Biology- is the branch of science that studies living things, their structures, function, reproduction and

interactions with one another and with their nonliving environment.

Living things – are things that possess life, and all its inherent characteristics are called biological processes.
LEVELS OF ORGANISATION
CELL----TISSUE----ORGAN-----ORGAN SYSTEM-----ORGANISM

THE 12 BODY SYSTEMS

THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM --The human digestive system can serve as a model for other organisms with complete
digestive system.
-processes and digest foods -produces waste material
- absorb nutrients
THE CICULATORY SYSTEM --Animals with these structures either have an open or closed circulatory system. In an open
circulatory system, blood is not fully enclosed in a vessel and is pumped out of the system via an exit called an ostium to
a space which surrounds tissues called a sinus.
-heart and blood vessels -pumps bloods around the body
-arteries, veins, and capillaries - removes waste products
STRUCTURES
1. Atrium- receives blood
2. Ventricle- pumps blood
3. Artery- transports blood away from the heart, muscular
4. Vein- transports blood back to the heart, has valves and thinner in structure 5
5. Capillary- exchange of substances, has very thin walls
6. Venule- small vein
7. Arteriole- small artery
a. The pulse is the wavelike force which is a result of the pumping of blood through an artery with decreasing diameter.
As the diameter of the artery decreases, the walls of the artery stretch to accommodate the blood that is passing
through it.
b. The heart can produce its own electrical signal to stimulate the contraction of the heart muscles.
c. Systole- is the contraction phase of the cardiac cycle.
d. Diastole – is the relaxation phase of the cardiac cycle.
EXCRETORY SYSTEM --Waste removal follows the following processes, 1.) filtration, 2.) reabsorption, 3.) secretion, and 4.
excretion
-Excretion
-removes waste products
NERVOUS SYSTEM-- The central nervous system is responsible for data/information processing which is gathered by the
peripheral nervous system. (regulates behavior, maintains homeostasis, controls sensory and motor functions)
-brain, spinal cord, and nerves -peripheral nervous system
- central nervous system -electrical impulses
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM—involves the production of new individuals.
-male and female - fertilization
RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS --Supplies body cells with oxygen; carbon dioxide as waste products. The organs involve are
heart, blood vessels, blood, and lymph nodes.
-delivers oxygen to blood -nose, pharynx, larynx, esophagus, and lungs
-removes carbon dioxide
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM-- It regulates, coordinates, and controls several body functions by secreting chemicals into the
bloodstream. These secretions help control moods, growth and development, and metabolism.
-glands -detect and distribute hormones
-regulates body processes
MUSCULAR SYSTEM --This system is made up of muscle tissue that helps move the body and move materials through the
body. Quite simply, muscles move you. Muscles are bundles of cells and fibers that work in a simple way: they tighten up
and relax.
-muscles -contract and relax
-movement -skeletal, cardiac, and smooth
SKELETAL SYSTEM ---The skeletal system provides the shape and form for our bodies in addition to supporting and
protecting our bodies, allowing bodily movement, producing blood cells, and storing minerals. This system consists of
bones, cartilage, and joints.
-bones -blood cells in the bone marrow
- support and protection
IMMUNE SYSTEM--- collection of structures and processes within the body is to protect against disease or other
potentially damaging foreign bodies. When functioning properly, the immune system identifies a variety of threats,
including viruses, bacteria, and parasites, and distinguishes them from the body's own healthy tissue.
-detect foreign cells -protects the body
-produces and releases immune cells
INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM ---This system consists of the skin, hair, nails, and sweat glands. Its main function is to act as a
barrier to protect the body from the outside world. - It also functions to retain body fluids, protect against disease,
eliminate waste products, and regulate body temperature
-outer most layer -regulates body temperature
-protections -skin, nails, hair, and glands
URINARY SYSTEM—to filter blood and create urine as a waste by product.
-filters blood
-releases urine
What is an Animal Cell?
Animal tissues and organs are made up of fundamental structural and functional units called animal cells. They're
eukaryotic cells, which means they're multicellular. Animal cells, unlike prokaryotic cells, have membrane-bound
organelles floating in the cytoplasm, which are encased by a plasma membrane.
What is a Plant Cell?
Plant cell, the basic unit of all plants. Plant cells, like animal cells, are eukaryotic, meaning they have a membrane-bound
nucleus and organelles.
Plant cells are eukaryotic cells present in green plants, photosynthetic eukaryotes of the kingdom Plantae.
What is the difference between Animal cells and Plant Cell?
Animal cells lack a cell wall, but plant cells do. Animal cells lack chloroplasts, but plant cells do. Plants need chloroplasts
to accomplish photosynthesis, which allows them to produce food. Plant cells often have one or more big vacuoles,
whereas animal cells, if any, have smaller vacuoles.
A huge, isolated vacuole exists in each plant cell, which is utilized for storing and preserving the cell's structure. Animal
cells, on the other hand, have a lot of tiny vacuoles. Plant cells have a cell membrane and a cell wall. There is no cell wall
in animal cells, only a cell membrane.
What is the difference between Animal cells and Plant Cells in Parts?
A nucleus, cytoplasm, mitochondria, and cell membrane are all present in both animal and plant cells. A vacuole,
chloroplast, and cell wall are three additional components found in plant cells.
Animal cells each have a centrosome and lysosomes, whereas plant cells do not. Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts
and other specialized plastids, and a large central vacuole, whereas animal cells do not.
Animals are made up of millions of cells. Animal cells have an irregular structure and are made up of four key
parts:
Nucleus - This contains genetic material (DNA) and controls the cell's activity.
Cell membrane - A flexible layer that surrounds the cell and controls the substances that enter and exit.
Cytoplasm - A jelly-like substance where the chemical reactions happen.
Mitochondria - This is where energy is released from the food molecules.

Plant cells Plants are also made up of millions of cells. Plant cells have a nucleus, cell membrane, cytoplasm, and
mitochondria too, but they also contain the following structures:
Cell wall - A hard layer outside the cell membrane, containing cellulose to provide strength to the plant.
Vacuole - A space inside the cell that is used to store substances and help the cell keep its shape.
Chloroplasts - Structures that contain the green pigment chlorophyll, which is a key part of photosynthesis.

Both plant and animal cells comprise membrane-bound organelles, such as the endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria,
the nucleus, Golgi apparatus, peroxisomes, lysosomes. They also have similar membranes, such as cytoskeletal elements
and cytosol. The plant cell can also be larger than the animal cell. The normal range of the animal cell varies from about
10-30 micrometers and that of plant cell range between 10- 100 micrometer.
The function of Animal Cell and Plant Cells
The Animal cell carries out all the processes of the body which include producing energy and storing it, making
proteins which are molecules that have roles in metabolism, transportation of other molecules, and DNA replication.
The function of Animal Cell and Plant Cells
Plant cells are the building blocks of plants. Photosynthesis is the major function performed by plant cells.
Photosynthesis occurs in the chloroplasts of the plant cell. It is the process of preparing food by the plants, by
utilizing sunlight, carbon dioxide, and water.
The function of Animal Cell and Plant Cells
Both cell types go through the same reproductive processes, which include mitosis and meiosis. Cellular respiration
provides the energy that animal and plant cells require to develop and sustain proper cellular function.