energies

Article
Insulation Resistance Monitoring Algorithm for
Battery Pack in Electric Vehicle Based on Extended
Kalman Filtering
Chuanxue Song 1 , Yulong Shao 1 , Shixin Song 2 , Silun Peng 3 , Fang Zhou 3 , Cheng Chang 3
and Da Wang 1, *
1 State Key Laboratory of Automotive Simulation and Control, Jilin University, Changchun 130022, China;
songchx@126.com (C.S.); shaoyl13@mails.jlu.edu.cn (Y.S.)
2 School of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Jilin University; Changchun 130022, China;
songshx0202@126.com
3 Department of Automotive Engineering, College of Automotive Engineering, Jilin University,
Changchun 130022, China; pengsilun@jlu.edu.cn (S.P.); zhoufang13@mails.jlu.edu.cn (F.Z.);
changchengcl@126.com (C.C.)
* Correspondence: wangda_gspeed@jlu.edu.cn; Tel.: +86-159-4802-3961

Academic Editor: Rui Xiong

Received: 16 March 2017; Accepted: 12 May 2017; Published: 18 May 2017

Abstract: To improve the accuracy of insulation monitoring between the battery pack and chassis of
electric vehicles, we established a serial battery pack model composed of first-order resistor-capacitor
(RC) circuit battery cells. We then designed a low-voltage, low-frequency insulation monitoring
model based on this serial battery pack model. An extended Kalman filter (EKF) was designed
for this non-linear system to filter the measured results, thus mitigating the influence of noise.
Experimental and simulation results show that the proposed monitoring model and extended Kalman
filtering algorithm for insulation resistance monitoring present satisfactory estimation accuracy
and robustness.

Keywords: insulation resistance; first-order resistor-capacitor (RC) circuit; battery pack model;
extended Kalman filtering (EKF); electric vehicle

1. Introduction
The voltages of storage batteries, fuel cells, and ultra-capacitors for electric vehicles far exceed the
safety limit for the human body, with certain battery packs reaching voltages of 600 V. The performance
of insulating materials, however, degrades after a certain period. Other factors, such as humidity,
can also decrease the performance of the insulation between a high-voltage system and the chassis
ground. Such decrease will create a leakage circuit when the positive or negative wire penetrates the
insulating layer and connects to the chassis ground, which increases its electric potential and thus
affects the operation of the motor controller, other low-voltage electronics, and passengers’ safety.
When insulation performance is degraded in multiple points between the high-voltage circuit and the
chassis ground, heat energy accumulates, which may cause electrical fires under serious circumstances.
To ensure safe vehicle operation, a specialized device should be designed for the real-time online
monitoring of insulation resistance between the high-voltage system and the chassis ground [1,2].
Current methods for monitoring insulation within electric vehicles all have significant drawbacks.
The two most prevalent methods, namely, balanced bridge circuit [3,4] and the unbalanced bridge
circuit [5], cannot detect leakage between the battery pack and the chassis ground. Furthermore,
the introduction of reference resistance during measurement reduces the insulation performance of
the system. The accuracy of non-contact current differential detection [6] for insulation monitoring

Energies 2017, 10, 714; doi:10.3390/en10050714 www.mdpi.com/journal/energies

Energies 2017,
Energies 2017, 10,
10, 714
714 22 of
of 13
13
Energies 2017, 10, 714 2 of 13

performance of the system. The accuracy of non-contact current differential detection [6] for
performance
in electric vehicles of therequiressystem.further The accuracy
improvement. of non-contact
Although current differential
the alternating currentdetection [6] for
(AC)-voltage
insulation monitoring in electric vehicles requires further improvement. Although the alternating
insulation
signal monitoring in electric vehicles requires further improvement. Although the alternating
currentinjection
(AC)-voltage method signal[7] injection
mitigatesmethod the interference
[7] mitigatesof electromagnetic
the interference signals of a vehiclesignals
of electromagnetic to the
current
monitoring (AC)-voltage signal injection method [7] mitigates the interference of electromagnetic signals
of a vehicle circuit, the frequentcircuit,
to the monitoring injection theoffrequent
high-voltage
injection signals affects the safe
of high-voltage operation
signals affectsofthe battery
safe
of a vehicle
packs. to the monitoringthe
In addition, circuit, the frequent injection of high-voltage signalsignals affects the safe
operation of batteryalthoughpacks. In addition, proposed low-voltage,
although low-frequency
the proposed low-voltage, injection
low-frequency method can
signal
operation
detect leakage of battery
within packs.
the In addition,
battery pack, although the proposed
mismeasurement may occur low-voltage,
during voltagelow-frequency
spikes. To signal
improve
injection method can detect leakage within the battery pack, mismeasurement may occur during
injection
the accuracy method can detect
of dynamic leakage
insulation within theinbattery
monitoring, the present pack,study,
mismeasurement
measurement may
and occur
systemduring
noise
voltage spikes. To improve the accuracy of dynamic insulation monitoring, in the present study,
voltage
were spikes.
considered To
basedimproveon the the accuracy
low-voltage, of dynamic
low-frequency insulation
signal monitoring,
injection method, in the
and present
the study,
insulation
measurement and system noise were considered based on the low-voltage, low-frequency signal
measurement
monitoring andbattery
of the system noise waswere considered based ofon themodel,
low-voltage,were low-frequency signal
injection method, and thepack insulation modeled.
monitoring On the basis
of the battery this
pack wasresultsmodeled. On filtered
the basis according
of this
injection
to method,
the extended and the
Kalman insulation
filtering monitoring
algorithm thatofcalculation
soextended the batteryresults pack was modeled.
would On theapproximate
most closely basis of this
model, results were filtered according to the Kalman filtering algorithm so that calculation
model,
actual results were filtered according to the extended Kalman filtering algorithm so that calculation
resultsinsulation
would most resistance.
closely approximate actual insulation resistance.
results would most closely approximate actual insulation resistance.
2. Mechanism of
2. Mechanism of the
the Low-Voltage,
Low-Voltage, Low-Frequency
Low-Frequency Signal Signal Injection
Injection Method
Method Monitoring
Monitoring Circuit Circuit
2. Mechanism of the Low-Voltage, Low-Frequency Signal Injection Method Monitoring Circuit
Figure
Figure 11 shows
shows the the overall
overall voltage
voltage curvecurve of of the
the battery
battery pack pack of of an
an electric
electric vehicle
vehicle during
during realistic
realistic
working Figure 1 shows the
conditions. In overall
this voltage
figure, A to curve
B and ofEtheto battery
F are packacceleration
hard of an electric vehicle during
processes, whereas realistic
C to
working conditions. In this figure, A to B and E to F are hard acceleration processes, whereas C to D
Dworking
and G conditions.
to H are In this
regenerative figure, A
braking to B and
processes.E to F are
During hard acceleration
these processes, processes,
the violent whereas
fluctuationC to in
D
and G to H are regenerative braking processes. During these processes, the violent fluctuation in the
andoverall
the G to H voltage
are regenerative asbraking processes. Duringthe these processes, the violent fluctuation in the
overall voltage can can be asbehigh high
as 80asV. 80To V. analyze
To analyze the effect effect of changes
of changes in the
in the overall
overall voltagevoltage of
of the
overall
the voltage
battery pack can be as high as 80 V. To analyze the effect of changes in the overall voltage of the
battery pack on on monitoring
monitoring accuracy,
accuracy, thethe equivalent
equivalent circuitmodel
circuit modelofofthe thebattery
battery packpack should
should be be
battery pack
considered in on
the monitoring
insulation accuracy, the
monitoring equivalent
model. The circuit model
insulation of themonitoring
resistance battery pack modelshould
of be
the
considered in the insulation monitoring model. The insulation resistance monitoring model of the
considered
battery packin(Figure
the insulation
(Figure 2) can monitoringvia model.low-voltage,
The insulation resistance monitoring model of the
battery pack 2) can be be acquired
acquired via the the low-voltage, low-frequency
low-frequency signal signal injection
injection method,
method,
battery
where: pack
−E
E11−E (Figure
arethethe 2) can be
open-circuit acquiredvoltagesvia the low-voltage, low-frequency
r01 −r0nthe signal injection method,
where: E n nare open-circuit voltages of of
thethe battery
battery cells;
cells; r01−r 0n are
areinternal
the internal resistances;
resistances; r1−rn
where:
−
rare r n
E
are 1−E
then are the
polarized open-circuit
resistances; voltages
C − Cof
n
the
are
1 the polarized resistances; C1−Cn are1 the polarized capacitors; R0−Rn are the
battery
the cells;
polarized r 01−r0n are theRinternal
capacitors; − R n areresistances;
the r1−rn
insulation
0 insulation resistances
are the polarized resistances;
resistances C1−Cinn are theandpolarized capacitors; R0I−R arebus
the insulation resistances
between thebetween batteriesthe batteries
in series and the series
chassis the chassis
ground; I is theground;
bus currentisnthe of thecurrent
batteryof the
pack; battery
Rr1 and
between the batteries in series and the chassis ground; I is the bus current of the battery pack; Rr1 and
Rr2 are the reference resistances of the monitoring circuit (with both values being Rr); Rs is R
pack; R r1 and R r2 are the reference resistances of the monitoring circuit (with both values being r );
the
RRsr2isare
the the reference
sampling resistances
resistance; and Eoff isthe
the monitoring
square-wave circuit (with both values being Rr); Rs is the
generator.
sampling resistance; and Ef is the square-wave generator.
sampling resistance; and Ef is the square-wave generator.
400
400 H
380 H
(V)(V)

