Unit -I 4-Marks TGPCET

Unit I – Assignment 1
Overview of Highway Engineering
1. Define Highway Engineering & Explain Scope & importance of road in India or characteristics of
Road transport
Highway engineering
➢ Highway engineering is a Branch of civil engineering that involves the planning, design,
construction, operation, and maintenance of roads, bridges, and tunnels to ensure safe and effective
transportation of people and goods.
Importance of Roads in India
➢ Roads are an integral part of transportation system. They facilitate, conveyance of people, goods,
raw-materials, manufactured articles etc. speedily and easily in the different parts of a country.
➢ They act as the only source of communication in regions of high altitudes i.e.in mountainous regions.
➢ They help in growth of trade and other economic activities. establishing contact between towns and
villages.
➢ They help in providing efficient distribution of agricultural products and natural resources all over
the country.
➢ They help in promoting the cultural and social ties among people living in different part of a country
and thus strengthen the rational unity.
➢ They Help in Providing improved medical facilities quickly to human being, especially to those who
live in rural areas.
➢ They Provide more employment opportunities.
➢ They help in maintaining better law and order in a country.
Characteristics/ Merits of road transport
➢ Provide door to door connecting
➢ Accumulate various types of vehicles at time.
➢ Regulated low capital investment for the government.
➢ Complete freedom to Road User.
➢ Particular for short distance.
➢ Feed to other modes of transportation.
➢ Construction & Maintenance of road transport is cheaper.
Demerits of road transport
➢ Not suitable for longer distance.
➢ Maintenance of road is more.
➢ It takes Time to Travel
2. Enlist Different Modes of Transportation
Different Modes of Transportation are as follows
➢ Road Transport ➢ Water Transport
➢ Rail Transport ➢ Air Transport
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 Unit -I 4-Marks TGPCET
3. Classification of Roads
Classification of road based on Material
Earthen roads Muroom roads Bituminous roads
Gravel roads WBM roads Concrete roads
Road Classification in India
The major plans evolved since 1943 to 2001 for the development of road networks in the country are
given below.
1. Nagpur Road Plan: The First 20-Year Road Development Plan (1943-1963).
2. Bombay Road Plan: The Second 20-Year Road Development Plan (1961-1981).
3. Lucknow Road Plan: The Third 20-Year Road Development Plan (1981-2001).
4. Explain Classification of road as per Nagpur Road Plan
In 1943, IRC (Indian Road Congress) classify Road as follows
The Nagpur Road plan classified roads in India based on location and Function into following five types
1. National Highway (NH)
2. State Highway (SH)
3. Major District Road (MDR)
4. Other District Road (ODR)
5. Village Roads (VR)
1) National Highways (N.H.): The main highways running through the length and breadth of the country
connecting major ports, foreign highways, capitals of states, large industrial and tourist places etc. are
known as National Highway.
2) State Highways (S.H.): The highways linking district headquarters and important cities within the state
or connecting them with National Highways or with Highways of the neighboring states are known as
State Highways.
3) Major District Roads (M.D.R.): The important roads within a district serving areas of production and
markets and connecting these places with each other or with the main highways are known as Major
District Roads.
4) Other District Roads (O.D.R.): The roads serving rural areas of production and providing them with
outlet to market centers, Tehsil headquarters, block development headquarters, railway stations, etc. are
known as Other District Roads.
5) Village Roads (V.R.): The roads connecting villages or group of villages with each other or with the
nearest road of higher category are known as Village Roads.
5. Explain Classification of road as per Third Development Plan
As per third Development Plan roads are classified into Three Categories
Primary System
➢ Express Way
➢ National Highway
Secondary system
➢ State Highway
➢ Major District Road
Tertiary system
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Unit -I 4-Marks TGPCET
➢ Other District Road
➢ village Road
6. Define Road Alignment & factor affecting Road alignment.
The position of center line of the Highway on the ground is called as Highway alignment. it is to be
carefully decided before the construction of Highway. while planning initial stages of Road.
Factor Affecting Road Alignment
Obligatory Points:
control points through which alignment has to pass and not to pass.
Traffic:
Origin and destination studies are conducted and desire lines are drawn
Geometric Design:
gradient, Radius, Sight Distance
Economy:
Balance In Cutting and Filling
Other consideration:
Drainage, hydrology, political, topography etc
Availability of labour & Material
7. Explain Ideal Requirement of Road Alignment
short-In between two terminal station the alignment should be as short It should provide economy in the
cost of construction and maintenance as possible.
Easy: The alignment should be easy for the operation of vehicles with easy gradient sand curves.
Safe: The alignment should be safe for traffic operation.
Economical: The alignment should be economical in its cost of construction, maintenance & traffic
operation.
Utility: The alignment should provide maximum utility by connecting important towns and villages.
Natural aspects: The alignment should pass through regions of natural beauty and scenery to have good
natural aspects.
8. Various Survey used in Highway construction
Before Finalizing any alignment of highway Project, Engineering survey are carried out
The Four Main type of survey are
➢ Map Study
➢ Reconnaissance Survey
➢ Preliminary Survey
➢ Final Location

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Unit -II` 16-Marks TGPCET

Unit II – Assignment 2
Geometric Design of highway
1. Draw neat sketch of Highway Embankment and Explain Component of Highway.

