Traffic Signal by Webster Method

A
MAJOR PROJECT
REPORT
ON
DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL AT

SIGNALIZED JUNCTION
In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
In
CIVIL ENGINEERINNG
By
JAGTHAY JATIN KARTHIK (19845A0128)
MAKAM SURYA KIRAN (19845A0138)

SYED SHABBIR (19845A0157)
Under the esteemed guidance of
Dr.A. MAHESH BABU
(Professor, Civil Department)
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
AURORA’S TECHNOLOGICAL AND RESEARCH
INSTITUTE
(Affiliated to JNTU, Hyderabad & approved by AICTE, New
Delhi) (Accredited by NAAC with ‘A’ Grade)
Parvathapur, Uppal, Hyderabad 500098
(2021-22)
AURORA'S TECHNOLOGICAL & RESEARCH INSTITUTE
(Affiliated to JNTU, Hyderabad)
(Accredited by NAAC with ‘A’ Grade)
Parvathapur, Uppal, Hyderabad-500098
(2021-22)
DECLARATION
We hereby declare that the work described in this project, entitled “DESIGN AND
ANALYSIS OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL AT SIGNALIZED JUNCTION” which is
being
submitted by us in partial fulfillment for the award of bachelor of technology in CIVIL
ENGINEERING to AURORA’S TECHNOLOGICAL AND RESEARCH
INSTITUTE is the result of investigation carried by me under the guidance of
Dr.A.MAHESH BABU, Professor, Civil Department.
The work is original and has not been submitted for any degree of this or any other
university.
Plac: Hyderabad
Date:
Jagthay Jatin karthik

(19845A0128) Makam Surya
Kiran (19845A0138) Sayed
shabbir (19845A0157)
AURORA'S TECHNOLOGICAL & RESEARCH INSTITUTE
(Affiliated to JNTU-HYD)
Parvathapur, Uppal,
Hyderabad- 500098
(2021-22)
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the major project report entitled “DESIGN AND
ANALYSIS OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL AT SIGNALIZED JUNCTION” that is being
submitted by (J.JATIN KARTHIK, M.SURYA KIRAN, SYED SHABBIR) in partial
fulfillment for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of Technology in CIVIL
ENGINEERING to the Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University is a record of
bonafide work carried out bythem under my guidance and supervision.
Date:
INTERNAL GUIDE HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

Dr.A.MAHESH BABU Mr. P. VENU MADHAV
Professor Sr.Asst.Professor
PROJECT COORDINATOR DIRECTOR

Mrs. G. SIVAPAVANI Mr. SRIKANTH JATLA
Asst.Professor
EXTERNAL EXAMINER
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First and foremost, praise and thanks goes to our God for the blessing that has been
bestowed upon us in all our endeavors.
We would like to take this opportunity to thank our parents and our sister and brother
fortheir unconditional love, moral support, and encouragement for the timely completion
of this project.
We would also like to express our gratitude to Mr. J. SRIKANTH JATLA,
Director, Aurora’s Technological and Research Institute, for providing us congenial
atmosphere and encouragement.
We extend our sincere thanks to the Head of the Civil Engineering Department
Mr.P.VENU MADHAV, for his advice and unyielding support over the year.
We profoundly thank DR.A.MAHESH BABU (Professor) who has been an

excellentguide and a great source of inspiration to our work.
It gives us a great pleasure to express our deep sense of gratitude and indebtedness to
ourproject coordinator Mr. S.VISHWANATH, for his valuable support and
encouraging mentality throughout the project. We are highly obliged to him for
providing us the opportunity to carry out the ideas and work during our project and
helping us to gain successful completion of the project.
We also express our thanks to all lecturers and office staff, Aurora’s Technological
andResearch Institute, Uppal, for their instant help whenever required.
We also express our thanks to our classmates and friends giving us moral support
and encouragement during the course of our work.
PROJECT ASSOCIATES
Jagthay Jatin Karthik

(19845A0128) Makam Surya
Kiran (19845A0138) Syed Shabbir
(19845A0157)
ABSTRACT
Traffic volume studies are conducted to determine the number, movements, and
classifications of roadway vehicles at a given location. These data can help to identify
critical flow time periods, determine the influence of large vehicles or pedestrians on
vehicle traffic flow. The length of the sampling period depends in the type of count being
taken and the intended use of the data recorded. Webster method is a rational approach for
signal design. The design is simple and is totally based on formulas laid down by Webster,
in this method, the total cycle of the signal is determined which forms a total least delay
occurring at signal.
Signal timing involves deciding how much green time the traffic lights shall
provide at an intersection approach. How long the pedestrian walk signal should be, and
many numerous other factors. The design of traffic signal nowadays has become an
important factor for major intersections of towns and cities. Traffic signal controls the
movement of traffic and not only reduces accidents but enables the road safety users to
effectively use the area of road at intersection. The important parameters in the planning,
design and control of a signalized intersection are saturation flows, lost times and
passenger car units (PCU).
Keywords — Signal Design, Webster method, Traffic control, PCU, Intersection,

Simulation, Traffic field studies.
List of Contents
Chapters Page No.
1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Journals 3-6
2.2 Overview 7
2.3 Objectives 8
2.4 Terminology 8
3 METHODOLOGY
3.1 Websters method 10
3.1.1 study magnitude 11
3.1.2 Traffic Flow 12
3.1.3 Types of traffic surveys 14
3.2 Method of traffic survey counting 14
3.2.1 Manual method 14
3.2.1.1 Manual Count Classifications 17
3.2.2 Automatic method 18
3.2.2.1 Automatic traffic counting equipment 18
3.2.3 Examples of traffic volume count studies 22
3.2.4 Factors affecting the counting 23
3.2.5 Counting procedures 25
3.3 Traffic signals 28
3.3.1 Types of signals 30
3.3.2 Operations 32
3.3.3 Traffic Signal Components 34
3.3.4 Traffic signal timing 35
4 DATA COLLECTION
4.1Passenger Car Unit 36
4.1.1 Factors affecting PCU values 37
4.2 Steps for taking traffic data 38
4.4 Study area 40
4.5 Data analysis 41
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS 59
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 60
REFERENCES 61
List of Figures
Fig No. Figures Name Page No.
3.1 Mechanical Counting Machine 16

3.2 Electronic Counting Boards 16
3.3 Portable Counters 19
3.4 Inductive loops 20
3.5 Intersection Count’s 22
3.6 Typical Straight Road 26
3.7 Urban Road 27
3.8 A Typical Single Carriageway Rural Road 27
3.9 A Dual Carriageway 28
3.10 Traffic Signal 29
3.11 CCTV on Roads 34
3.12 Traffic Signal Components 34
4.1 Barkatpura Junction 40
4.2 Morning Peak hour PCU values Road 1 41
4.6 Evening Peak hour PCU values Road 1 47
4.10 Non peak hour PCU values Road 1 52
List of Graphs
Graph No. Graph Name Page No.
1 Approach volume on roads at morning peak hour 44

2 Approach volume on roads at evening peak hour 50
3 Approach volume on roads at non peak hour 55
List of Charts
Chart No. Chart Name Page No.
1 Morning Peak hour Traffic Signal timing 46