380
360
Voltage

360 D
Voltage

340 A
D
E G
340 AC E G
320
Pack

320 C
Pack

300 B
300 B
F
280
280 0 50 F 100 150 200
0 50 100/s
Time 150 200
Time /s
Figure 1. Total voltage curve
Total voltage curve of the
the battery pack.
pack.
Figure
Figure 1.
1. Total voltage curve of
of the battery
battery pack.

C1 C2 ... Cn
C1 C2 ... Cn
E1 E2 En
E1 r1 E2 r2 En rn
r1 r2 rn
R0 R1 R(n-1) Rn
R0 R1 R(n-1) Rn

Ef
Rr1 Ef Rr2
Rr1 Rr2
Rs
Rs

Figure 2. Insulation detection model between the battery and chassis of an electric vehicle.
Figure 2. Insulation detection model between the battery and chassis of an electric vehicle.
Figure 2. Insulation detection model between the battery and chassis of an electric vehicle.
The maximum leakage current occurs at either the positive or negative electrode of the battery
The maximum leakage current occurs at either the positive or negative electrode of the battery
pack. Thus, the insulation resistance of the two electrodes should be monitored to determine the
pack. Thus, the insulation resistance of the two electrodes should be monitored to determine the
Energies 2017, 10, 714 3 of 13

The maximum leakage current occurs at either the positive or negative electrode of the battery
Energies 2017, 10, 714 3 of 13
pack. Thus, the insulation resistance of the two electrodes should be monitored to determine the
insulation performance
insulation performance ofof the
the battery
battery pack.
pack. The
The insulation
insulation resistances
resistances of
of the
the positive
positive and
and negative
negative
electrodes are defined as Rp and R n respectively. Therefore,
electrodes are defined as Rp and Rn respectively. Therefore,
RpR=1 //R
Rp = R1//R2 2.…//R n, n ,
. . //R
and,
and,
RRnn == R00.
The insulation resistance monitoring
monitoring circuit of the positive electrode Rpp can can be simplified as
shown in Figure 3, where EH is the terminalterminal voltage
voltage of the the battery
battery pack,
pack, VVff is the low-voltage
monitoring
monitoring square-wave
square-wave voltage,
voltage, and Vss isis the
the voltage of the sampling resistance. The monitoring
voltage generates
generatesaamonitoring
monitoringcurrent
current that
that flows
flows intointo
the the sampling
sampling resistance.
resistance. Then, Then, the square-
the square-wave
wave voltage
voltage signalsignal generated
generated from
from the the sampling
sampling resistance
resistance is measured
is measured and converted
and converted bycontrol
by the the control
unit
unit
in accordance with Equation (6). The value of insulation resistance will be calculated within the
in accordance with Equation (6). The value of insulation resistance will be calculated within
control unit.

Vh
Rp
I1 EH I2
Vf
Rr1 Rr2 Ef

Vs
Rs Is

Figure
Figure 3.
3. Principle
Principle of
of monitoring
monitoring insulation
insulation resistance
resistance between
between the
the positive
positive electrode
electrode and
and the
the chassis.
chassis.

Equation (6) can be acquired via the following steps:

Equation (6) can be acquired via the following steps:
I2 = I1 + Is (1)
I2 = I1 + Is (1)
Vf = Rp × I s + Rr 2 × I2 + Rs × I s (2)
Vf = R p × Is + Rr2 × I2 + Rs × Is (2)
Vh = Rr1 × I1 + Rr2 × I2 (3)
Vh = Rr1 × I1 + Rr2 × I2 (3)
where Vs can be measured through the voltage measuring circuit. Therefore, Is can be expressed
where Vs can be measured through the voltage measuring circuit. Therefore, Is can be expressed
through Equation (4). The correlation between Rr1 and Rr2 can be expressed as Equation (5).
through Equation (4). The correlation between Rr1 and Rr2 can be expressed as Equation (5).
Is = Vs Rs (4)
Is = Vs /Rs (4)
Rr1 = Rr2 = Rr (5)
Rr1 = Rr2 = Rr (5)
Therefore, through conversion, the insulation resistance between the positive electrode and the
Therefore, through conversion, the insulation resistance between the positive electrode and the
chassis ground is:
chassis ground is:
2×2 ×VVf f −
− VVhh
Rp =R pR=s ×
Rs × −−RR
s −
s− × R×
0.50.5 r Rr (6)
(6)
2 2××Vs