The Highway Design deals with visible element of highway such as side distance, intersection, alignment
etc. called a Geometric design of Highway.
In order to provide speed Safety and comfort to the road users proper Geometric design of the road is must
before its construction.
Various components of highway are as fallows
carriage way: The portion of Road way Constructed for movement of vehicular traffic is called as carriage
way or Pavement. the width of the carriage way depends upon the width of traffic length and number of
lanes. The carriage way for single lane up to 3.5 to 3.75m and for 2 lane it is 7m.
Shoulder: The portion of Roadway Between carriage way and side slope is called as shoulder. It is used for
giving working space to stop vehicles, it also used as an emergency road. It should be strong enough to Bear
the weight of fully loaded truck.
Side slope: The slope used for the stability of Road. proper side slope gives adequate stability to good
embankment It is also provided drainage gradient so that water will run off this surface to a drainage system.
Side Drain: providing for proper drainage
Road margin: The portion of land width either side of the Road way of a road are known as Road margin
such as shoulder, parking lane footpath, side slope.
Road boundary: At the initial level Before the construction of Highway government to takes this much
width.
Building line: Building line Determine extend of Building But cannot construct under this area, need to
keep This area free.
control line: line after /under which we can construct.
Formation Width: It is a sum of carriage way and shoulder.
Separators: which separates traffic into two parts, prevent head on collision between two vehicles moving
in opposite direction.
Kerb: The boundary between carriageway and footpath
Right of Way: The area of land acquired for the road along its alignment is called Right of way.
Borrow pit: the pit dug along the alignment of the road for using their material in road construction.

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2.Explain Design Speed & factor affecting Design speed.

The maximum safe speed of vehicles assumed for geometrical design of highway, at which safe and
comfortable driving can be done.
Factor affecting Design speed
➢ Types of highways ➢ Topography
➢ Condition of Road ➢ Sight distance required
➢ Nature & Intensity of traffic ➢ Importance of road
➢ Types of curves
3. Explain Types of Camber & its Importance.
Camber is a slope provided to the surface in a transverse direction to drain out the rain water from the road
surface, or camber is a raised portion of pavement provided to drain out the rain water. The center of camber
is called crown of road.
1) Parabolic camber
2) Straight or Slope camber
3) Composite camber
IRC specification range of camber
1in 60 for concrete
1in 50 for bitumen
1in 40 for WBM (water bound macadam)
1in 25for earthen road
1. Parabolic camber: It consists of a continuous curve either elliptical or parabolic. This type of camber is
preferred for roads used by fast-moving vehicles
2. Straight or Slope camber: It consists of two straight slopes from the edges joining at the center of the
carriageway. This type of camber is very simple and can be easily constructed.
3. Composite camber: It consists of two straight slopes from the edges with a parabolic or circular crown.
Importance of Camber or purpose of Providing camber
➢ To prevent the entry of water into the subgrade soil through pavement the Stability and the life of
pavement get adversely affected if the water enters in the subgrade.
➢ To prevent the entre of water into the bitumen pavement layer. continuous contact with water causes
separating of the bitumen from the Aggregate Resulting failure of pavement layer.
➢ To Remove the rainwater from the pavement surface as quickly as possible and as quid to allow the
pavement to get dry after the rain to avoid the skidding of the vehicle.
➢ To improve aesthetic Appearance of road.
4. Define gradient and its Type.
The rate of rise or fall of ground with respective to horizontal, is known as Gradient or the longitudinal slope
provided along the length of road, is known as Gradient.
Types of Gradients
1)Ruling gradient-The gradient which is commonly provided under normal condition is known as ruling
gradient.
2)Limiting gradient-The maximum gradient provided more than ruling gradient due Topography, is known
as limiting gradient.

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Unit -II` 16-Marks TGPCET

3)Exceptional gradient-The gradient provided in extraordinary situation (very short length road) is known
as exceptional gradient.
4)Floating gradient-The gradient provided such that vehicle will move with constant speed without
application of brakes or power, is known as floating gradient,
5)Minimum gradient -The minimum value of gradient provided for removal of water, is known as
minimum gradient.
6)Average Gradient - The average of both maximum and minimum gradient can be considered as average
gradient.
Factor Affecting Gradient
➢ Nature of traffic & ground ➢ Drainage required
➢ Type of road surface ➢ Safety required
5. Define Sight Distance
Distance along the center line of the road at which a driver has visibility of an object stationary or moving at
a specified height above the carriage way is known as sight Distance or Sight distance is the length of road
visible to the driver at any instant is known as sight distance.
Classification of sight distance:
1. Stopping side distance
Stopping sight distance (SSD) is the minimum sight distance available on a highway at any spot having
sufficient length to enable the driver to stop a vehicle traveling at design speed, safely without collision with
any other obstruction
OSD = Vt+v^2/2gf
Were,
V- velocity in m/s
t-time in sec
f- coefficient of friction
g- acceleration due to gravity in m/s^2
2. Overtaking sight distance
The minimum distance open to the vision of a vehicle to overcome the slow vehicle ahead, with safety
against the traffic of the opposite direction is known as overtaking side distance (OSD)

5. Define Super elevation & objects of providing super elevation.

The amount by which the outer edge of a curve on a road or railway is banked above the inner edge.
Object of providing Superelevation
➢ To counteract the centrifugal force.
➢ To help fast moving vehicle to negotiate curve path.
➢ To prevent damage to the road due to topography.
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Unit -II` 16-Marks TGPCET

➢ To ensure comfortable and safe movement on curve.