2 Evening Peak hour Traffic Signal timing 51
3 Non Peak hour Traffic Signal timing 56
List of Table
Table No. Table Name Page No.
1 Passenger car unit 37

Design And Analysis of Traffic Signal at Signalized Junction
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
The city of Hyderabad is one of the fastest growing metropolitan cities with a decadal
growth rate of 32%. The urban agglomeration of Hyderabad spread over an area of 650sq. km
which comprises Hyderabad, and twelve other municipal entities surrounding it.Regionally,
Hyderabad lies on the convergence of national highways, state highways, rail routes and air
routes which link it’s with other metropolitan centre’s and key centers of importance in the
country. The city is experiencing rigorous changes in its infrastructure which is due to rapid
urbanization, service-oriented activities and industrial development. This indicates a potential
demand for investment in transport infrastructure. Such need-based developments include
determination of the required capacity expansion, provision of additional road
infrastructure, improvement of existing roads, prioritization of different development phases
and forecasting of which is possible upon collection of traffic data. This is done in order to
eliminate bottlenecks in both international and local inter-urban road transport towards
providing an efficient and effective road transport system. The techniques used have become
almost standard in both developing and developed countries. The accuracy of traffic data
collection and the subsequent predictions are of paramount importance in the fulfillment of an
appropriate planning, design, maintenance monitoring and management of the road network.
In the past, routine collection of traffic data in this country was not considered important
forthe development and management of the road network. In the early 1970’s it was realized
that a wide variety of information is required in respect of traffic characteristics for proper
maintenance, planning, design, maintenance and management of the national road network.
This realization emanated from concerns raised with regard to the amount of traffic, the
composition of the different types of vehicles, their speed, and total gross weight, number of
axles, axle loads and origin and destination of the journeys. Most of this information result in
assessment of progressive or rapid deterioration of the road network towards estimating
additional cost required to sustain it. As a result, attempts are now being made to adopt
suitable road traffic methodologies for conducting road traffic surveys, which are both
technically and scientifically sound, and operationally convenient to execute under the
DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, Page

country’s prevailing conditions. This includes the use of both manual and automatic traffic
counters, together with computer analysis of the collected traffic data. During the planning,
design, construction and maintenance period of the road network, traffic data becomes an
essential element in decision-making, and therefore the format and the accuracy of data
collection and analysis is critical. Most of the urban roads in Hyderabad are static in behavior
during peak hours. This is leading to traffic congestion and in-turn to endless transportation
gridlocks which has a direct impact on economy. It is with this view that this guideline on
traffic data collection and analysis has been prepared.

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 JOURNALS
M. Bhagyaiah, B. Shrinagesh (2011)
Globalization and urbanization has increased the vehicles since last 10 years has put lot of
pressure on the existing roads and ultimately resulting in road accidents. It is estimated that
since 2001 there is an increase of 202 percent of two wheeler and 286 percent of four wheeler
vehicles with no road expansion. Motor vehicle crashes are a common cause of death,
disability and demand for emergency medical care. Globally, more than 1 million people die
each year from traffic crashes and about 20–50 million are injured or permanently disabled.
There has been increasing trend in road accidents in Hyderabad over a few years. GIS
helps in locating the accident hotspots and also in analyzing the trend of road accidents in
Hyderabad.
Udit Batra, Mandar V.Sarode (2013)
Rapid Industrialization and the consequent urbanization have brought about an unprecedented
revolution in the growth of motor vehicles all over the world and India is no exception. This
created scope for increase in travel and transportation analysis. The growing urbanization,
combined with rising number of vehicle ownership, has led in recent years to an increased
demand of traffic survey and analysis, for both long term and short term period. Traffic
analysis is basically the process of intercepting and examining the number of vehicles on the
road and deducing the pattern of traffic moment.
Dr Awari Mahesh Babu (2017)
Road traffic delay and overcrowding have become recurrent problems worldwide. This is
mainly since transportation growth is sluggish compared to increase in quantity of vehicles,
owing to gap and expenditure restriction. Traffic being non-lane based and disordered, is
mainly unusual with different types of vehicles. Metropolitan region roads are under mixed
traffic conditions. The road user physiological behavior also causes delay and congestion.

Adepu Ramesh, Kumar Molugaram (2018)
In our country traffic flow is heterogeneous and is governed by traffic characteristics as driver
behavior, road geometry etc. Increase in traffic volume and limited road way width should be
promptly addressed by traffic engineers who shall provide solutions which shall be more
competent than traditional signalized designs. The recommendations suggested by the traffic
engineer for improving signalized intersection shall be less expensive than providing
interchanges. Metropolitan cities like Hyderabad are also experienced with delay and
congestion due to ineffective traffic signal operation. Non lane based traffic behavior,
varying pavement width and
driver characteristics are a few reasons for delay and congestion on our city roads.
Improvement in the above context can be achieved through lane prioritization, alternative
routes etc. These improvements will certainly reduce the impact on fuel consumption,
improves safety and Level of Service at signalized intersection.
Samrat Mukhopadhyay, Pramod M.J (2015)
Mixed vehicular traffic comprising small cars and two-wheeled vehicles arrive at a lane of a
signalized road intersection. The traffic does not follow lane-discipline, in that the arriving
vehicles do not necessarily queue up one behind the other. The motorcycles are small
enoughto stand side-by-side with cars or other motorcycles, so as to fill up the width of
the lane. With such queue joining behavior, the waiting vehicles form batches, comprising
motorcycles and at most one car. During the green signal period the vehicles in the head-of-
the-line batch exit the intersection together. In this paper, assuming a Poisson point process
model for vehicle arrivals, we have provided an approximate analysis of such a queuing
system. Our approach is to use an assembly queue model for the batching process. The
batches generatedby the assembly queue enter an interrupted M/Semi Markov/1 (or M/SM/1)
queue. By analyzing the assembly queue we characterize the batch input process for the
interrupted M/SM/1 queue. We then develop an extension of the Webster mean delay formula
for obtaining the approximate mean delay in the interrupted M/SM/1 queue. Numerical results
from the analysis are compared with simulation.