3. Design of the Discrete Extended Kalman Filter

3. Design of the Discrete Extended Kalman Filter
The extended Kalman filter (EKF) was designed during system modeling to reduce the impact of
The extended
the overall voltage Kalman filterThe
fluctuation. (EKF) was designed
extended Kalmanduring system
filtering modeling
algorithm to reduce
includes theefficient
a highly impact
of the overall voltage fluctuation. The extended Kalman filtering algorithm includes a highly efficient
observer, which also presents high robustness against non-linear systems [8,9]. To apply the EKF in
observer, which also presents high robustness against non-linear systems [8,9]. To apply the EKF in
the insulation monitoring system, the system should be described by a state space model [10], which
can be expressed as:
Energies 2017, 10, 714 4 of 13

the insulation monitoring system, the system should be described by a state space model [10], which
can be expressed as:
X(k + 1) = f[k, X(k)] + G(k) × W(k) (7)

Z (k ) = h[k, X(k)] + V(k) (8)

where X(k + 1) and X(k) are the respective system state vectors at the kth and (k + 1)th sampling time;
G(k) is the noise-driving matrix; W(k) is the process noise; V(k) is the observation noise; and f[k, X(k )]
and h[k, X(k)] are functions that describe the system. In the mode of the insulation monitoring system
proposed in this paper, X(k) = [Vh (k) Vs (k)]T . Thus,

f[k, X(k)] = X(k) (9)

Vf × R S A × X( k ) × R S
h[k, X(k)] = − − RS − 0.5 × Rr (10)
B × X( k ) B × X( k )
h i h i h iT
where A = 1 0 , B = 0 1 and X(k ) = Vh Vs .
Given that the system is nonlinear, a linearization process is undertaken at each step to
approximate a nonlinear system with a linear time-varying system [11]:

X(k + 1) = F( k + 1| k )X( k ) + G( k ) × W( k ) + Φ ( k ) (11)

∧ ∧
   
∂h
Z( k ) = h X( k | k − 1), k + ∧
X( k ) − X( k | k − 1) + V( k ) (12)
∧
∂X( k ) X( k | k −1)

where,
∂h
∧
= H(k)
∧
∂X( k ) X( k | k −1)

∧ ∧
 
∂h
h X( k | k − 1), k − ∧
X( k | k − 1) = y( k )
∧
∂X( k ) X( k | k −1)

Therefore, Equation (12) can be expressed as:

Z ( k ) = H( k )X( k ) + y ( k ) + V( k ) (13)

The linearized model is then acquired as:

X( k + 1) = F( k + 1| k )X( k ) + G( k ) × W( k ) (14)

Z ( k ) = H( k )X( k ) + y ( k ) + V( k ) (15)

where,
F( k + 1| k ) = 1 ,

G(k ) is the noise-driven matrix,

W(k) is the process noise with an average value of 0 and a variance of Q, and
V(k) is white Gaussian noise with an average value of 0 and a variance of R.
 
− Rs R s ( −2 × Vf +Xk −1 (1 ) )
H( k ) = (16)
2 ×Xk −1 (2 ) 2×(Xk−1 (2))2

The choice of covariance matrices affects the filter convergence and should thus be considered
with care. In practice, process and measurement noises Q and R are difficult to obtain [12]. Therefore,
Energies 2017, 10, 714 5 of 13

they are often used as tuning parameters. Laroche et al. [13] proposed a methodology for tuning Q
to achieve parameter tracking. The component of the matrix is chosen as the square of the typical
parameter variation on a sampling interval. To ensure convergence in less than
h 40 s and without
i being
too senstive to the noise, after measurement and multiple adjustment, Q = 0.04 0.01 and R = 80
are chosen.
EKF is essentially based on the principle of minimizing the mean square error estimation to
seek a recursive estimation algorithm. The time update and measurement update are consecutively
performed at each time interval. The detailed steps can be summarized by the following steps [14,15]:

(1) Initial state X(0) and P0 .

(2) Time update, which includes the state space update and covariance of the error update:

ˆ
X−
k = Xk −1 (17)

P− T
k = Fk P̂k −1 Fk + Qk (18)

where X− −
k is the predicted state at step k, X̂k −1 is the previous estimated state at step k−1, Pk is
the predicted error covariance at step k, and P̂k−1 is the estimated error covariance at step k−1.
(3) Measurement update, which involves Kalman gain calculation, state estimation measurement
update, and error covariance update:
h i −1
Kk = P− T − T
k × Hk × Hk × Pk × Hk (19)

Z− −
k = Hk × Xk (20)

X̂k = X− −
k + K × (Zk − Zk ) (21)

P̂k = (I − Kk × Hk ) × P−
k (22)

where Kk is the Kalman gain, Z−

k is the predicted output, and Zk is the measured output.

4. Matlab Simulation Model and Analysis

4.1. Simscape Battery Cell Model

Several battery models and charging and discharging characteristics were described in
references [16–19]. The first-order equivalent circuit model is very common in simulating cell voltage
change because the model is relatively simple, can easily obtain parameters, and runs in real time.
The core goal of the equivalent circuit model is to simulate the actual battery voltage response of the
current input. Huria et al. [20] reported that the first-order resistor-capacitor (RC) circuit model is
precise for most industrial application. Increasing the order will significantly increase the amount of
required calculation, but will not increase accuracy [21]. The first-order equivalent circuit model is
supported by Huria et al. [20] due to its accuracy and feasibility, and many researchers have adapted
this model in their studies [18,22–25]. Figure 4 shows the classic first-order RC equivalent circuit
model. The equivalent circuit model, which contains a voltage source, series resistor, and a pair of RC,
accurately describes cell characteristics.
The electrical behavior of a practical model [26] shown in Figure 4 can be expressed as follows:
• U1 I
U1 = − + L (23)
R1 C1 C1

Ut = Em − U1 − IL R0 (24)
precise for most industrial application. Increasing the order will significantly increase the amount of
required calculation, but will not increase accuracy [21]. The first-order equivalent circuit model is
supported by Huria et al. [20] due to its accuracy and feasibility, and many researchers have adapted
this model in their studies [18,22–25]. Figure 4 shows the classic first-order RC equivalent circuit
Energies The10,
model.2017, 714
equivalent 6 of of
circuit model, which contains a voltage source, series resistor, and a pair 13

RC, accurately describes cell characteristics.

R1
R0
+
+ C1
Em
-
-
Figure
Figure 4.
4. First-order
First-order resistor-capacitor
resistor-capacitor (RC)
(RC) equivalent circuit model.
equivalent circuit model.