➢ To prevent skidding of vehicle due to overturn.
6. Define Extra widening.
Extra widening is the extra width that is given to the curve of the pavement during its construction.
Types of widening
1. Psychological widening
Wep = V / 9.5 √r
2.Mechanical widening
Wem = nl² / 2R
Were,
n=Number of lanes
l=Length of the curve
R=Radius of curve or curvature
Total extra widening formula is = Wep +Wem
= V/ 9.5 √r + nl² / 2R
7. Explain Curve its type & Necessity.
The Geometrical arc provided at change in alignment or gradient of road. Curves are provided to change the
direction of road in gradual way.
Types of Curves

Necessity of providing Curve

➢ To avoid excessive earthwork.
➢ To divert the road for avoid costly land.
➢ To align road to suit topography.
➢ To make gradients more comfortable.
➢ To keep driver alert as straight routes becomes monotonous.
8. Numerical on SSD
Calculate the stopping sight distance for two-way traffic in a single lane road. The design speed is 68
kmph. Assume reaction time of driver as 2.5 seconds. Coefficient of friction is 0.6. Brake efficiency is
50%.
Given: V = 68 kmph, t = 2.5 sec., n = 50 %, f = 0.6x50/100=0.3
Find: SSD =?
Solution: By formula of Stopping Sight Distance for one way traffic on a single lane road,
SSD = (0.278 V. t) + ((0.278 V)2 / 2 g . n)
SSD = (0.278 x 68 x 2.5) + ((0.278 x 68)2 / 2 x 9.81 x 0.3)
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Unit -II` 16-Marks TGPCET

SSD = 107.9m
Now to calculate SSD for two way traffic on a single lane road
SSD = 2 x 107.9
SSD =215.8. m
9. Numerical on OSD.
If V=100km/hr, then find OSD=?
Given
V=100km/hr
1) v=? In m/s 2) vb=? m/s 3) s= 0.7vb+6
v=V/3.6 =v-4.5 =0.7*23.27+6
=100/3.6 =27.77-4.5 =22.28m/s
=27.77 m/s =23.27m/s

4) T= a=A/3.6=1.92/3.6=0.53 5) t=2sec
=12.9s
Then find OSD=?
OSD =d1+d2+d3
=vb *t+2s+b+vT
=vb *t+2s+vbT+vT
=751.04m
10. Numerical on Super Elevation
Calculate the design speed of a vehicle on a horizontal curve having radius of 100m. with permissible
super elevation of 7%. Consider co efficient of friction 0.8.
Sol:
Super elevation = 7% =7/100= 0.07.
R = 100 m.
f = 0.8.
e + f =𝑉²/127 𝑅
0.07+ 0.18 =𝑉²/127 𝑋 100
V2 = (0.07+0.18) × (127 × 100)
= (0.25) × (12700)
= 3175
V = √3175
V = 56.34 km/hr.

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Notes by- Ms. Shweta S. Bhoyar
Unit-III 16-Marks TGPCET

UNIT-III
CONSTRUCTION OF ROAD PAVEMENT
16-MARKS
Pavement:

highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of processed

materials above the natural soil sub-grade, whose primary function is to distribute
the applied vehicle loads to the sub-grade.

Ideal Road Pavement Requirement

A good pavement should possess the following requirement,

 It should have required thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe
value on the sub-grade soil,
 It should be structurally strong to resist all types of stresses imposed upon it.
 To prevent the skidding of vehicles.
 It should have a sufficient coefficient of friction.
 Ensure less noise when the vehicle moving on it.
 It should be dust proof so that there is no danger of traffic safety.
 It must provide an impervious surface, so that sub-grade soil is well protected,
 It should offer low maintenance with long life.
 vehicles, Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at high speed,
Produce least noise from moving vehicles.
 Dust proof surface so that traffic safety is not impaired by reducing visibility,
 Long design life with low maintenance.
Types of Pavement
The following are two major pavement types used in road construction,
1. Flexible pavement
2. Rigid Pavement.
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Flexible pavement:
A typical flexible pavement consists of a bituminous surface course over base
course and sub-base course. The surface course may consist of one or more
bituminous or Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) layers. These pavements have negligible
flexural strength and hence undergo deformation under the action of loads.
The structural capacity of flexible pavements is attained by the combined action of
the different layers of the pavement.

In Flexible Pavement, wheel loads are transferred to sub-grade by grain-to-grain

transfer through the points of contact in the granular structure. The wheel load
stresses acting on the pavement are distributed to a larger area and the stress
decreases with the depth.
Rigid Pavement:
In the case of rigid pavement, vehicle loads are transferred to sub-grade soil by
flexural strength of the pavement and the pavement acts as a rigid plate (e.g.
cement concrete roads).
The load carrying capacity is mainly due to the rigidity and high modulus of
elasticity of the slab (slab action).

