-vascular cavity from where ammonia with
undigested food is removed out from the mouth.
Excretion in Planaria
Planaria belongs to Platyhelminthesis (flat worm) and free living fresh water habitat.
Excretory system consists of longitudinal branching tubules or excretory canal present on
both side and extending along entire length of Planaria.
They have simple tubular system known as Protonephridium.
No internal opening.
Each tubule opens to external surface by many excretory pores known as Nephrediopores.
Each tubules gives rise numerous blind bulb like cells called flame cells or Protonephridia
which are connected with excretory opening.
Each flame cells bears tuft of cilia which perform a beating like flickering of flame therefore
called flame cells.
Beating action of cilia propels ammonia into excretory canal where Ammonia excreted out
through excretory pores.
Flame cells regulate the osmoregulation and metabolic waste product removed from body
surface or excreted in gut from where they are removed through mouth along with undigested
food.
Flat worms used the flame cells as excretory organ.
Excretion in Earth Worm
Earth worm belongs to Annelida (segmented animals), triploblastic and coelomic in nature.
Tubular excretory system is known as meta-nephridium.
Each segment has Pair of meta-nephrium except 02 and 03 segments.
Earth worm have combined excretory and osmoregulatory organ called as meta-nephridia.
Meta-nephridium contains internal ciliated opening like funnel known as Nephriostome as
well as external opening is known as Nephridiopore which opens in skin.
Each meta-nephridium is highly coiled tubules dipped in coelomic fluid and surrounded by a
net work of blood capillaries.
Coiled tubular part open to form bladder before external opening (Nephridiopore).
Due to beating of cilia of Nephriostome, coelomic fluid into excretory tubules.
Some excretory substances are also secreted by cells of tubules.
Selective reabsorption of useful substance (salt) also accurs, which are taken back into blood
during the circulation.
Excretory fluid (urine) stored in bladder for short time.
Finally waste product excreted out through Nephridiopore.
Excretion in Cockroach
Cockroach and other insects have excretory system which consists of thin, blind tubules are
known as malpighian tubules.
Malpighian tubules arise from mid gut and hind gut.
Digestive system associated with excretory system.
EXCRETION IN MAN
Kidneys, skin and liver play an important role to regulate the homeostasis in body.
Kidneys regulate the osmoregulation and remove nitrogenous waste product, excess of salts
and excess of water.
Liver excretes out nitrogenous waste, bile pigments etc.
Skin also excretes out salts, water along with sweet glands during perspiration.
Function of liver
2NH2 C COOH
AMINO ACID
H
+ Amino group is converted into ammonia (2NH3)
O2 and rest part of amino group is used to carbohydrates
metabolism for respiration.
DEAMINATION
O
2NH3 (AMMONIA)
H2O H2O
ORNITHINE CYCLE
OR
UREA CYCLE
ORNITHINE UREA
Ammonia is highly toxic reacts with CO2 to form urea by cycle called ornithine
cycle. This cycle takes place in liver.
3. Production of bile
1. Bile or gall is yellowish green alkaline fluid containing bile pigment such as biliverdine,
bilirubin, and salt such as sodium glycocholate, sodium taurocholate, cholesterol,
phospholipids and mucus.
2. Bile pigments are excretory products of Heme which is broken part of hemoglobin of RBCs.
3. Its Globin is breakdown into amino acids for synthesis of new protein molecules.
4. Bile salt is used for emulsification (breakdown of fats into simple form) of fats in small
intestine.
4. Detoxification
Liver converts toxic substances (drugs and poisons) into non-toxic means converts poisons
materials into harmless is called as detoxification.
Example: hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is toxic compound, liver secrets catalase enzyme and
converts the hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) into hydrogen and oxygen which are non-toxic.
5. Formation of cholesterol
1. Cholesterol is highly prepared in liver and excess amount of cholesterol is removed in bile.
2. Excess amount of gall bladder can form the gale stone and causes jaundice.
6. Thermoregulation
Due to continue blood supply and high rate of metabolic activities, liver produces heat to
maintain the body temperature.
7. Storage of vitamins.
Liver also stores the vitamin-A, B and D.
NEPHERON
Each kidney is composed of about one millions microscopic tubules is known as Nepheron.
Nepheron is structural and functional unit of kidney which performs duty of osmoregulation
as well as excretion.
7. Reabsorption
8. Nepheron removes water and solutes from tubular filtrate (fluid) and returns to
circulatory blood are called as reabsorption.
Example: water, glucose, amino acids, salts, vitamins, lactose, urea, uric acids etc.
9. Filtrate moves from Proximal convoluted tubule to descending limb of loop of henle
than water and sodium reabsorbed in descending limb because it is permeable to
water and sodium but impermeable to other solutes.
10. In ascending limb is impermeable to water therefore sodium and chlorine ions
reabsorbed in to blood through active transport.
11. Fluid (filtrate) moves from ascending limb to Distal convoluted tubule and fluid is
slightly hypotonic to blood plasma.
12. In Distal convoluted tubule various salts (sodium and chlorine ions) under the
influence of hormones.
13. Now filtrate changed into urine with high concentration of water which moves into
collecting ducts and finally passes out from collecting ducts of nepheron.
Tubular secretion
1. In PCT and DCT poisonous and nitrogenous sub: such as ammonia, urea, uric
acid and creatinine secreted from blood into filtrate through active transport.
2. Those nitrogenous molecules which are escaped during the filtration from
glomerulus.
3. Hydrogen and ammonium ions are also secreted from interstitial fluid into DCT
which maintains acid-base balance in blood.