In Figure 4, Em is the open circuit voltage; R1 and C1 are the resistance and capacitance of
polarization effect respectively, and R0 represents the resistance of battery. Em , R1 , C1 , and R0 are
functions of the state of charge (SOC) and temperature. Specifically, these four elements can be obtained
from the two-dimensional look-up tables:

R0 = R0 (SOC, T) (25)

R1 = R1 (SOC, T) (26)

C1 = C1 (SOC, T) (27)

Em = Em (SOC, T) (28)

Those look-up tables were obtained by using a parameter estimation tool in Simulink Design
Optimization (R2012b, The MathWorks, Inc, Natick, MA, USA) with series pulse discharge data
under different temperatures. These look-up tables were selected based on seven different points
of SOC. The pulse discharge curve for each temperature was run individually through estimation.
This will produce a set of one-dimensional look-up tables versus SOC for the four parameters at each
temperature. Simulink Design Optimization iteratively simulated the discharge profile in Simscape
while comparing the simulation results with experimental data. Then also, using nonlinear least
squares algorithm, the error gradient across each of the 28 parameters (four tables × seven breakpoints)
to minimize the sum of squared error.
We used the battery model from reference [20], which is a fidelity electrical model with thermal
dependence, to characterize and simulate high-power lithium battery cells. Hence, the SOC and
temperature were calculated following the method cited in the literature. SOC was calculated in
Coulomb counting using Equation (29), and SOC(t0 ) was periodically recalibrated by the SOC-OCV
(open circuit voltage) curve. State of health (SOH) was calculated using Equations (30) and (31)
as follows: Z
SOC(t) = SOC(t0 ) − ( I(t) dt)/CM , (29)

CM = (PassedCharge)/(SOC2 − SOC1 ), (30)

SOH = CM /CN × 100%, (31)

where SOC(t0 ) is the SOC at the beginning of the discharge or charge; I(t) is the working current; CM is
the current capacity of the battery; CN is the brand new capacity of the battery; PassedCharge is the
total capacity flow out of the battery; and SOC1 and SOC2 are the SOCs of the battery before and after
discharge, respectively.
Thermal influence is not usually considered in the currently proposed battery models.
However, Huria et al. [20] added a thermal model to the equivalent circuit model and creatively
improved the Simscape model. As shown in Figure 5, the Simscape model contains three input
terminals (environment temperature input, positive, and negative) and three output terminals
(battery temperature, SOC, and energy consumption power).
Energies 2017, 10, 714 7 of 13

These outputs can be used to analyze the operating state of the cell and estimate the
system insulation resistance. The Simscape model is suitable for Matlab simulation and analysis.
The parameters of the equivalent circuit model can be estimated through the least square method with
Energies 2017, 10, 714 7 of 13
experimental data, which can be obtained by pulse discharge process under different temperatures
and SOCs. Then, the parameter results are incorporated into look-up tables that are related to SOC and
Wang et al. [27]. Their results indicate that the model responds accurately in a given battery voltage
Energies 2017,
temperature 10, 714
T. The computer determines the parameters of the model via the look-up tables.7 of 13 is a
This
fluctuation.
practical method. Moreover, the Simscape model has been tested by Huria et al. [20] and Wang et al. [27].
Wang et al. [27]. Their results indicate that the model responds accurately in a given battery voltage
Theirfluctuation.
results indicate that the model responds accurately in a given battery voltage fluctuation.

Figure 5. Simscape
Figure 5. Simscapemodel
modelof
of the first-orderRC
the first-order RCequivalent
equivalent circuit.
circuit.
Figure 5. Simscape model of the first-order RC equivalent circuit.
4.2. Battery
4.2. Battery PackPack
ModelModel
4.2. Battery Pack Model
EightEight
cellscells
were were connected
connected ininseries
seriesto
tocompose
compose aa stack
stack(Figure
(Figure 6).6).
TheTheinternal structure
internal of each
structure of each
battery
Eight
battery is shown
cells were
is shown in Figure
connected
in Figure 5, where the
in series
5, where the toH terminal
H compose outputs the
a stack (Figure
terminal outputs internal temperature
6). The
the internal of the
internal structure
temperature battery,
of each
of the battery,
batteryandisconvectivein heat
shownheat Figuretransfer occurs between
5, where two batteries
outputs to simulate the heat transferof onthe
both sides and
and convective transfer occursthe H terminal
between two batteries the internal
to simulate temperature
the heat transfer onbattery,
both sides
of
convective the battery. The
heat transfer m-port on each
occursonbetween battery outputs
two batteries the collected
to simulate battery
the heat voltage,
transfer current,
on bothcurrent, andof the
sides
of the battery. The m-port each battery outputs the collected battery voltage, and
temperature. Next, 10 stacks were again connected in series to compose a pack (Figure 7). The model
battery. The m-port
temperature. Next, onstacks
10 each battery
were outputs
again the collected
connected in seriesbattery
to voltage,
compose a current,
pack and7).
(Figure temperature.
The model
parameters are derived from 80 ICR18650 battery cells (Samsung SDI Co., Ltd., Yongin-Si, Gyeonggi-
Next, 10 stacks
parameters were again connected
are derived in series to compose a packSDI(Figure 7). The model parameters
Do, Korea) using thefrom 80 ICR18650
method in [20]. Thebattery cells
discharge (Samsung
capacity Co.,battery
of the series Ltd., Yongin-Si,
pack is limited Gyeonggi-
by
are derived
Do, Korea) from
the cell using 80
with the theICR18650
method
smallest SOC.battery
in [20]. cells (Samsung
The discharge
Therefore, we make the SDI
capacityCo.,
minimum Ltd.,
of value Yongin-Si,
the series
of thebattery Gyeonggi-Do,
SOCs ofpack Korea)
is limited
all series cells by
using the
as the method
SOC of in
the [20]. The
battery discharge
pack. capacity
Similarly, the SOHof the
of series
the battery
battery pack pack
the cell with the smallest SOC. Therefore, we make the minimum value of the SOCs all series cells
is the is limited
minimum by
of the
the cell
series with
the smallest
as the cells’
SOCSOHs.SOC.
of the Therefore,
battery pack.we make the minimum
Similarly, the SOH of value
the of the SOCs
battery packofisall theseries cells asofthe
minimum theSOC of
series
the battery
cells’ SOHs.pack. Similarly, the SOH of the battery pack is the minimum of the series cells’ SOHs.

Figure 6. Eight cells connected in series to compose a stack.

Through the charging and discharging process of the 80 battery cells, we validated the accuracy
Figure
of our model relativeFigure 6.actual
to the6. Eight cells connected
connected
Eightreaction.
cells We builtinaseries
in series to compose
3.2-Ah,
to compose aa stack.
296-V batterystack.
pack model composed
of 80 battery cells that were connected in series. When the pack is fully charged, the voltage can reach
Through the8charging
336 V. Figure comparesand discharging
the battery voltageprocess
betweenofthe
the 80 battery
simulation cells,
and we validated
experimental the
results foraccuracy
the
of our modelpack
battery relative
under toathe
(a) actual
constantreaction. We built avoltage
current/constant 3.2-Ah, 296-V battery
(CC/CV) charging pack model
mode, and composed
a (b)
of 80 0.5 C/1 Ccells
battery discharging
that weremode. The simulation
connected results
in series. When closely approximate
the pack is fully the experimental
charged, valuescan
the voltage andreach
336 V. Figure 8 compares the battery voltage between the simulation and experimental results for the
battery pack under a (a) constant current/constant voltage (CC/CV) charging mode, and a (b)
Energies 2017, 10, 714 8 of 13