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Types of Rigid Pavements

Rigid pavements can be classified into four types,
 Jointed plain concrete pavement
(JPCP),
 Jointed reinforced concrete
pavement (JRCP),
 Continuous reinforced concrete
pavement (CRCP), and
 Pre-stressed concrete pavement
(PCP).
VARIOUS TEST FOR PAVEMENT DESIGN

Test on aggregates:

 Abrasion test,

 Impact test,

 Crushing strength test,

 Water absorption test &

 Soundness test

Tests on soil:

 Moisture content test.

 Atterberg limits tests.

 Specific gravity of soil.

 Dry density of soil.

 Compaction test (Proctor's test)

Tests on bitumen

 Penetration test.
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Unit-III 16-Marks TGPCET

 Ductility test.

 Softening point test.

 Specific gravity test.

 Viscosity test.

 Flash and Fire point test.

 Float test.

 Water content test.

Procedure of construction of WBM road

Construction Procedure:

(a) Preparation of Foundation: The foundation for receiving the layer of WBM
may be either the sub-grade or sub-base or base course. The depressions and pot
holes on the existing surface are filled up and the corrugations are removed.

b) Spreading of course aggregate: The course aggregate is spread uniformly on

the prepared base. The WBM course is normally constructed to compacted
thickness of 7.cm

c) Rolling: After spreading the course aggregates property, compaction is done by

a three wheeled power roller of capacity 6 to 10 alternatively by an equivalent
vibratory roller; the weight of the roller depends on the type of course aggregates.
The rolling is done until adequate compaction is achieved

d) Application of Screenings: After the course aggregates are rolled adequately,

the dry screenings are applied gradually over the surface to fill the interstices
(Voids) in three or more applications. Dry rolling is continued as the screenings are
being spread and blooming is carried out.

e) Sprinkling and Grouting: After the application of screenings, the surface is

sprinkled with water, swept and rolled. Wet screenings are swept into the voids
using hand brooms. Additional screenings are applied and rolled till the course

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Unit-III 16-Marks TGPCET

Merits of WBM Roads:

1) If in good condition, it can take a composite traffic of about 900 tones per lane
per day

2) If WBM surfacing is maintained properly, it is found to have good service for

along-time

3) Their initial cost is low.

4) They make use of the locally available materials.

Demerits of WBM Roads:

1) The maintenance cost is more.

2) If not maintained properly, then it causes inconvenience and danger to traffic.

3) They are permeable to rain water and it leads to the softening and yielding of
materials .

4) Life is less.

Procedure of construction of cement concrete pavement

Construction procedure of Concrete Roads:

1) Preparation of subgrade by proper compaction.

2) Provision of sub has to support subgrade.

3) Placing of forms ie. Steel channels.

4) Batching and mixing of materials in plant.

5) Transportation and placing of concrete through RMC vehicle.

6) Compaction of poured concrete using vibrators.

7) Floating of concrete using steel beam.

8)Edging of concrete for obtaining sharp edges.

9) Curing of road surface by ponding method .

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Unit-III 16-Marks TGPCET

10) Filling of joints using joint sealers.

11) Opening of traffic after cleaning.

Methods of construction of Cement Concrete Road.

There are the following two methods of construction

(1) Alternate bay method.

(2) Continuous construction method

Alternate bay method: In this method of construction, bays or slabs are

constructed in alternate succession (XYZ), leaving the intermediate bays (X’Y’Z’)
as shown in figure. These intermediate bays are constructed after a gap of at least
one week if ordinary. Portland cement is used and two days in the case when rapid
hardening cement is used.

This method is practicable and found useful when the proposed width of pavement
in more than 4.5 m. This method provides additional working convenience for
laying of slabs

Continuous Construction method: in this method of construction, all the bays or

slabs (PQRS) of strip are constructed continuously without any break as shown in
figure. In this method, construction joints are, however, provided when the day's
work is not ended at the specified joint. In addition to these, construction joints,
dummy joints are also provided at 5 m. intervals in the transverse direction to
check the planes of weakness and to control cracking. This method is generally
preferred as compared to alternate bay method because of its main advantage of

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Unit-III 16-Marks TGPCET

construction of half the pavement width at a time. Thus, the essential traffic can be
diverted on the other half of the road.

The materials which plays major role in highway construction are

a) Soil

b) Bitumen

c) Cement

d) Stone

e) Concrete

f)Sand Requirements

a) Soil:

i) It should be clean and coarse

ii) It should be free from any organic or vegetable matter

iii) It should be chemically inert.

v) It should not contain salts which attract moisture from the atmosphere.

vi) It should be well graded, it should contain particles of various sizes in suitable
proportions

vii) It should be strong and durable. (It should be clean and free from coatings of
materials)clay and silt.
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b) Bitumen:

i) The bitumen should not be highly temperature susceptible During the hottest
weather the mix should not become too soft or unstable

ii) During cold weather the mix should not become too brittle causing cracks

iii) The viscosity of the bitumen at the time of mixing and compaction should be
adequate. This can be achieved by use of emulsions of suitable grades

c) Cement:

i) The colour of cement should be uniformly Gray.

ii) It should be Free from Hard Lumps

Iii) It Should Not Contain Excess Silica, Lime, Alumina

Iv) It should feel Smooth

d) Stone:

i)Basalt Stone Also Known as Traps is commonly Used In Road Construction.

e) Concrete:

i) Road Wearing Surface consist of cement Concrete slab.

ii) Cement concrete road considered as most serviceable or rigid Road

f)Sand Requirements:

i) Uniform sand use in sub-base layers.

ii) Sand should be well graded

Tar and Bitumen

Asphalt, Bitumen and Tar are hydrocarbons, termed as bituminous materials.

