Chapter 3: Site Exploration and

Characterization;

cannot

Charles Dowding (1979)

Natural Soil Deposits
3.2 Soil Origin
There are two general types of weathering:
1. Mechanical weathering
is a process by which rocks are broken down into smaller and smaller
pieces by physical forces without any change in the chemical composition
Changes in temperature, Frost action, Exfoliation running water,
glaciers, wind, ocean waves

2. Chemical weathering
is a process of decomposition or mineral alteration in which the original
minerals are changed into something entirely different.

Most rock weathering is a combination of mechanical and

chemical weathering
Natural Soil Deposits
Soil Origin
Soil produced by the weathering of rocks can be
transported by physical processes to other places.
The resulting soil deposits are called transported soils.

In contrast, some soils stay where they were formed

and cover the rock surface from which they derive.
These soils are referred to as residual soils.
 Natural Soil Deposits
Soil Origin

Transported soils can be subdivided into five major

categories based on the transporting agent:
1. Gravity transported soil
2. Lacustrine (lake) deposits
3. Alluvial or fluvial soil deposited by running water
4. Glacial deposited by glaciers
5. Aeolian deposited by the wind
 Subsurface Exploration
3.11 Purpose of Subsurface Exploration
1. Selecting the type and depth of foundation suitable for a
given structure.
2. Evaluating the load-bearing capacity of the foundation.
3. Estimating the probable settlement of a structure.
4. Determining potential foundation problems (e.g., expansive
soil, collapsible soil, sanitary landfill, and so on).
5. Determining the location of the water table.
6. Predicting the lateral earth pressure for structures such as
retaining walls, sheet pile bulkheads, and braced cuts.
7. Establishing construction methods for changing subsoil
conditions.
 3.12Subsurface Exploration Programs
Collection of Preliminary Information
This step involves obtaining information regarding the type of
structure to be built and its general use
A general idea of the topography and the type of soil to be encountered
near and around the proposed site can be obtained from the following
sources:
1. United States Geological Survey maps.
2. State government geological survey maps.
3. United States Department of Agriculture’s Soil Conservation Service
county soil reports.
4. Agronomy maps published by the agriculture departments of various
states.
5. Hydrological information published by the United States Corps of
Engineers, including records of stream flow, information on high flood
levels, tidal records, and so on.
6. Highway department soil manuals published by several states.
 Reconnaissance

1. The general topography of the site, the possible

existence of drainage ditches, abandoned dumps of
debris, and other materials present at the site. Also,
evidence of creep of slopes and deep, wide shrinkage
cracks at regularly spaced intervals may be indicative
of expansive soils.
2. Soil stratification from deep cuts, such as those
made for the construction of nearby highways and
railroads.
 Reconnaissance

3. The type of vegetation at the site, which may indicate

the nature of the soil. For example, a mesquite cover in
central Texas may indicate the existence of expansive clays
that can cause foundation problems.
4. High-water marks on nearby buildings and bridge
abutments.
5. Groundwater levels, which can be determined by
checking nearby wells.
6. The types of construction nearby and the existence of
any cracks in walls or other problems.
Site investigation
The site investigation phase of the exploration
program consists of planning, making test
boreholes, and collecting soil samples at
desired intervals for subsequent observation
and laboratory tests.

Minimum depth of boring

for a building with
a width of 30 m
Boring depth for hospitals and office buildings
The exploration cost generally should be 0.1 to 0.5% of
the cost of the structure.
3.13 Exploratory Borings in the Field

Auger boring

Hand augers cannot

be used for advancing
holes to depths
exceeding 3 to 5 m

posthole auger helical auger

continuous
-flight
augers
Hollow-
stem auger
Wash boring
3.14 Procedures for Sampling Soil
• Two types of soil samples can be obtained during
subsurface exploration:
 Disturbed
1. Grain-size analysis
2. Determination of liquid and plastic limits
3. Specific gravity of soil solids
4. Determination of organic content
5. Classification of soil

 Undisturbed
2.15 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

 140 lb (63.5 kg) Hammer

 30in (76 cm) free fall
 Drive sampler over 18 inches
 Record no. of blows per each 6 inch
penetration
 SPT blow count=blows for 2nd 6 inch
penetration + blows for 3rd 6inch
penetration
Standard Split Spoon Sampler
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
SPT Correction Factors
SPT Correction Factors
Use of SPT Data

To Determine,
Cu– From Eq. 3.8

OCR– From Eq. 3.9

σc– From Eq. 3.11

Es– From Eq. 3.32

 Use of SPT Data
 Correlations for N60 in Cohesive Soil
r


 Use of SPT Data
 Correction for N60 in Granular Soil
 Use of SPT Data
 Correlation between Angle of Friction
and Standard Penetration Number