Through the charging and discharging process of the 80 battery cells, we validated the accuracy
of our model relative to the actual reaction. We built a 3.2-Ah, 296-V battery pack model composed of
80 battery cells that were connected in series. When the pack is fully charged, the voltage can reach
336 V. Figure 8 compares the battery voltage between the simulation and experimental results for
theEnergies
battery pack under a (a) constant current/constant voltage (CC/CV) charging mode, and
2017, 10, 714
a (b)
8 of 13
Energies 2017, 10, 714
0.5 C/1 C discharging mode. The simulation results closely approximate the experimental values and 8 of 13

have a maximum
have a maximumerror errorofof1.6%.
1.6%.These
These results
results showed thatthe
showed that thebattery
batterypack
packmodel
model accurately
accurately reflects
reflects
have a maximum error of 1.6%. These results showed that the battery pack model accurately reflects
thethe
actual
actual voltage
voltage and
andcan
canbebeapplied
appliedin
inthe
the insulation monitoringof
insulation monitoring ofthe
thepower
powersystem.
system.
the actual voltage and can be applied in the insulation monitoring of the power system.

Figure 7.Ten
Tenstacks
stacks connected
connected in series
seriestoto compose aapack.
Figure
Figure 7.
7. Ten stacks connected ininseries tocompose
compose pack.
a pack.
340 340
340 340
320 Experiment 320 Experiment
320 Experiment
Simulation 320 Experiment
Simulation
(V)(V)
(V)(V)

300 Simulation 300 Simulation

300 300
voltage
voltage

290
voltage
voltage

280 280 290

280 280 285
290
260 290 260 285
Battery
Battery

288 260 280

260
Battery
Battery

288
286 280
240 240 275
286
284
240 240 275
284
282
220 220 270
220 282
280 220 270 7000 7500
280 100 200 300 400 500 200
200 100 200 300 400 500 7000 7500
200 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 200 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 0 2000 4000 6000 8000
Time (s) 10000 12000
Time (s)
Time (s) Time (s)
(a) (b)
(a) (b)
Figure 8. Verification of the battery pack model: (a) Experimental and simulation charge curves under
Figure 8. Verification of the battery pack model: (a) Experimental and simulation charge curves under
Figure 8. Verification
constant of the voltage
current/constant battery (CC/CV)
pack model: (a) Experimental
charging and simulation
mode; (b) Experiment charge curves
and simulation under
discharge
constant current/constant voltage (CC/CV) charging mode; (b) Experiment and simulation discharge
curves current/constant
constant under 0.5 C/1 C discharging mode. charging mode; (b) Experiment and simulation discharge
voltage (CC/CV)
curves under 0.5 C/1 C discharging mode.
curves under 0.5 C/1 C discharging mode.
4.3. Insulation Resistance Monitoring Model
4.3. Insulation Resistance Monitoring Model
4.3. Insulation Resistance model
The monitoring Monitoring Model in Figure 9. In the model, vehicle speed and ambient
is shown
The monitoring model is shown in Figure 9. In the model, vehicle speed and ambient
temperature
The monitoring were simulated
model is by by Signal
shown Builder.
in Builder.
Figure The
9.The power
In the model,system of the
vehicle speedvehicle
andwaswas also temperature
ambient simulated
temperature were simulated Signal power system of the vehicle also simulated
through
were the
simulated vehicle
by Signaltransmission system,
Builder.system,
The power which calculated the current through the battery pack. R01
through the vehicle transmission whichsystem of the
calculated thevehicle
currentwas also simulated
through the battery through
pack. R01 the
and R02 are the reference
vehicle resistances, Rs is the sampling resistance, and Rp is the insulation resistance
pack. R01resistance
and R02 are
and R02transmission
are the reference system, which calculated
resistances, the current
Rs is the sampling through
resistance, and the
Rpbattery
is the insulation
between the simulated battery pack and the chassis ground. In Figure 9a, the Vf signal waveform is
the reference
between the resistances,
simulated batteryRs is the
packsampling resistance,
and the chassis andInRpFigure
ground. is the9a,insulation resistance
the Vf signal waveform between
is
drawn to express the Vf signal more clearly, with a signal voltage of ±40 V and a frequency of 0.25
the simulated battery pack and the chassis ground.
drawn to express the Vf signal more clearly, with a signal voltage of ±40 VIn Figure 9a, the V signal waveform
f and a frequency of 0.25 is drawn
Hz. The Figure 9b shows that the extended Kalman filtering algorithm was achieved by the EKF
toHz.
express the Vf9b
The Figure signal
shows morethat clearly, with aKalman
the extended signal voltage
filtering of ±40 V and
algorithm was a frequency
achieved of 0.25
by the EKF Hz.
block. In the simulation experiment, the variances of the noises added to VH and Vs signals are 0.02
block.
The In the
Figure 9b simulation
shows thatexperiment,
the extended the Kalman
variancesfiltering
of the noises addedwas
algorithm to Vachieved
H and Vs signals
by the are
EKF0.02block.
and 0.00001 respectively and the measure noise is 80 or 800.
and 0.00001
In the simulation respectively and the measure noise is 80 or 800.
experiment, the variances of the noises added to V H and Vs signals are 0.02 and
In the simulation, R01 = 2000 KΩ, R02 = 2000 KΩ, and RS = 10 KΩ, and the NEDC operating cycle
0.00001 Inrespectively
the simulation, and Rthe
01 = measure
2000 KΩ, noise
R02 = 2000
is 80 KΩ,
or and RS = 10 KΩ, and the NEDC operating cycle
800.
was simulated. The system impedance was set as 2000 KΩ and 20 KΩ. The variance of the simulation
wasInsimulated. The system impedance Rwas set as 2000
KΩ, KΩ and
RS =20 KΩ. The variance of theoperating
simulation
noisethe set as 4000 R
wassimulation, 01 =802000
and KΩ,results
K. The 02 = are
2000 shown and
in Table 1.10AKΩ, and
comparison the NEDC
of simulations cycle
1 and
noise
was was set as 4000 and 80 K. The results are shown in Table 1. A comparison of simulations 1 and
2, simulated.
or of 3 and 4, The systemthat
revealed impedance was setcircuit
the monitoring as 2000 KΩ andthe
calculates 20 KΩ. The variance
insulation resistance ofregardless
the simulationof
2, orwas
noise of 3 set
andas 4, 4000
revealed
and that
80 the
K. monitoring
The results arecircuit
shown calculates
in Table the
1. insulation
A comparison resistance
of regardless 1ofand
simulations
the value of system impedance and the variance of noise. In addition, EKF effectively reduced the
2,the
or value
of
maximum 3 andof 4,system
revealed
absolute
impedance
errorthat
andthe
and the variance
themonitoring
root mean squarecircuitof noise. In addition,
calculates
error.
EKF effectively
the insulation
A comparison resistance
of simulations
reduced the
regardless
1 and 3, or of of
maximum absolute error and the root mean square error. A comparison of simulations 1 and 3, or of
the2 value
and 4,ofrevealed
system impedance
that the extendedand theKalman
variance of noise.
filtering In addition,
algorithm EKF improves
markedly effectivelymonitoring
reduced the
2 and 4, revealed that the extended Kalman filtering algorithm markedly improves monitoring
accuracy when the system is suffering from degraded insulation performance.
accuracy when the system is suffering from degraded insulation performance.
Energies 2017, 10, 714 9 of 13

maximum absolute error and the root mean square error. A comparison of simulations 1 and 3, or of 2
and 4, revealed that the extended Kalman filtering algorithm markedly improves monitoring accuracy
when the system is suffering from degraded insulation performance.
Energies 2017, 10, 714 9 of 13