B. Juxtamedullary Nepheron
1. Juxtamedullary Nepheron has longer loop of henle.
2. Therefore large amount of water is reabsorbed to the body and excreted out the
concentrated urine.
3. Only Present in Medulla Region.
B. Aldosterone
1. Concentration of sodium ions in body controlled by aldosterone which is secreted
by from adrenal cortex.
2. Aldosterone increases the reabsorption of sodium ions in nepheron.
C. Parathormone
1. Concentration of calcium ions in body controlled by Parathormone which is
secreted by from parathyroid gland.
2. Parathormone increases the reabsorption of calcium ions in nepheron.
Composition of urine and variation in the composition and its significance
It is estimated that urine contains about 95% water and 5% solids.
The average values of various substances per 100 cm3 are given bellow in table:
components Composition
(Concentration/100cm3)
Water 95.00
Protein 00.00
Glucose 00.00
Urea 02.00
Creatinine 0.3-0.70
Ammonia 0.3-0.70
Uric acid 0.30
Sodium 0.30
Chlorides 0.60
Ca, Mg, K, PO, SO 0.47
PH 5.00
Lithotripsy
1. It is the recent non-surgical method in which removal of stone from kidney, ureter or gall
bladder.
2. Kidney stone is break down into tiny pieces or sand by the use of shock waves or
ultrasonic waves and tiny pieces or sand removed with urine.
3. Ultrasonic lithotripsy uses ultrasonic probe through telescopic tube to break stone.
4. Shock waves lithotripsy is more advanced method in which shock waves detected the
stone from the outside the body.
5. After broken the stone, small fragments are passed out in urine.
Renal failure
1. It is the condition in which reduction in the ability of kidneys to filter the waste product
from blood and excrete them in urine for osmoregulation and to regulate the blood
pressure.
2. As a result increases level of urea and nitrogenous water products in blood.
Symptoms:
Nausea (person may be unconscious), vomiting, loss of aptitude, weakness,
breathlessness.
In severe cases it may lead to coma, death as well as pneumonia, bleeding in stomach,
high blood pressure etc.
Dialysis
It is the technology used to remove the waste products and excess fluid from the body
(blood) and when kidneys are unable to remove the nitrogenous waste products from
body.
There are two methods of Dialysis
Kidney transplant
Young patient having failure kidney may be replaced by another healthy person but
person having same blood group.
Permanent solution and better than dialysis.
Surgical process.
80% successful.
THERMOREGULATION
It is the maintenance of temperature with in body up to tolerable (reasonable) limit is
called as thermoregulation.
Normal temperature range is 10C to 35C for most of living organisms.
Temperature influence directly upon membrane properties as well as metabolism of cells.
1. Low temperature
2. High temperature
THERMOREGULATION IN ANIMALS
Organisms obtain heat energy by following two sources
1. Externally, heat is gained from sun (solar radiation) or indirectly by radiation,
convection, conduction from environment.
Convection: Transfer of heat due to movement of molecules in liquid or gas is called as
convection.
Conduction: Transfer of heat solid molecules.
2. Internally, Heat is gained from metabolic activities as well as muscles contraction.
Organisms lose the heat energy through radiation, convection and conduction from their
body surface and evaporation of water.
Animals are classified into two categories on the basis of body temperature.
1. Poikilotherms (Gr: Having Variable Temperature)
They are commonly known as cold blooded animals.
Those organisms having body temperature can be changed with fluctuation (change) of
environmental temperature.
Example: all invertebrates, fishes, amphibians, reptiles etc.
1. Ectotherm
Ectothermic animals gain heat energy from environment and cannot maintain their body
temperature.
Example: Reptiles (lizards basking in sun), Fishes, Amphibian, etc.
2. Endotherm
Endothermic animals generate their heat energy by metabolic activities to maintain
internal body temperature.
Example: Mammals and Birds etc.
3. Heterotherms
Heterothermic animals generate the heat of varying degrees therefore their body
temperature is in wider range.
Example: Bats, Humming Birds etc.
1. Physiological Mechanism
Erection of hairs Reduction in blood flow towards skin Subcutaneous fat accumulation
i. Erection of hairs
During the cold temperature, skin hairs are raised in vertical position (goose bump) due
to contraction of erector pili muscles.
Example: Ferry animals (non-human) such as sheep, cow etc.
Ferry animals contain skin hairs in vertical position which trapped the air to skin
therefore loss of heat is reduced.
ii. Reduction in blood flow towards skin
Heat is transported by blood all around the body of living organisms.
During the cold temperature, narrowing (limited) of arteriole OR vaso-constriction.
Vaso-constriction: when blood vessels compressed, blood flow is slowed or blocked
towards the body surface therefore heat lose is reduced.
Cold is more marked in the limb of hands and foot than rest of the body.
B. Shivering Thermogenesis
In cold condition muscles contraction under the nervous system.
If cold continuous shivering begins which generate heat in muscles.
Under the very cooler condition, metabolic rates become high to produce the heat energy
by the secretion of adrenaline hormone and thyroxine hormone.
2. Behavioral Mechanism
Moving to warmer places.
Huddling (grouping): one individual close together with another individual.
In human beings wearing the additional and extra cloths.
Fever or Pyrexia
Body Temperature is above the set point (37C or 98F) is known as fever.
When viruses or bacteria attack to (infection) body therefore increases the rate of
leukocytes (macrophage).
Leukocytes (wbc) release chemical substance known as Pyrogen.
Pyrogen raised the body temperature (fever) by inhabit the growth of pathogenic virus
and bacteria.