Arpita Saha, Satish Chandra (2017)
Delay caused to an individual vehicle at a signalized intersection is a performance measure to

assess the level of service. While dealing with delay in Indian traffic conditions, researchers
generally opt for either the U.S. Highway Capacity Manual (HCM) or Webster’s delay
model. However, these models, developed on the basis of homogeneous traffic conditions,
yield erroneous results for developing countries where the traffic is highly heterogeneous
with almost no lane discipline. In this context, the present study presents an improved delay
model for signalized intersections under heterogeneous traffic conditions. The proposed
model has been developed by modifying the existing HCM model on the basis of traffic data
collected from seven four-legged signalized intersections across the country. Measured queue
length was plotted with time and Simpson’s one-third rule was used to estimate the total
delayin a cycle and average delay per vehicle. The proposed model is validated by using the
data of eight other intersections and the maximum difference between the observed delay and
estimated delay is found to be less than 5%.
K Shashi Kumar, R Ramu, Dr. R Srinivasa Kumar (2015)
The traffic performance of a roadway network is greatly influenced by the traffic flow
through intersections. Many types of traffic control are being used worldwide at intersections;
including yield signs, stop signs, roundabouts, and signals. Transportation is an infrastructure
facility for the economic, social, cultural and administrative development of a nation. But in
order to see that interaction materialize in practice, a provision of suitable transportation
system is imminent. Queuing theory and other mathematical relationships that had been used
in most of earlier studies to estimate delay to vehicles at intersections.
N. I. Prajapati (2017)
Road transportation have more significant than other (Rail, Air, Water) tradition transpiration
facility in India. India has second largest road network across the world at 4.7 million km.
This road network transports more than 60 per cent of all goods in the country and 85 per
centof India’s total passenger traffic. Road transportation has gradually increased over the

yearswith the improvement in connectivity between cities, towns and villages in the country.
Along with the increasing in vehicle population is also encountered. India is now suffering
from complex problem of highly increasing vehicle population and that resulting in other
transpiration problems like congestion, travel time delay, accidents etc. The specific purposes
of this research is to identify Level of service and locations of delays to determine the
significant factors causing these delays by using Floating car method, license plate method
and GPS method to make recommendations for improving the flow of traffic. Travel time
data was collected by license plate method and by GPS during morning and evening peak
hours on each stretches simultaneously.

Design And Analysis of Traffic Signal at Signalized
2.2 OVERVIEW
In order to facilitate the assessment of present and future traffic demands, for the
development of need-based infrastructure accurate information and continuous monitoring of
traffic by appropriate methods is necessary. Implementing authorities must therefore ensure
that sufficient and appropriate data is available to undertake necessary planning, design,
construction and maintenance of the country’s road network, which is aimed at meeting the
prevailing traffic flow, future traffic growth and loading without considerable deterioration in
the quality of service. This guideline has therefore been prepared with the main aim being to
provide basic information, concept and principles with respect to traffic data collection and
analysis. There are various methods of data collection available and used by different
organizations/institutions. This, therefore, is only intended to provide guidance in respect of
data collection and analysis, and allows for variation in the methodologies adopted by
different users, planners, developers, funding authorities.
Traffic volumes approaching signalized intersections are classified into four groups:
Motorized two-wheeler, Car, Bus, and Other vehicles. A system of signalized intersections
is a critical element in the smooth operation and control of traffic streams in a transportation
network. Vehicles approaching a signalized intersection and stopping at the stop line during
red lights produce traffic delays. Traffic delays at signalized intersections increase travel
time, travel costs, as well as reduce speeds of vehicles. The increase of delay may bring
about air and noise pollution. The ability to quantify vehicle delays at signalized intersections
accurately is, therefore, a critical and important component in planning, designing and
analyzing traffic signal controls.
DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, Page 7

2.3 OBJECTIVES
Aim of this project is to study traffic condition of the selected route in Barkatpura X roads,
which will eventually help in improving traffic control and convenience of the users of the
route.
The objectives that help to reach the goal of the project are as follows:
 Traffic volume study of the route & Vehicle composition
 Difference in traffic volume during peak hours and normal hours/ Traffic volume
variations
 Travel time study
 To identify required improvement/modification
 To provide solutions & suggestions for better traffic control and convenience ofusers.
2.4 TERMINOLOGY
A number of definitions and notations need to be understood in signal design. They are
discussed below:
• Cycle: A signal cycle is one complete rotation through all of the indications provided.
• Cycle length: Cycle length is the time in seconds that it takes a signal to complete one full
cycle of indications. It indicates the time interval between the starting of green for one
approach till the next time the green starts. It is denoted by C.
• Interval: It indicates the change from one stage to another. There are two types of intervals
- change interval and clearance interval. Change interval is also called the yellow time
indicates the interval between the green and red signal indications for an approach.
• Green interval: It is the green indication for a particular movement or set of movements
andis denoted by Gi. This is the actual duration the green light of a traffic signal is turned on.
• Red interval: It is the red indication for a particular movement or set of movements and is
denoted by Ri. This is the actual duration the red light of a traffic signal is turned on.
• Phase: A phase is the green interval plus the change and clearance intervals that follow it.
Thus, during green interval, non-conflicting movements are assigned into each phase. It
allows a set of movements to flow and safely halt the flow before the phase of another set of

movements start.
• Lost time: It indicates the time during which the intersection is not effectively utilized for
any movement. For example, when the signal for an approach turns from red to green, the
driver of the vehicle which is in the front of the queue will take some time to perceive the
signal (usually called as reaction time) and some time will be lost before vehicle actually
moves and gains speed.

CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
The equations developed by Webster in his famous 1958 report are still the basis of traffic
signal planning today. They are being used in handbooks like the HCM and similar
instruments world-wide. However, the handbook approach typically works with
approximations to the original equations which have stood the test of time, but may
nevertheless not be the best to be done today. This work analyzes Webster’s approach and
advocates a more modern use of it which utilizes the tremendous advances in computer
hardware and software. This is being done by comparing approximations to exact solutions,
and by a comparison between various models and Webster’s equations itself. It is shown that
there can be significant differences in the calculation of optimal cycle times and consequent
delay times.
Webster published his famous report in which the working of a fixed cycle traffic signal is
analyzed in depth. Especially the formula for the optimum cycle time of an n-phase
intersection is still used in every day’s work and is put into handbooks like the Highway
Capacity Manual and similar works. A large amount of research has been put into the
comparison of Webster’s equations with micro-simulation tools and to comparing them to
real data and into the theoretical description of what happens at a signal controlled
intersection. Nevertheless, there are still open questions in this field, a few of them will be
highlighted in the current study. In this study we compare Webster’s theory with results
obtained from a micro-simulation model. The deterministic model by Webster fits fairly well
with a host of different deterministic modeling approaches. For the stochastic part, however,
differences between theory and simulation reality have been found. It is shown that there can
be significant differences
in the calculation of the optimal cycle times and the resulting delay times.
3.1 Webster’s Method of Traffic Signal Design

It has been found from studies that the average delay and the overall delay to the vehicles
at a signalized intersection vary with the signal cycle length. The average delay per vehicle is
high when the cycle length is very less, as a sizable proportion of vehicles may not get cleared

during the first cycle and may spill over to subsequent cycles. As the signal cycle time is
increased, the average delay per vehicle decreases up to a certain minimum value and
thereafter the delay starts increasing, indicating that there is an ‘optimum signal cycle time’
corresponding to least overall delay. The optimum cycle time depends on the geometric
details of the intersection and the volume of traffic approaching the intersection from all the
approach roads during the design hour. Webster’s method of traffic signal design is an
analytical approach of determining the optimum signal cycle time, corresponding to
minimum total delay to all the vehicles at the approach roads of the intersection.
The field work consists of determining the following two sets of values on each approach
road near the intersection:
(I) the normal flow, q on each approach during the design hour and
(ii) the ‘saturation flow’, S per unit time.
The normal flow values, and on roads 1, 2 and 3 are determined from field studies conducted
during the design hour or the traffic during peak 15 – minute’s period. The saturation flow of
vehicles is determined from careful field studies by noting the number of vehicles in the
stream of compact flow during the green phases and the corresponding time intervals
precisely. Based on the selected values of normal flow, the ratio and are determined on the
approach roads 1, 2 and 3. In the case of mixed traffic, it is necessary to covert the different
vehicle classes in terms of suitable PCU values at signalized intersection; in case these are not
available they may be determined separately. The normal flow of traffic on the approach
roads may also be determined by conducting field studies during off – peak hours to be
design different sets of signal timings during other periods of the day also, as required so as to
provide different signal settings.
The optimum signal cycle time is given by relation, Where L = total lost time per cycle,
i.e., 2n + R, n = is the number of phases, R = all red time or red amber time, Y = Here,
and Then, Similar procedure is followed when there are more number of signal phases.
3.1.1 Study Magnitude
 Time of the day
The traffic flow was seen varying during the peak hours and the non peak hours. The peak
hours (8:30AM to 10:00AM and 5:30PM to 7:30PM) were taken into consideration for the