Asphalt and bitumen are petroleum products, whereas tar is a dark colored product
collected from destructive distillation of organic substances like coal, wood or
bituminous rock .

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Different types of Tar used in construction of Road with its suitability.

The following are the types of Tar with their suitability.

1) RT1-It is suitable for painting road pavements under exceptionally cold weather.

2) RT2-It is suitable for painting road pavements under normal climatic conditions.

3) RT3-It is suitable for surface painting and renewal coats, premixed top course
and light carpets.

4) RT4-It is suitable for premixed macadam in base course.

5) RT5-It is suitable for grouting macadam.

IMPORTANT QUESTION

1. Ideal Road Pavement Requirement

2. Write the procedure of construction of WBM road with neat sketch showing
various components?

3. Write the procedure of construction of cement concrete pavement showing its

components?

4. State the methods of construction of Cement Concrete Road. Explain any one
method.

5. State different types of Tar used in construction of Road with its suitability.

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Unit-IV 14-Marks TGPCET

UNIT-IV
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING
14-MARKS
Traffic engineering :
Traffic engineering is a branch of Highway engineering that uses engineering techniques to
achieve the safe and efficient movement of people and goods on roadways.
Objective of Traffic Engineering:
The basic objective of traffic engineering is to achieve efficient, free and rapid flow of
traffic with least number of traffic accident.
 Traffic Characteristics:
Road Users:
Drivers of various types of vehicles and pedestrians are known as road user. They are
human being, hence affected by so many factors.
Vehicles:
A vehicle designed to legally carry people or cargo on public roads and highways such as
bus, cars, trucks. vans, and , motorcycles.
Road Condition:
Poorly maintained roadways cause accidents in a variety of ways, mostly due to the fact that
they create an enormous hazard to drivers.
Environment:
Rain and wet roads cause more car accidents and injuries than snow, sleet or fog. Most
weather related crashes happen on wet pavement when it rains.
Road User Characteristics
1. Physical Characteristic
2. Mental Characteristic
3. Psychological Characteristic
4. Environmental Characteristic

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Unit-IV 14-Marks TGPCET

PIEV Theory
Perception Time: Time Required to Send the Sensation to Brain by Eye & Ear.
Intellection Time: Time Required For the Driver to Understand the Situation.
Emotion Time: Time elapsed during emotional Sensation. Eg Fear, anger.
Volition Time: Time taken by the Driver for the final Action. Eg. Braking.
Vehicular Characteristics:
Static Characteristic
Dynamic Characteristic
SIGN & SYMBOL
TRAFFIC SIGNS
 Regulatory Sign or Mandatory Sign.
 Warning Sign or Cautionary Sign.
 Informatory Sign
The meaning of colors on road sign
Yellow: Yellow conveys a general caution message. Green: Green shows permitted traffic
movements or directional guidance.
Fluorescent yellow/green: Indicates pedestrian crossings and school zones.
Orange: Orange is used for warning and guidance in roadway work zones.
Red: The color red is used for signs that tell the motorists to stop or yield. The sign notifies
the driver to stop and proceed when it is safe.
Black / white: This color indicates enforceable laws, regulations, and ordinances.
Blue: Blue signs list motorist services. These signs guide you to places such as hotels, gas
stations, hospitals, eating places, picnic and campgrounds etc.
Brown: Brown color directs you to public recreational areas, national parks, historic points
of interest and scenic sites.

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Unit-IV 14-Marks TGPCET

 Passenger Car Unit (PCU):

Practically, the passenger car is considered as standard vehicle unit to convert the other
vehicle classes and this unit is called Passenger Car Unit
Factors affecting PCU values:
The PCU values of different vehicle classes depends upon following factors:
1) Dimensions of vehicles such as width and length.
2) Dynamic characteristics of vehicles such as power, speed, acceleration and braking
3) Transverse and longitudinal gaps or clearance between moving vehicles which depends
upon the speeds, driver characteristics and the vehicle classes at the adjoining spaces.
4) Traffic stream characteristics such as composition of different vehicle classes, mean
speed and speed distribution of the mixed traffic stream and volume to capacity ratio.
5) Roadway characteristics such as road geometry including gradient and curves, access
controls, rural or urban road, presence of intersections and the type of intersections
6) Regulation and control of traffic such as speed limit, one way traffic, presence of
different traffic control devices etc.
 Causes of Road Accidents:
The various causes of accidents may be listed as given below:
Due to Drivers: Excessive speed and rash driving, carelessness, violation of rules and
regulation, failure to see or understand the traffic situation, sign or signal, temporary effects
due to fatigue, sleep or effect of consuming alcohol.
Due to Pedestrians: Violating regulations, carelessness while using the carriageway meant
for vehicular traffic.
Due to Passengers: Alighting from or getting into moving vehicles
Due to Vehicle defects: Failure of brakes, steering system, or lighting system, tire burst
and any other defect in the vehicles.
Due to Road Condition: Slippery or skidding road surface, pot holes, nuts and other
damaged conditions of the road surface, temporary obstruction to line.
Due to Road Design: Defective geometric design like inadequate sight distance at sight
(caused by branch of tree or disabled vehicle) resulting in reduction in normal sight distance.