(a)

(b)

Figure 9. Simulink model of insulation detection: (a) The overall model of the detection circuit;
Figure 9. Simulink model of insulation detection: (a) The overall model of the detection circuit; (b) The
(b) The Simulink model of the extended Kalman filter (EKF) and the noise.
Simulink model of the extended Kalman filter (EKF) and the noise.
Table 1. Results of the simulation. RF: Reference Resistor.
Table 1. Results of the simulation.
Maximum RF : Absolute
ReferenceError
Resistor.
Root Mean Square Error
Simulation System Impedance Measure Noise
(Ω) (Ω)
No. RF (KΩ)
System Impedance Variance
Measure Noise Maximum Absolute Error (Ω) Root Mean Square Error (Ω)
Simulation No. without EKF with EKF without EKF with EKF
RF (KΩ) Variance without EKF with EKF without EKF with EKF
1 2000 800 4780.3 1426.4 1974.5 589.7
12 2000
2000 80800 4780.3
723.7 1426.4
205.6 1974.5
277.3 589.7
77.9
2 2000 80 723.7 205.6 277.3 77.9
33 2020 800800 4780.3
4780.3 427.8
427.8 1879.1
1879.1 206.4
206.4
44 2020 8080 723.7
723.7 143.9
143.9 256.2
256.2 38.5
38.5

5. Analysis of Bench Test Results

To validate the superiority of the proposed model and the algorithm based on extended Kalman
filtering, the insulation monitoring circuit based on this study was tested in an actual battery pack
Energies 2017, 10, 714 10 of 13

5. Analysis of Bench Test Results

To validate the superiority of the proposed model and the algorithm based on extended Kalman
filtering, the
Energies insulation
2017, 10, 714 monitoring circuit based on this study was tested in an actual battery 10 of 13 pack
system. Figure
Energies 2017, 10 shows the 52-Ah, 296-V battery pack system, which was composed of 1600
10, 714 10 ofbattery
13
system. Figure
cells (ICR18650 3.710 shows
V/2.6 Ah)thefor
52-Ah, 296-V battery
the bench pack system,
test. Within which
this pack, 20was
cellscomposed of 1600 battery
were connected in parallel
system.
cells Figure 10
(ICR18650
as a stack, and then3.7 shows
80 stacksthe 52-Ah,
V/2.6 Ah) for the 296-V
were benchbattery
connected in apack
test. Within system,
this
series. For which
pack,
the waswere
20 cells composed
measuring connectedof 1600
circuit, Rin battery
parallel
01 = 2000 KΩ,
cells
as (ICR18650
a stack, and then3.7 V/2.6 Ah)were
80 stacks for the bench test.
connected in aWithin
series. this pack,
For the 20 cells were
measuring connected
circuit, R01 = 2000in KΩ,
parallel
R02
R02 = 2000 KΩ, Rs = 10 KΩ, and T = 1200 s. The electronic load was provided by AVL e-Storage Tester
=as2000 KΩ,and
a stack, Rs =then
10 KΩ, and Twere
80 stacks = 1200 s. The electronic
connected in a series.load
For was provided by
the measuring AVLRe-Storage
circuit, Tester
01 = 2000 KΩ, R02
(https://www.avl.com/-/avl-e-storage).
= 2000 KΩ, Rs = 10 KΩ, and T = 1200 s.The
(https://www.avl.com/-/avl-e-storage).
Theelectronic
working
Theworking
conditionshown
is shown
load wasis provided
condition inby
in Figure
AVL 11a.
Figure
11a.
e-Storage
Figure
Figure
Tester
11b
11b
shows the current and voltage of
(https://www.avl.com/-/avl-e-storage).
shows the battery
the current and voltage of the battery pack.
The working
pack. condition is shown in Figure 11a. Figure 11b
shows the current and voltage of the battery pack.

Figure 10. Battery pack and electronic load.

Figure 10. Battery pack and electronic load.
Figure 10. Battery pack and electronic load.
150
150
(Km/h)

100
(Km/h)

100
Speed

50
Speed

50
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
0
0 (a)Speed
200 400 Time /s 800 1000 1200
profile 600
for the experiment
Time /s
(a)Speed profile for the experiment 400
350
/V /V

400
300
volteage

350
/A /A

250
300
200
Current

volteage

250
100 200
Current

50
Pack

1000
50
-50
Pack

-1000
-500 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
-100
Time600/s 800
(b)The 200
0 voltage400
and current of the1000 1200
battery pack
Time /s
(b)The voltage and current of the battery pack
Figure 11. (a) Work condition; (b) Voltage and current.
Figure 11. (a) Work condition; (b) Voltage and current.
Figure 11. (a) Work condition; (b) Voltage and current.
In the first group of tests, a 2-MΩ resistor was connected in parallel between the battery pack
and the In the first chassis.
vehicle group ofAs tests, a 2-MΩ
shown resistor
in Figure 12a,was connected
although theinmeasured
parallel between
values were the battery
affectedpack
by
Inandthethefirst
measurement group
vehicle of the
tests,
chassis.
noise, As a 2-MΩinKalman
shown
extended resistor wasalthough
Figure filtering
12a, connected the in
algorithm parallelvalues
measured
reduced between
this werethe
influence. battery
affected
At thebypack
and the vehicleofchassis.
measurement
beginning noise,
the As
the shown
measurement extended in Kalman
process,Figure
error 12a, although
filtering
quickly theafter
algorithm
converged measured
reduced
only athisvalues
few were affected
influence.
iterations. At the by
Figure
measurement showsnoise,
beginning
12b of the
the the extended
measurement
measurement Kalman
of the filtering
process,
errors errormethods.
two algorithm
quickly kreduced
converged
After = 5 s,after this
onlyinfluence.
the error a few
of At the
iterations.
the extended beginning
Figure
Kalman
12b shows
of thefiltering
measurement the measurement
algorithm was below
process, errors
0.5%.
error of
Thethetest
quickly two methods.
results
converged Afterthe
verified
after k =feasibility
only5 s,athe
fewerror of the
of the
iterations. extended
proposedFigure Kalman
model
12bfor
shows
battery
filtering pack monitoring
algorithm was circuit
below and
0.5%. the
The effectiveness
test results of the
verified insulation
the feasibility
the measurement errors of the two methods. After k = 5 s, the error of the extended Kalman filtering monitoring
of the algorithm
proposed based
model for
battery
on
algorithm waspack
extended monitoring
Kalman
below 0.5%. circuit
filtering.
The and
test the effectiveness
results verified theoffeasibility
the insulation monitoring
of the proposed algorithm
model forbased
battery
on extended
The key to Kalman filtering.
insulation monitoring is maintaining the accurate measurement of system insulation
pack monitoring circuit and the effectiveness of the insulation monitoring algorithm based on extended
The key
resistance to insulation
under external monitoring
interferenceis when
maintaining the accurate
the system measurement
is suffering of system insulation
from degraded insulation
Kalman filtering.
resistance under external interference when the system is suffering from degraded insulation
Energies 2017, 10, 714 11 of 13