recording of the maximum traffic movements. The peak hours are defined by the buses office
going people, shopkeepers, school and college going people majorly. This is the time at
which traffic movement is maximum and therefore the actual capacity of the road under
consideration is measured.
 Morning/Evening
The recordings at a signal place were taken twice that is once in the morning and again in the
evening respectively. The morning data was directly compared to the evening, giving better
estimate for the study.
 Inflow/Outflow
The inflow as well as the outflow of the same road was recorded so that the total no of
vehicles on that road on that particular time were recorded accordingly.
 Vehicle type
The types of vehicles running during these hours were also observed. For example no of
buses, cars, auto, rickshaws, two wheeler’s and bicycles were head counted separated and
compared according.
3.1.2 TRAFFIC FLOW
 Frequency of Traffic counts
In order to predict traffic flow volumes that can be expected on the road network during
specific periods, cognizance should be taken of the fact that volumes changes considerably at
each point time.
There are three cyclical variations that are of particular interest:
 Hourly pattern: The way traffic flow characteristics vary throughout the day and night.
 Daily pattern: The day-to-day variation throughout the week.

 Monthly pattern: The season-to-season variation throughout the year.
When analyzing the traffic one must also be aware of the directional distribution of traffic and
the manner in which its composition varies.
 Hourly patterns
Typical hourly pattern of the traffic flow, particularly in urban areas, generally show a

number of distinguishable peaks. Peak in the morning followed by a lean flow until
another peak in the middle of the afternoon, after which there may be a new peak in the late
evening. The peak in the morning is often more sharp by reaching the peak over a short
duration and immediately dropping to its lowest point. The afternoon peak on the other head
is characterized by a generally wider peak. The peak is reached and dispersed over a
longerperiod then the morning peak. However, in urban satellite towns, the morning peak
may be too early and evening peak may be too late in comparison to the principal towns
without significant midday peak.
Experience from many countries shows that although traffic volume may grow over time, the
relative variations of traffic at the various hours of the day of a month are often quite
consistent year after year.
 Daily patterns
The traffic volume generally varies throughout the week. The traffic during the working days
(Monday to Friday) may not vary substantially, but the traffic volume during the weekend is
likely to differ from the working days on the different types of road and in different
directions. In Botswana many of the urban population go to the rural areas during the
weekends, hence there is a high variation of traffic on the urban-rural connector roads during
weekdays and weekend.
The pattern from Monday to Friday is often relatively consist, a part from Monday morning
and Friday afternoon traffic flow. The pattern during the weekend may vary considerably.
The pattern also varies from Saturdays and Sundays. The pattern during the weekends is also
likely to show more seasonal variation than variation than during the working days.
 Monthly and yearly patterns
The monthly and yearly pattern normally reflects the seasonal variation of traffic flow. The
pattern may vary for passenger cars and vehicle transporting goods. In Botswana, variation
between traffic flow during the wet season and during dry season is insignificant. Knowledge
of how traffic varies for different vehicle classes may be very useful when designing
programs for axle load control, design of roads improvement upgrading schemes and setting
maintenance programs and priorities. Although Botswana is not known to have significant

seasonal variation in traffic flow, such occurrence should be considered so as to adequately

account for them through application of appropriate conversion factors.
3.1.3 Types of Traffic Survey:
The following traffic surveys can be conducted for appreciating the existing traffic and travel
demand characteristics and to prepare the transport infrastructure improvement plans.
1. Road inventory survey.
2. Classified survey.
3. Origin and destination survey.
4. Household interview server.
5. Speed and delay.
6. Parking survey.
7. Pedestrian survey.
8. Intermediate public transport operator survey.
9. Intermediate public transport user survey.
3.2 Methods of traffic survey counting:
It is essential to known the magnitude of traffic data required or to be collected, which will
then determine its quality and type of vehicle classification to be adopted. Traffic counting
falls in two main categories, namely; manual counts and automatic counts. There is no
distinct difference between the two methods however; the economic use or selection of an
appropriate method of traffic counting is a function of the level of the flow and the required
data quality. This difference can be deduced from the discussions of the respective methods
below, and in the subsequent chapters.
Two methods are available for conducting traffic volume count
3.2.1 Manual Method:
The most common method of collecting traffic flow data is the manual method, which consist
of assigning a person to record traffic as passes. This method of data collection can be
expensive in terms of manpower, but it is nonetheless necessary in most cases where vehicle
are to be classified with a number of movements recorded separately.

Intersections:
At intersection sites, the traffic on each arm should be conducted and recorded separately for
each movement. It is paramount importance that traffic on roads with more than one lane are
counted and classified by direction of traffic flow. Permanent traffic-counting terms are
normally set up to carry out the counting at the various locations throughout the road network
at set interval. The duration of the count is determined prior to commencement of traffic
counting and it is dictated by the end use of data. The teams are managed and supervised
bythe technical staff to ensure efficient and proper collection of data.
These are mainly visual counts out by operator. It is time consuming manual counts are
typically used to gather data for determination of vehicle classification, turning movements,
direction of travel, pedestrian movements or vehicle occupancy.
Manual counts are recorded using one of three methods:
 Tally sheets.
 Mechanical counting boards.
 Electronic counting boards.
Tally Sheets:
Recording data onto tally sheets is the simplest means of conducting manual counts. The data
can be recorded with a tick mark on a pre-prepared field form.
A watch or stopwatch is necessary to measure the desired count interval.
Mechanical Counting Boards:

Mechanical count boards consist of counters mounted on an each direction of travel.
Common counts include pedestrian, bicycle, vehicle classification, and traffic volume counts.
Typical counters are push button devices with three to five registers. Each button represents a
different stratification of vehicle or pedestrian counted. The limited number of buttons on the
counter can restrict the number of classifications that can be counted on the given board. A
watch or a stopwatch is also necessary in this method to measure the desired count interval.