3
Notes by: Ms Shweta S. Bhoyar
Unit-IV 14-Marks TGPCET

horizontal or vertical curves, improper curve design, inadequate width shoulders, improper
lighting and improper traffic control devices.
Due to Traffic Condition: Other vehicles of the traffic stream, such as a vehicle moving
ahead getting involved in accident, presence of disabled vehicle on the Road.
Due to Weather: Unfavorable weather conditions like mist, fog, snow, dust, smoke or
heavy rainfall which restrict normal visibility and render driving unsafe.
Due to Animals: Passing or stray animals on the road.
Other causes: Incorrect signs or signals, gate of level crossing not closed when required,
ribbon development, badly located advertisement boards or service stations etc.
 Traffic Island:
The raised platforms of suitable shapes built on the road intersections are called traffic
islands.
Types of Traffic Island
i) Rotary or central island
ii) Channelizing island
iii) Refuse island
iv) Divisional island
Rotary Island:A Rotary island constructed in the centre of an intersection to compel
movement of traffic in clock wise direction.
The main objects of providing a rotary are to eliminate the necessity of topping even for
crossing streams of vehicles and to reduce the area of conflict
The crossing of vehicles is avoided by allowing all vehicles to merge into the streams
around the rotary and then to diverge out to the desired radiating road.
Types of Rotary Island
a) Circular Rotary Island
b) Squarish With Rounded Edge Rotary Island
c) Elliptical, elongated or Oval Shape Rotary Island
d) Rectangular shaped Rotary Island
4
Notes by: Ms Shweta S. Bhoyar
Unit-IV 14-Marks TGPCET

 Traffic Volume: It is the number of vehicles moving in a specified direction on a given

lane or roadway that pass a given point or cross section during specified unit of time
Traffic Volume =Traffic density x Traffic speed
Expressed as vehicle per hour
 Traffic Density: It is the number of vehicles occupying a unit length of lane of roadway
at a given instant usually
expressed as vehicles per km.
 TURNS AND CURVES
TURN and CURVE warning signs inform drivers of unexpected bends or turns in the road.
To determine if a sign is needed at a location, or which sign to use, road managers should
consider approach speed, posted speed, and advisory speed.
The approach speed is the speed at which vehicles normally travel on the road immediately
before the curve. It is the 85th percentile prevailing speed on the approach roadway.
Advisory speed is the maximum speed, rounded to the nearest 5 miles per hour, at which
vehicles can safely and comfortably travel through the curve or turn.
IMPORTANT QUESTION
1. List causes of Accident. Draw Collision diagram for Head-on-Collision.Causes of Road
Accidents:
2. Explain Rotary Island (Traffic Island) with a neat sketch.
3. Define Passenger Car Unit. Give factors affecting it.
4. Define PIEV Theory.
5. Draw various Regulatory Sign.
5
Notes by: Ms Shweta S. Bhoyar
Highway engineering
Unit 5-Hill Road
(10-Marks)
Q.1 Draw a typical cross-section of Hill Road and label all component parts. (2-Marks)
Ans:
The typical cross section of Hill Road with all component parts is as below

Components of Hill Road

• Parapet wall
• Breast wall
• Retaining wall
• Side drain
• Cross drain
• Catch water drain
Q.2 State two causes of Landslides. (2-Marks)
Ans:
1) Due to seepage pressure of percolating ground water.
2) Due to increase load of traffic.
3) Undermining caused by erosion.
4) Due to earthquakes.
5) Due to vibration, faults are formed in bedding plans of the strata.
6) Due to failure of a retaining wall or breast wall.

Q.3 Explain preventive measures that can be taken to avoid landslides in hilly area. (2-Marks)
Ans:
The preventive measures that can be taken to avoid landslide in hilly area:
The land slide cannot be prevented due to earthquakes, but landslides due to other causes can be prevented by
taking the following measures:
1) By providing efficient surface and cross drainage.
2) By providing sub-surface drains at foot of the hill slope to control seepage flow.
3) By providing benching to soil slope.
4) By reducing the angle of slope or providing breast walls and retaining walls.
5) By constructing buttress at toe of hill slopes.
6) By slope treatment to minimize the erosion and to improve the stability of hill slopes. This is done by
turfing, stone pitching, cement grouting etc.
7) By providing proper and effective drainage system to intercept and divert seeping water
8)By constructing buttress at toe and providing retaining structures
9) By providing slopes and their treatment to minimize the erosion
10) By providing soil stabilization
11) By reducing the angle of slopes
12) By stone pitching.
13) By providing nets.