The key to insulation monitoring is maintaining the accurate measurement of system insulation
resistance
Energiesunder
2017, 10, external
714 interference when the system is suffering from degraded11insulationof 13

performance. Therefore,
Energies 2017, 10, 714 during the second group of tests, a 20-KΩ resistor was connected11in parallel
of 13
performance. Therefore, during the second group of tests, a 20-KΩ resistor was connected in parallel
between the battery pack system and the vehicle chassis to simulate poor insulation resistance.
between the battery
performance. packduring
Therefore, systemthe
and the vehicle
second groupchassis
of tests,toasimulate poor insulation
20-KΩ resistor resistance.
was connected in parallel
between the battery pack system and the vehicle chassis to simulate poor insulation resistance.

(KΩ)(KΩ)
2080 Measured Value

Resistance
2080 EKF Value
Measured Value

Resistance
2040 Ideal Value
EKF Value
2040 Ideal Value
2000
Insulation
2000
Insulation
1960
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
1960 Time /s
0 (a)Battery
200 400 Pack600 800 Resistance
Insulation 1000 1200
4 Time /s
(%) (%)

(a)Battery Pack Insulation Resistance

Measured Error
4
Errors

2 EKF Error
Measured Error
Errors

2 EKF Error
Resistance

0
Resistance

0
-2
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
-2 Time /s
0(b)Error
200 Curves
400 of600 800 Resistance
Insulation 1000 1200
Time /s
Figure 12. Comparison and error (b)Error
analysisCurves of Insulation
of insulation Resistance(with 2 MΩ resistance). (a)
resistances
Figure 12. Comparison and error analysis of insulation resistances (with 2 MΩ resistance).
Comparison of
Figure 12. of insulation
Comparison resistances; (b) Error analysis of insulation resistances.
(a) Comparison insulationand error analysis
resistances; of insulation
(b) Error analysis resistances (with
of insulation 2 MΩ resistance). (a)
resistances.
Comparison of insulation resistances; (b) Error analysis of insulation resistances.
Figure 13a shows the measurement results of insulation resistance before and after adopting the
Figure
extended
13a showsfiltering
the measurement results ofininsulation resistance before and after adopting
FigureKalman algorithm. As
13a shows the measurement shown
results Figure resistance
of insulation 13b, the highest errorafter
before and of the extended
adopting the
the extended
extended
Kalman
Kalman filtering filtering
Kalman algorithm,
algorithm. As
which canAsreach
filtering algorithm.
shown
shown 30%, in Figure
was generated
in Figure
13b, the
13b, the during
highest
highest the
error
initial
error of the
of the
period extended
and
extended
Kalman filtering
stabilized
Kalman algorithm,
within
filtering 5%. which
However,
algorithm, can without
which reach 30%,
can reach was
the30%, generated
algorithm, theduring
was generated the initial
measurement
during period
the error
initial and stabilized
remained
period andat
withinstabilized
5%. However,
approximatelywithin without
20%. After
5%. the algorithm,
calculation,
However, without the
the root measurement
mean
the square error
algorithm, theerror
was remained
8823.66
measurement at approximately
Ω without
error the extended
remained at 20%.
Kalman filtering
After calculation,
approximately the and
root
20%. decreased
mean
After to 226.35
square
calculation, error
the Ωwas
root with
mean 8823.66
square Ω without
the extended
error was Kalmanthe filtering.
8823.66 Ω withoutTherefore,
extended Kalman
the the
filtering
extended
extended
Kalman Kalman
filtering filtering
and algorithm
decreased to mitigates
226.35 Ω the
with majority
the of the
extended error
and decreased to 226.35 Ω with the extended Kalman filtering. Therefore, the extended Kalman and
Kalman improves
filtering. measurement
Therefore, the
reliability.Kalman
extended Under filtering
the same experimental conditions,
algorithm theofextended Kalman filtering algorithm
filtering algorithm mitigates the majoritymitigates the majority
of the error and improves the error and improves
measurement measurement
reliability. Under the
significantlyUnder
reliability. improves the measurement
the same experimentalaccuracy
conditions,under thedegraded
extendedinsulation
Kalman performance while
filtering algorithm
same experimental conditions,
offering satisfactory
the
robustness.
extended Kalman filtering algorithm significantly improves the
significantly improves the measurement accuracy under degraded insulation performance while
measurement accuracy under degraded insulation performance while offering satisfactory robustness.
offering satisfactory robustness.
(KΩ)(KΩ)

31
29 Measured Value
Resistance

31
27
29 EKF Value
25 Measured Value
Resistance

27
23 Ideal Value
EKF Value
25
21
23 Ideal Value
Insulation

19
21
17
Insulation

19
15
17 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
15 Time /s
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
(a)Battery Pack Insulation Resistance
40 Time /s
(%) (%)

(a)Battery Pack Insulation Resistance

Measured Error
40
Errors

20 EKF Error
Measured Error
Errors

20 EKF Error
Resistance

0
Resistance

0
-20
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
-20 Time /s
0(b)Error
200 Curves
400 of 600 800 Resistance
Insulation 1000 1200
Time /s
Figure 13. Comparison and error(b)Error
analysisCurves of Insulation
of insulation Resistance(with 20 KΩ resistance). (a)
resistances
Comparison
Figure of insulationand
13. Comparison resistances; (b) Error
error analysis of analysis of insulation
insulation resistancesresistances.
(with 20 KΩ resistance). (a)
Figure 13. Comparison and error analysis of insulation resistances (with 20 KΩ resistance).
Comparison of insulation resistances; (b) Error analysis of insulation resistances.
(a) Comparison of insulation resistances; (b) Error analysis of insulation resistances.
Energies 2017, 10, 714 12 of 13

6. Conclusions
As seen from the results of the two groups of tests, when the vehicle was operated under complex
working conditions, the insulation resistance monitoring circuit exhibited strong performance in
mitigating interference regardless of the state of the system’s insulation resistance. Figures 12b and 13b
show that the extended Kalman filtering algorithm significantly improves the measurement accuracy
while offering satisfactory robustness under degraded insulation performance. After t = 50 s, the error
of the extended Kalman filtering algorithm was below 1.5%. However, without the algorithm, the
measurement error remained at approximately 20%. Compared with the high-voltage AC signal, the
low-voltage AC signal in this paper will not affect the safe use of the battery pack. Although the model
has several limitations (for example, this method will slightly increase storage space and computation
time), the experimental results show that the insulation monitoring circuit based on the extended
Kalman filtering algorithm is effective and significantly improves estimation accuracy and robustness.