Fig3.1: Mechanical Counting Machine
Electronic Counting Boards:
Electronic counting boards are battery-operated, hand-held devices used in collecting traffic
count data. They are similar to mechanical counting boards, but with some important
differences. Electronic counting boards are lighter, more, and handle. They have an internal
clock that automatically separates the data by time interval. Special
functions include automatic data reduction and summary. The data can also be downloaded to
a computer, which saves time.
Fig 3.2 : Electronic Counting boards
Personnel Involved in a Manual Count Study:
The size of the data collection team depends on the counting period, the type of counting
period, the type of count being performed, the number of lanes or crosswalks being observed,
and the volume level of traffic (Robertson 1994). The number of personnel needed also

depends on the study data needed. For example, one observer can record certain types of
vehicles while another total volume.
Observers conducting manual traffic counts must be trained on the study purpose. To avoid
fatigue, observers must be relieved periodically. Every 2 hours observers should take a 10 to
15mintue break.
 Key steps to a Manual count study:
A manual count includes three key steps:

1. Perform necessary office preparations.
2. Select proper observer location.
3. Label data sheets and record observations.

Label Data Forms and Record Observations:
Manual counts may produce a large number of data forms; therefore, the data forms should be
carefully labeled and organized. On each tally sheet the observer should record the location,
time and date of observation, and weather conditions. Follow the data recording methods
discussed earlier.
3.2.1.1 Manual Count Classification
Manual traffic flow count is categorized by a visual assessment of the vehicle size and
configuration of axles. The current manual traffic flow data collection system in Botswana
classifies vehicle into nine categories as follows:
a. Passenger cars
b. Pick up or van less than 1.5 tons
c. Trucks, more than 1.5 and less than 5 tons
d. Light lorries, more than 5 and less than 10tons
e. Medium lorries, more than 10 and less than 20 tons
f. Heavy lorries, more than 20 tons
g. Heavy busses
h. Mini buses
i. Agriculture tractors

3.2.2 Automatic Method:
There are various devices and software available, which enables easy and accurate traffic
count, the automatic count method provides means for gathering large amounts of traffic data.
Automatic counts are usually taken in 1-hour intervals for each 24-hours period. The counts
may extend for a week, month, or year. When the counts are recorded for each 24-hour time
period.
The peak flow period can be identified. The detection of vehicular presence and road
occupancy has historically been performed primarily on or near the surface the road. The
exploitation of new electromagnetic spectra and wireless communication media in recent
year, has allowed traffic detection to occur in a non-intrusive fashion, at locations above or to
the side of the roadway. Pavement-based traffic detectors currently relatively inexpensive will
be met with fierce competition in the coming years from detectors that are liberated from the
road surface.
3.2.2.1 Automatic Traffic Counting Equipment:
In essence, typical automatic traffic data collection equipment consists of a detector to detect
vehicles and a counter to records the information, some of which are shown below.
Automatic Count Recording Methods:
Automatic counts are recorded using one of three methods:
 Portable Counters:
Portable counting is a form of manual observation. Portable counters serve the same
purposeas manual counts but with automatic counting equipment. The period of data collecting
using this method is usually longer than when using manual counts. The portable counter
method is mainly used for 24-hour counts. Pneumatic road tubes are used to conduct this
method of automatic counts.

These are tubes placed on the top of road surface at locations where traffic counting is
required. As vehicles pass over the tube, the resulting compression sends a burst of air to an
air switch, which can be installed in any type of traffic counting devices. Air switches can
provide accurate axle counts even when compressions occur more than 30m from the traffic
counter. Although the life of the pneumatic tubes is traffic dependent as they directly drive
over it, it is used worldwide for speed measurement and vehicle classification for any level of
traffic. Care should be exercise in placing and operating the system, to ensure its efficient
operation and minimize any potential error in the data.
Fig 3.3: Portable Counters
 Inductive loops:
Inductive loop detector consists of embedded turned wire from which it gets its name. It
includes an oscillator, and a cable, which allows signals to pass from the loop to the traffic
counting device. The counting device is activated by the change in the magnitude filed
when a vehicle passes over the loop. Inductive loops are cheap, almost maintenance-free and
are currently the most widely used equipment for vehicle counting and detection. Single loops
are incapable of measuring vehicular speed and the length of a vehicle. This requires the uses
of a pair of loops to estimate speed by analyzing the time it takes a vehicle to pass
through theloops installed in series. An inductive loop can also to a certain degree, be used to
detect the chassis height and estimate the number of axles.
By using the inductive loops, the length of the vehicle is therefore derived from the time
taken by the vehicle to drive from the first to the second loop (driving time) and the time
during which the vehicle to drive from the first to the second loop (cover loop). The resulting
length is called the electrical length, and is in general less than actual length of the passing

vehicle. This is caused by the built in detector threshold, the rood surface material, the feeder
length, the distance between the bottom of the vehicle and the loop, but also to a large extent,
the synthetic materials used in modern cars. The system could be used for any level of traffic.
Fig 3.4: Inductive loops
 Weight-in-motion sensor types:
A variety of traffic sensors and loops are used world-wide to count weight and classify
vehicle while in motion, and these are collectively known in motion (WIM) sensor system.
Whereas sensor pads can be on their own traffic speed and axle weighing equipment, they are
trigged by “leading” inductive loops placed before them on the roadbed.
This scenario is adopted where axles speed and statistical data are required. Some notable
traffic sensors are:
a) Bending plates which contain strain gauges that weigh the axles of passing vehicle.
Continuous electrical signals are to the gauges, and these signals are altered as the plates
are deflected by dynamic vehicular weight and measure the axle of the passing vehicles.
b) Capacitive strip is a thin and long extruded metal used to detect passing axles. The
force of the vertical pressure applied to this strip by a wheel alters its capacitance,
which can be converted to a wheel-weight measure when related to the speed of the vehicle.
c) Capacitive strips can be used for both statistical data and axle configuration.
d) Capacitive Mat functions in a similar manner as the capacitive strip but it is designedto
be mobile and used on a temporary basis only.
e) Piezo-electric cables is a sensing strip of a metallic cable that responds to vertical loading

from vehicle wheels passing over it by producing a corresponding voltage. The cable is
very good for speed measurement and axle-space registration, and is relatively cheap and
maintenance free like inductive loop if installed correctly.
 Permanent Counters:
Permanent counters are used when long-term counts are to be conducted. The counts could be
performed every day for a year or more. The data collected may be used to monitor and
evaluate traffic volumes and trends over a long period of time. Permanent counters are not cost-
effective option in most situations. Few jurisdictions have access to this equipment.
 Micro-Millimeter Wave Radar Detectors:
Radar detectors actively emits radio-active signals at frequencies ranging from the ultra-high
frequencies (UHF) of 100 MHz, 100 GHz, and can register vehicular presence and speed
depending upon signals returned upon reflection from the vehicle. They are also used to
determine vehicular volumes and classifications in both traffic directions.
Radar detectors are very little susceptible to adverse weather conditions, and can operate day
and night. However, they require comparatively high levels of computing power to analyze
the quality of signals.
 Videotape:
Observers can record count data by videotaping traffic. Traffic volumes can be counted by
viewing videotapes recorded with a camera at a collection site. A digital clock in the video
image can prove useful in noting time intervals. Videotaping is not a cost-effective option in
most situations. Few small jurisdictions have access to this equipment.
Video image processing system utilizes machine vision technology to detect vehicles and
capture details about individual vehicles when necessary. A video processing system usually
monitors multiple lanes simultaneously, and therefore it requires high level of computing
power. Typically, the operator can interactively set the desired traffic detection points
anywhere within the systems view area.