Notes By -Ms Shweta Bhoyar

14) Chemical treatment.
15) Growth of vegetation on the slopes.
Q.4 Discuss the types and causes of landslides with neat sketch. (4-Marks)
Ans:
Types of landslides:
(1) Fall: It includes free fall and rolling of rocks and debris down the hill slope.
(2) Slide: It is the movement of slope forming materials along one or several surfaces down the hill slope. It
is caused due to finite shear failure of rocks.
(3) Flow: It is the movement of the slope forming materials within the displaced mass. The form taken by the
moving materials resembles to that of viscous fluid. In this case, the slip surface cannot be located.
(4) Complex land slide: It includes movement due to combined effect of tow or more types of landslides.
Causes of landslides: The following are the causes of landslide:
1) Due to increase in water content during rainy season.
2) Due to Hair-cracking due to alternate swelling and shrinkage of the soil mass.
3) Due to increase in load due to traffic or accumulation of snow on the road surface.
4) Due to removal of part of the mass by excavation and increase in slope angle.
5) Due to undermining caused by erosion.
6) Due to shocks and vibration caused by earthquake and nearby blasting or rocks.
7) Due to formation of faults in bedding planes of the strata due to vibrations.
8) Due to fissuring of pre-consolidated mass due to release of lateral pressure while
doing cutting of rocks.
9) Due to seepage pressure of percolating ground water.
10) Due to failure of retaining wall or breast wall.

Q.5 List various types of curves provided on Hill Roads.

Ans:
Types of curves provided on hill roads: -
1) Hair pin curves
2) Salient curves
3) Re-entrant curves

Q.6 Explain the types of hill road curve with neat sketch.
Ans:
Types of curves provided on hill road are as follow:
(1) Hair pin bend curve: The curve in a hill road which changes its direction through an angle of 180o or so,
down the hill on the same side is known as hair pin bend curve. This type of curve should be located on a hill
side having the minimum slope and maximum stability. It must also be safe from view point of landslides and
ground water. Hair pin bends with long arms and farther spacing are always preferred. They reduce
construction problems and expensive protection works.

(2) Salient curve: The curves having their convexity on the outer edges of a hill road are called salient curves.
The center of curvature of a salient curve lies towards the hill side. This type of curve occurs in the road length
constructed on the ridge of a hill. The bend so formed at the salient curve in a hill road is known as corner
bend. Salient curves are very dangerous for fast moving traffic. At such a curve or at corner bend, the portion
of projecting hill side is usually cut down to improve the visibility.
Highway engineering

(3) Re-entrant curve: The curves having their convexity on the inner edge of a hill road re called re-entrant
curves. The center of curvature of a re-entrant curve lies away from the hill side. This type of curve occurs in
the road length constructed in the valley of a hill. These curves are less dangerous as they provide adequate
visibility to the fast-moving traffic. At such curves, the parapet wall is provided only for safety of fast-moving
traffic.

Q.7 Draw neat sketch of Catch Water Drain

Q.8 Explain the necessity of providing catch water drain in Hill Roads.
Ans:
1) Catch water drains are provided to collect excessive rainwater in heavy rainfall regions i.e. in case of hill
roads.
2) These drains are useful to avoid large water flow reaching to hill road surface.
3) It helps to avoid landslides in hill roads.
4) It may be excavated natural rock section on hill top side which avoids erosion of soil along hill road.

Notes By -Ms Shweta Bhoyar

 Unit - 6
Drainage, Maintenance & road Repairs
(10-marks)
Q.1 State the types of drainage system
Ans:
In plain areas,
a) Surface Drainage b) Sub-surface Drainage
Surface Drainage: Side drains, Catch water basin, Inlet
Sub surface: Cross Drains, lateral drain, longitudinal drain, transverse drain
In Hilly areas,
a) Surface Drainage b) Sub-surface Drainage
a) Surface Drainage: Side drains, catch water drain
b) Sub surface drainage: Cross drains
Q.2 State the functions of surface drainage and sub-surface drainage.
Ans:
Function of Surface drainage The function of Surface drainage is to drain the water from the pavement
surface and the shoulders during the rains and to divert it to the road-side drains such that the entry of water
into the pavement layers and the subgrade soil is minimized.
Function of Sub-surface drainage:
The function of sub-surface drainage is to intercept the ‘seepage flow’ of water and divert the same away from
the roadway to the nearest water course. The sub-surface drainage system also helps in lowering the ground
water level well below the subgrade and in controlling the capillary rise of water.
Q.3 State the necessity of Good drainage
Necessity of good drainage:-
1) Road drainage is necessary to collect surface water in side drains and to keep road surface in dry condition.
2) It is also required to carry sub surface water away from sub layers in heavy rainfall regions
3) It helps to reduce occurrence of road defects due to rainwater and rise of groundwater
4) It is beneficial to minimize landslides and related undesirable effects.
5) It increases load carrying capacity due to dry condition and maintained density of sub layers
6) It also results a good durable road with lesser maintenance as well.
Q.4 Justify the remedial measures for the following defects in earthen road:
i) Formation of dust during dry weather
ii) Growth of vegetation inside drains and their silting up
Ans:
i) Formation of dust during dry weather:
The dust nuisance may be remedied by the following methods:
Frequent sprinkling of water
Treatment with calcium chloride
Use of other dust palliatives
Use of other material like tar, oil etc.
ii) Growth of vegetation inside drains and their silting up:
The growth of vegetation inside drains should be regularly cleaned either manually or by using machines in
order to increase the capacity of the flowing water in the drain. Silting up of weeds, plants, bushes etc. causes
obstruction in the flow of water