Acknowledgments: This research is funded by the Key Tackling Item in Science and Technology Department
of Jilin Province (Grant No. 20150204017GX) and supported by Graduate Innovation Fund of Jilin University
(Project 2016076).
Author Contributions: Chuanxue Song and Yulong Shao conceived and designed the experiments; Yulong Shao
and Da Wang performed the experiments; Silun Peng analyzed the data; Fang Zhou and Cheng Chang contributed
analysis tools; Yulong Shao and Da Wang wrote the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References
1. Jiang, J.S.; Ji, H. Study of Insulation Monitoring Device for DC System Based on Multi-switch Combination.
In Proceedings of the 2009 Second International Symposium on Computational Intelligence and Design,
Changsha, China, 12–14 December 2009.
2. Li, C.S.; Luo, S.H.; Cole, C.; Spiryagin, M. An overview: Modern techniques of railway vehicle on-board
health monitoring system. Veh. Syst. Dyn. 2017, 55, 1045–1070.
3. Wu, Z.-J.; Wang, L.-F. A novel insulation resistance monitoring device for Hybrid Electric Vehicle.
In Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference, Harbin, China, 3–5 September
2008; pp. 1–4.
4. Wei, X.; Bi, L.; Sun, Z. A method of insulation failure detection on electric vehicle based on
FPGA. In Proceedings of the 2008 IEEE Vehicle Power and Propulsion Conference, Harbin, China,
3–5 September 2008.
5. Piao, C.; Cong, T. Study on isolation monitoring of High-voltage battery system. Appl. Mech. Mater. 2010,
44–47, 571–575.
6. Zhang, G.; Jiang, J.-C.; Zhang, W.-G.; Zhang, C.-P.; Zhou, X.-Y. Research on online insulation detection in
electric vehicle based on leakage current. J. Beijing Inst. Technol. 2011, 20 (Suppl. 2), 19–23.
7. Jingxin, L.; Zhiqiang, W.; Yanqiang, F.; Yunyan, W.; Jiuchun, J. Research on insulation resistance on-line
monitoring for electric vehicle. In Proceedings of the ICEMS 2005: 8th International Conference on Electrical
Machines and Systems, Nanjing, China, 27–29 September 2005; pp. 814–817.
8. Sepasi, S.; Ghorbani, R.; Liaw, B.Y. A novel on-board state-of-charge estimation method for aged Li-ion
batteries based on model adaptive extended Kalman filter. J. Power Sources 2014, 245, 337–344.
9. Chen, Z.; Li, X.Y.; Shen, J.W.; Yan, W.S.; Xiao, R.X. A novel state of charge estimation algorithm for lithium-ion
battery packs of electric vehicles. Energies 2016, 9, 15.
10. Xiong, R.; Gong, X.; Mi, C.C.; Sun, F. A robust state-of-charge estimator for multiple types of lithium-ion
batteries using adaptive extended Kalman filter. J. Power Sources 2013, 243, 805–816.
11. Barillas, J.K.; Li, J.H.; Gunther, C.; Danzer, M.A. A comparative study and validation of state estimation
algorithms for Li-ion batteries in battery management systems. Appl. Energy 2015, 155, 455–462.
12. Bressel, M.; Hilairet, M.; Hissel, D.; Bouamama, B.O. Extended Kalman filter for prognostic of proton
exchange membrane fuel cell. Appl. Energy 2016, 164, 220–227.
13. Laroche, E.; Sedda, E.; Durieu, C. Methodological insights for online estimation of induction motor
parameters. IEEE Trans. Control Syst. Technol. 2008, 16, 1021–1028.
Energies 2017, 10, 714 13 of 13

14. Mohamed, M.R.; Ahmad, H.; Abu Seman, M.N.; Razali, S.; Najib, M.S. Electrical circuit model of a vanadium
redox flow battery using extended Kalman filter. J. Power Sources 2013, 239, 284–293.
15. Hoffmann, N.; Fuchs, F.W. Minimal invasive equivalent grid impedance estimation in inductive-resistive
power networks using extended Kalman filter. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2014, 29, 631–641.
16. Barre, A.; Deguilhem, B.; Grolleau, S.; Gerard, M.; Suard, F.; Riu, D. A review on lithium-ion battery ageing
mechanisms and estimations for automotive applications. J. Power Sources 2013, 241, 680–689.
17. Maher, K.; Yazami, R. A study of lithium ion batteries cycle aging by thermodynamics techniques.
J. Power Sources 2014, 247, 527–533.
18. Nejad, S.; Gladwin, D.T.; Stone, D.A. A systematic review of lumped-parameter equivalent circuit models
for real-time estimation of lithium-ion battery states. J. Power Sources 2016, 316, 183–196.
19. Nikolian, A.; Firouz, Y.; Gopalakrishnan, R.; Timmermans, J.-M.; Omar, N.; van den Bossche, P.; van Mierlo, J.
Lithium ion batteries—Development of advanced electrical equivalent circuit models for nickel manganese
cobalt lithium-ion. Energies 2016, 9, 360.
20. Huria, T.; Ceraolo, M.; Gazzarri, J.; Jackey, R. High fidelity electrical model with thermal dependence
for characterization and simulation of high power lithium battery cells. In Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE
International Electric Vehicle Conference, Greenville, SC, USA, 4–8 March 2012.
21. Guo, X.; Kang, L.; Yao, Y.; Huang, Z.; Li, W. Joint estimation of the electric vehicle power battery state of
charge based on the least squares method and the Kalman filter algorithm. Energies 2016, 9, 100.
22. Wang, Y.J.; Zhang, C.B.; Chen, Z.H. An adaptive remaining energy prediction approach for lithium-ion
batteries in electric vehicles. J. Power Sources 2016, 305, 80–88.
23. Farmann, A.; Waag, W.; Sauer, D.U. Adaptive approach for on-board impedance parameters and voltage
estimation of lithium-ion batteries in electric vehicles. J. Power Sources 2015, 299, 176–188.
24. Seaman, A.; Dao, T.-S.; McPhee, J. A survey of mathematics-based equivalent-circuit and electrochemical
battery models for hybrid and electric vehicle simulation. J. Power Sources 2014, 256, 410–423.
25. Gong, X.; Xiong, R.; Mi, C.C. Study of the characteristics of battery packs in electric vehicles with
parallel-connected lithium-ion battery cells. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 2015, 51, 1872–1879.
26. Sepasi, S.; Roose, L.R.; Matsuura, M.M. Extended Kalman filter with a fuzzy method for accurate battery
pack state of charge estimation. Energies 2015, 8, 5217–5233.
27. Wang, L.M.; Cheng, Y.; Zhao, X.L. A LiFePO4 battery pack capacity estimation approach considering
in-parallel cell safety in electric vehicles. Appl. Energy 2015, 142, 293–302.

© 2017 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).