Algorithms are used to extract data required for the detection of the raw data feeds. Due to the
complexity of the images, it is not recommended that they should be processed outdoors
as they can give poor results. The system is useful for traffic counting and give a +/- 3%
tolerance, and is not appropriate for vehicular speed and their classifications.
Key steps to an automatic count study:
An automatic count study includes three key steps (Robertson 1994):

1. Perform necessary office preparations.
2. Deploy and calibrate data collection equipment.
3. Check data and retrieve equipment.
3.2.3 EXAMPLES OF TRAFFIC VOLUME COUNT STUDIES
Intersection Count’s:
Intersection counts are used for timing traffic signals, designing channelization, planning turn
prohibitions, computing capacity, analyzing high crash intersections, and evaluation
congestion (hamburger et al. 1996). The manual count is usually used to conduct an
intersection count. A single observer can complete an intersection count only in very light
conditions.
The intersection count classification scheme must be understood by all observers before the
count can begin. Each intersection has 12 possible movements.
The intersection movements are through, left turn, right turn. The observer records the
intersection movement for each vehicle that enters the intersection.
Fig 3.5: Intersection Count’s

Pedestrian Count’s:
Pedestrian count data are used frequently in planning applications. Pedestrian counts are used
to evaluate sidewalk and crosswalk needs, to justify pedestrian signals, and to time traffic
signals. Pedestrian counts may be taken at intersection crosswalks, mid block crossings, or
along sidewalk.
When pedestrians are tailed, those 12 years or older are customarily classified as adults
(Robertson 1994). Persons of grade school age or younger are classified as children. The
observer records the direction of each pedestrian crossing the roadway.
Vehicle Classification Count’s:
Vehicle classification counts are used in establishing structural and geometric design criteria,
computing expected highway user revenue, and computing capacity. If a high percentage of
heavy trucks exist or if the vehicle mix at the crash site is suspected as contributing to the
crash problem, then classification counts should be conducted.
Typically cars, station wagons, pickup and panel trucks, and motorcycles are classified as
passenger cars. Other trucks and buses are classified as trucks. School buses and farm
equipment may be recorded separately. The observer records the classified of the vehicles and
the vehicles direction of travel at the intersection.
3.2.4 FACTORS AFFECTING THE COUNTING
There are many factors that affect traffic counting and the most common includes:
 Weather Conditions:
Traffic counting during high and low weather conditions has serious effect on the
enumerators through an interrupted counting process resulting in severe data errors.
 Purpose of Traffic Counting:
Understanding the purpose for which traffic is being counted enables collection of
appropriate quality data, the number of vehicle classes and determination of the duration of
the count. For major projects, good quality data is required for a pre-determined number of
vehicle classes at specific intervals over at least five working days for 12 to 16 hours per day,

excluding public holidays or special occasions, such as Independence Day. Any other
exercise that is not of major significance should require less counting duration.
 Method of Traffic Counting:
The method of traffic counting has a bearing on the quality of data obtained. Manual
counting of vehicles passing a point at specific intervals (15 minutes, 30 minutes, 45
minutes, 1 hour,etc.) is one method of traffic counting, whereby the total vehicular traffic is
required. If fromthe past traffic counts it is required that a proportion of heavy vehicles is to
be determined as a percentage of the total traffic, then such a percentage is applied to the
counted volume to get the effective traffic flow. On this basis, the method of traffic counting
should be decided before hand and that traffic counting forms and training should be
conducted.
 Location of Counting Sites:
Counting in the open country and in build-up areas is different in nature and in execution.
Traffic counting in an open country (rural environment) has a high potential to yield the much-
needed concentration by enumerators, while that in the build-up areas is prone to disturbances.
The type of disturbances envisaged include movement by enumerators between the counting
sites and the built-up environment, such as shops, thus resulting in high error margins in data so
collected. It is, therefore, critical that supervision and close monitoring are undertaken at the
respective sites falling within the built-up environment for the duration ofthe counts. Where
traffic counting is to be conducted for an intersection, the number of enumerators required is
mainly a function of the type of intersection, the composition oftraffic flow, the number of
lanes and the anticipated traffic volume. It is, therefore, essentialthat a proper and detailed
site inspection is conducted prior to start of any traffic survey.
 Traffic Flow Level:
Traffic flow level influences the capability of enumerators to carry out traffic counts
manually on high volume roads. Where the enumerator is expected to count more than one
traffic lane on a busy road, observational error is commonly encountered. On the other hand,
whereas efficiency and capability of traffic enumeration vary from enumerator to enumerator,
for traffic level of less than 1000 vehicles per hour in one direction manual counting by one
enumerator can give satisfactory data within the permissible tolerances. For traffic level in

excess of 1000 vehicles per hour in one direction, additional enumerators are required or
automatic counters should be used.
 Road Type:
The type of road has an effect on traffic counting as it combines both the level of traffic
flowand the number of lanes for the specific road. Traffic flow normally follows three different
modes and levels, namely:
1. Congested or forced low-speed continuous flow;
2. Normal continuous flow and;
3. Wide spaced high-speed flow.
From the lower level to the upper level of traffic flow there remains an incremental desire for
collection of better quality data commensurate with increase in the sample size. This is
because with lower volume of traffic the potential for variance in the traffic flow reduces,
while with higher traffic volume potential for flow variation over short intervals increases,
such as tidal flow or platoon flow. While taking cognizance of the above traffic flow levels,
traffic counting for single carriageways can be handled with manual counting with much
reduced risk of error level while dual carriageways would require automatic traffic counters
owing to the volume of traffic, the speed and the number of lanes.
 Traffic Composition:
Traffic composition influences the methodology and approach which should be applied for
traffic counting at respective counting sites. This dictates the number of vehicle classes and
the quality of data required. It is, therefore, critical that the traffic composition is known prior to the
commencement of the survey in order to enforce the measures required.
3.2.5 COUNTING PROCEDURES
Intersection
Traffic counting at intersections is dependent on varying geometric conditions, for example, T-

junctions cross roads, roundabouts and signalized intersections and assumes the following
operating conditions:
 The major road traffic flow may be either in a single or in multiple streams in one direction
and may vary from low non-congested flow to high congested flow conditions.