Q.5 Justify the remedial measures for following defects :

(i) Formation of pot holes in case of WBM roads.
(ii) Formation of ruts in case of earthen roads.
Highway engineering
(iii) Bitumen bleeding in case of bituminous roads.
Ans:
The cross section of hill road is shown below:
i) Formation of pot holes in case of WBM roads :
The pot holes should be patched up by.
(1) Cutting the defective area to rectangular shape and removing the loose stones up to the affected depth.
(2) Filling up the prepared area with coarse aggregate of the same size.
(3) Watering and compaction by rammer or road roller.
(4) Application of wet soil binder to fill up the interstices and compaction.
(ii) Formation of ruts in case of earthen roads
The remedial measure is quite simple.
(1) Cleaning the affected area and light watering.
(2) Filling the rut using selected earth.
(3) Watering and compaction by rolling.
(4) Checking of camber for efficient drainage.
(iii) Bitumen bleeding in case of the bituminous roads : If the surfacing consists of excessive bitumen, the
surface become slippery during rainy season and bleed during hot weather. Bleeding normally occurs just after
the construction of the road. For bleeding the Surface treatment is remedy. Bleeding can easily be corrected
by spreading a layer of dry coarse sand in a thickness varying 5 mm to 10 mm and rolling the surface.
Q.6 State the classification of highway maintenance.
Ans:
Classification of highway maintenance: -
1) Routine repairs
2) Periodic repairs
3) Special repairs
4) Resurfacing
5) Special repairs to monsoon damage
6) Repair to bridge and culverts
Q.7 Discuss the causes of failure in flexible and rigid pavement.
Ans:
Causes of failure in flexible pavement:
The following are the causes of failure in flexible pavement:
1) Ineffective road surface drainage system such as, (i) inadequate cross slope of the pavement surface or
shoulders and (ii) inadequate longitudinal slope of the road side drains, which result in the stagnation of water
on the shoulders or on the pavement surface on some road stretches.
2) Blockage or silting up of longitudinal and cross drains resulting in stagnation of ater on the road.
3) Inadequate sub-surface drainage system or improper functioning of the drainage GSB layer, leading to
stagnation of water on the subgrade or within any of the pavement layers and resultant damages to the
pavement layers.
4) Environmental factors including heavy rainfall, soil erosion, high water table, snow fall, frost action, etc.
5) Inadequate compaction of embankment, subgrade or any of the pavement layers or settlement of
embankment foundation itself, which could result in settlement of the supporting layers of the pavement
resulting in damage to the roadway.
6) Defects in construction method and quality control during construction.
7) Defects in the quality of materials used in any of the pavement layers.
8) Increase in the magnitude of wheel loads and the number of load repetitions or passage of excessively
overloaded commercial vehicles, exceeding the design values.

Causes of failure in Rigid pavement:

The following are the causes of failure in rigid pavement:
1) Defective drainage system may lead to failures in rigid pavements such as mud pumping, unless preventive
measures are taken up at the design and construction stages.
2) Use of nondurable materials which start deteriorating during weathering cycles.

Notes By -Ms Shweta Bhoyar

3) Improper alignment of dowel bars may lead to stress concentration and cracking near the joints.
4) Structural inadequacy of the pavement structure consisting of the cement concrete (CC) pavement slab,
sub-base and subgrade, with respect the actual loading conditions to which the pavement is being subjected
to.
5) Inadequate compaction of embankment or subgrade or settlement of embankment foundation itself, which
could result in settlement of the supporting layers of the rigid pavement; these may lead to opening up of the
joints or even non-uniform settlement of the pavement slabs resulting in deterioration in riding quality.

Q.8 Define Defects in Roads

Ans:
Warping Buckling Resurfacing
Spalling of Joints Corner cracking Surface Treatment:
Alligator Crack:
Alligator cracking is the cracking that is associated with load
and structural distresses.
These cracks are extensively found at intersections where the
vehicles are stopped for a relatively long period because these
cracks start to form when the sub-grade and base compress
due to the excessive imposed wheel load.

Pot Holes:
A pothole is a large hole in the surface of a road, caused by
traffic and bad weather. A pothole is a deep hole in the ground.
Potholes often lead to underground caves and tunnels.

Raveling:
Raveling is the
phenomenon of
aggregate loss from a surface course, initiated by the failure of the
mastic bridges between the aggregates, as illustrated in Fig. 1. The
direct cause of failure is the action of shear forces due to traffic.
Mud pumping:
Mud pumping is recognized when the soil slurry ejects out through the
joints and cracks of cement concrete pavement caused by the downward
movement of the slab under the heavy wheel loads.

Wave & Corrugation: The formation of ripples or

waves on the flexible pavement generally perpendicular
to the traffic flow is called corrugation or wash boarding.
It occurs at the points where traffic starts and stops.
Ruts:
A rut is a permanent, longitudinal surface depression that
occurs in the wheel paths of a flexible pavement due to the
passage of traffic.