 The minor road flow is generally in a single stream, with the flow varying from low non-
congested flow to high congested flow conditions.
 The gap acceptance of minor road approaching traffic may be presented with a uniform
distribution and close to zero opportunities to join the main traffic stream.
 The minor road traffic flows rises instantaneously from very low flow to a maximum peak
value, which is maintained until the end of the peak period after which it falls
instantaneously to very low flow and to zero.
Straight Roads
Traffic counting on a straight road is done by traffic enumerators who stand by the roadside,
counting and classifying the vehicles as they pass. The enumerator thus records the vehicles
moving in one particular direction. In this case there is no complexity if the level traffic is
less than 1000 vehicles per day.
Figure 6: Typical Straight Road
Urban Roads:
In the context of this Guideline, an urban road is a road located and traversing a developed or
built-up environment. This type of road may serve as a main arterial or transit route within the
urban area, local connector, tertiary, access or even a local street. As a result, traffic counting
for these types of roads can be complex as the function of the road and/or its level of service
in the road hierarchy as measured by the traffic flow level dictate it. Further complexity could
be presented by the proximity of the access intersections associated with the built

environment. On this basis, both manual and automatic counting systems are suitable for
traffic data collection along these roads.
Fig 3.7: URBAN ROAD

Rural Roads:
These are roads ranging from inter-urban main trunk roads to local minor access roads with a
rural set up. However, the emphasis within the confines of these guidelines are placed on the
higher order type of roads, such as inter-urban trunk roads, tertiary, connector and main
access roads within a rural built up area or between the rural built environment.
Fig 3.8: A Typical Single Carriageway Rural Road
These roads could be counted using both manual and automatic counting systems,
depending on the level of traffic flow, capacity of the road and resources required to

undertake the counts. If counting of these roads is not intended to include intersection or is not
undertaken within a built environment the sites should be planned and sighted in an area free
of disturbance.
Dual carriageways:
Dual carriageways are roads consisting of more than one driving lane in each direction
irrespective of its location. This is whether the road is within an urban or rural environment
and it can range from inter-urban freeways to low volume rural connectors, depending on the
level of traffic to be served. Functionally, upgrading of single carriageway roads to dual
carriageways is a direct result of increasing traffic demand, and it is therefore provided to cater
for capacity expansion and improve level of service.
Being a high traffic volume road, it is not always easy to efficiently conduct manual traffic
counts on these roads. For efficient collection of traffic flow data on dual carriageways,
automatic counters are the most appropriate. This takes into account the volume of traffic and
the speed with which vehicles are passing a counting point. However, enumerators could be
assigned for manual counting on dual carriageways by allocating each enumerator a lane per
direction of flow or just by the direction of traffic flow. This approach will require more
enumerators than it is the case with single carriageways roads.
Fig 3.9: A Dual Carriageway
3.2.6 TRAFFIC SIGNALS
Traffic lights, also known as traffic signals, traffic lamps, traffic semaphore, signal lights,
stop lights and robots, and also known technically as traffic controls signals are signaling
devices positioned at road intersections, pedestrian crossings and other locations to control

competing flows of traffic. The first manually operated gas lit traffic light was installed in
1868 in London, though it was short-lived due to explosion. The first safe, automatic electric
traffic lights were installed in the United States starting in the late 1890’s.
Traffic lights alternate the right of way accorded to road users by displaying lights of a
standard color (red, yellow, and green) following a universal color code. In the typical
sequence of color phases:
Fig 3.10: Traffic Signal
 The green light allows traffic to proceed in the direction denoted, if it is safe to do so.
 The yellow light provides warning that the signal will be changing from green to redand
from red to green in certain countries, such as in the UK. Actions required by drivers vary,
with some jurisdictions requiring drivers to stop if it is safe to do so, and others allowing
drivers to go through the intersection if safe to do so.
 A flashing yellow indication is a warning signal.
 The red signal prohibits any traffic from proceeding.
 A flashing red indication is treated as a stop sign.
Traffic signals will go into a flashing mode if the controller detects a problem, such as a
program that tries to display green lights to conflicting traffic. The signal may display
flashing yellow to the main road and flashing red to the road side, or flashing red in all
directions. Flashing operation can also be used during times of day when traffic is light, such
as late at night.

3.2.7 TYPES OF SIGNALS
There are two primary types of traffic signal control used throughout HRM-fixed or pre-timed
signal operation and actuated signal operation.
 Pre-timed signals (fixed)
At pre-timed traffic signals each signal phase or traffic movement is serviced in a

programmed sequence that is repeated throughout the day. Main Street receives a fixed
amount of green time followed by the amber and red clearance intervals. The same interval
timing is then repeated for the minor or side street. The amount of time it takes to service all
conflicting traffic movements is referred to as the cycle length. The signal timings and cycle
lengths may vary by time of day to reflect changes in traffic volumes and patterns. During
peak traffic periods for example, cycle lengths may range from 90-128 seconds to
accommodate higher volumes, particularly on the busier arterial roadways. During off peak
times of day cycle lengths are reduced as traffic volumes are much lighter and therefore not
as much green time is required to effectively service all movements. With pre-timed signals
the pedestrian walk/don’t walk signal indications are automatically displayed in conjunction
with the green signal for vehicles.
Pre-timed signals can provide fairly efficient operation during peak traffic periods, assuming
signal timing settings reflect current conditions. However, during off-peak times,
particularlyat night, traffic on the major roadways are often stopping for no reason because of
little or no traffic or pedestrians on the cross streets. With pre-timed signals the only method
to avoid this unnecessary delay was to program the signals for flashing operation during the
night time hours, generally 12:30-6:00 a.m. Night flash operation was once common practice
by many cities and municipalities but with advancements in signal technology and detection
devicesover the years it is rarely used. Many of the older signals in the former city of Halifax
still use night flash but this is gradually being phased out where appropriate.
 Actuated signals
Actuated signal control differs from pre-timed in that it requires ‘’actuation” by a vehicle or
pedestrian in order for certain phases or traffic movements to be serviced. Actuation is
achieved by vehicle detection devices and pedestrian push buttons. The most common

method of detecting vehicles is to install inductive loop wires in the pavement at or near the
painted stop bar. Video detection is also used at select locations. Actuated signals consist of
two types: semi-actuated and fully-actuated.
 Semi-actuated
Vehicle loop detectors are installed on the minor street approaches and push buttons are
provided for pedestrians wanting to cross the major roadway. The traffic signals remain
greenon the major roadway until either a cross street vehicle is detected or a pedestrian pushes
the button. When this occurs a ‘’call’’ is sent to the traffic signal.
Controller and at the appropriate time in the cycle main street green will terminate and time
its clearance intervals before the minor street is serviced. If the side street is servicing vehicle
demand only, a minimum green of 5-7 seconds is provided which can extend up to a preset
maximum provided additional vehicles are being detected. After the last vehicle passes
overthe detector loop or the preset maximum green time has been reached, the signals will
returnto a green state on Main Street.
If the side street is servicing a pedestrian demand, the ‘’walk’’& ‘’flashing don’t walk’’
signal indications will be displayed, again at the appropriate time in the cycle. At pedestrian
actuated signals, the ‘’walk’’ indication is displayed for 5-7 seconds. This allows the
pedestrian to enter the crosswalk and begin crossing. At the end of the ‘’walk’’ signal the
‘’flashing don’t walk’’ indication is displayed which provides the pedestrian already in the
crosswalk sufficient time to safely complete their crossing and clear the intersection before
conflicting traffic receives a green signal. Pedestrians who are already in the crosswalk at the
start of this interval continue to have the right of way over turning vehicles. Pedestrians who
have not begun to cross when this interval begins should wait until the next cycle.
Under this mode, the detection system is present only on a minor cross street. When
detection is activated, the green light on a major street is interrupted to allow the minor
street traffic and pedestrians to safely enter the intersection. Pedestrian walk signals for
crossing a minor street are automatic, while those for crossing a major street are not.
Pedestrians crossing a major street must push the ‘’pedestrian push button’’ to get the walk
signal.

 Fully-actuated
Vehicle detector loops and pedestrian push buttons are installed on all approaches. All signal
phases including left turn arrows have preset minimum and maximum greens and will be
serviced on demand only. Pedestrians must activate the push buttons in order to receive the
‘’walk’’ & flashing don’t walk’’ indications. A single press of the button locks the ‘’call’’in
the controllers memory that a pedestrian has requested service. Fully-actuated signals are
most efficient at isolated locations where coordination with the adjacent signals is not a
concern and where the intersecting roadways have similar traffic volumes.
Actuated signal control provides greater efficiency compared to pre-timed signals by
servicing cross street traffic and pedestrians only when required. The primary disadvantage
with pre-timed signals is avoided as main street traffic is not interrupted unnecessarily. This is
particularly beneficial during off peak conditions. The results is fewer stops and delays to
traffic on the major arteries, while still providing for safe pedestrian crossings as and when
required, which ultimately leads to decrease in fuel consumption and pollution.
Under this mode, there are detection’s for all approaches. The traffic signal is set to provide
the green light ‘’on-demand’’ or only in the presence of vehicles. Pedestrians MUST push the
pedestrian push button in order to cross either the major or minor streets.
3.2.8 Operations
Actuated signals work like this: Some sort of detector at the intersection registers whether or
not there is a car at the intersection. Fully-actuated signals have detectors on all the
approaches and semi-actuated signals only have detectors at some of the approaches. If the
detector registers a vehicle it makes a call to the controller and the controller registers the
need for the phase to be serviced. Or have the right of way. When this phase is in service, it
retains the right of way for a minimum time and additional time can be given if more cars are
detected during the green light.
This additional time is called the passenger time. If there is no enough traffic, extensions (in
the form of passage time) will be added to the phase up to some set maximum green time.
However, if another call is not received during the green time, the phase will end. This is
known as gap out. The cycle then progress based on calls received during the previous cycle.

The signal controller then changes to the next phase in the phase sequence that has a call.
H trims maintains and operates traffic signals and related devices on unincorporated area
roadways and bridges. These include: actuated signalized intersections; warning flashers and
beacons; pedestrians signals; fire station signals; and movable bridge controls and warning
systems. Traffic signals are used to promote the orderly movement of vehicular and
pedestrian traffic and prevent excessive traffic delays.
 Primary Functions
The primary functions of traffic signals include assigning right of way to various traffic
movements at intersections and permitting pedestrians, bicyclists and cross- street traffic to
move safely through the intersection and reduce certain types of accidents, particularly serve
right angle (broadside) collisions.
 Traffic Signal Maintenance
Traffic signal maintenance is a high priority for H trims. Traffic signal crews are in the field
Monday to Friday to monitor and service our traffic signal system. Department staff also
provides coverage 24/7, 365 days per year for emergency response to signal malfunctions,
storm or vehicle damage, etc. H trims goal is a response to traffic signal service requests with-
in one hour of notification.
Typical problems/requests that warrant an immediate response from signal maintenance
crews include:
1. All lights out due to power outage.
2. Signals flashing red in all directions.
3. Loose or turned signal heads.
4. Damage caused by vehicles.
5. Burned out lamps.

6. Timing problems-long red or short green.
The public is encouraged to report any problems that require immediate attention in order to
ensure safety for all types of transportation on our roadways.

Technological applications in traffic engineering are referred to as intelligent transportation

systems (ITS). ITS devices include Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) cameras which are
used to monitor traffic flow along major arterial segments to ensure that traffic
synchronization is working properly.
Figure 3.11: CCTV on Roads

3.2.9 Traffic Signal Components:
Most traffic signals will have the following components or parts:

A. Main display with red, yellow, and green lights.
B. Pedestrian crossing lights containing both the ‘’WALK’’ and ‘’DON’T WALK’’ light
indications.
C. Traffic signal cabinet containing the traffic signal controller. And vehicle detection
systems.
D. Inductive loops or sensors , Video detection system.
Fig 3.12: Traffic Signal Components

3.2.10 Traffic Signal Timing:
Htrims is responsible for the timing of traffic signals on unincorporated area roadways. At
each signalized intersection, the signal indications (i.e. green, yellow, red) are programmed
based on traffic demands from all directions. Traffic signals on major corridors are
synchronized to provide optimal and efficient traffic flow.

CHAPTER 4
DATA COLLECTION
General Assessment of available resources prior to commencement of any activity is

critical to any assignment at hand. For traffic data collection, it is important that proper
assessment of the extent or scope of the envisaged quality level of data required is
undertaken. This is aimed at ensuring that the planned and organized exercise is achieved at
optimal cost and with the expected accuracy. The exact number of persons and equipment to
undertake a specific traffic counting assignment is dependent, among others on:
● The location of the station.
● The quality of data to be collected.
● The level of traffic flow.
● The nature of the road section and traffic flow characteristics within which the station falls.
● Traffic composition.
Time of the day: The traffic flow was seen varying during the peak hours and the non peak
hours. The peak hours (8:30 AM to 11:30 AM and 5:30 PM to 7:30 PM) were taken into
consideration for the recording of the maximum traffic movements. The peak hours are
defined by the buses, office going people, shopkeepers, school and college going people
majorly. This is the time at which traffic movement is maximum and therefore the actual
capacity of the road under consideration is measured.
Morning / Evening: The recordings at a single place were taken twice that is once in the
morning and again in the evening respectively. The morning data was directly compared to
the evening, giving better estimate for the study.
Inflow / Outflow: The inflow as well as the outflow of the same road was recorded so that
the total no of vehicles on that road on that particular time were recorded accordingly.
Vehicle Type: The types of vehicles running during these hours were also observed. For
example, no of buses, cars, auto, rickshaws, two wheelers and bicycles were head counted
separately and compared accordingly.

4.1 PASSENGER CAR UNIT:
 It is common practice to consider the passenger car as the standard vehicle unit toconvert
the other vehicle classes and this unit is called passenger car unit or PCU.
 The PCU may be considered as a measure of the relative space requirement of a vehicle
class compared to that of a passenger car under a specified set of roadway,traffic, and
other conditions.
 The PCU value of a vehicle class may be considered as the ratio of capacity of a roadway
where there are passenger’s cars only to the capacity of the same roadwaywhen there are
vehicles of that class only.
4.1.1 Factors Affecting PCU Values:
 Vehicles characteristic
 Transverse and longitudinal gaps
 Traffic stream characteristic
 Roadway characteristic
 Regulation and control of traffic
 Environmental and climatic conditions
 Based on the above factors, a set of PCU values have been worked out for:
Bikes 0.25
Cars 1.0
Heavy 2.8
Vehicles
Buses 3.6
Auto 0.6
Table no:4.1 Passenger Car unit

4.2 Steps for taking traffic data

In order to evaluate the proposed methodology, data with regard to delay, volume,
etc. ofa signalized intersections which are advantageous to observing at Barkatpura x road
were applied. The locations are near PF office bus stop and HP petrol station, etc. The entire
data were collected under a condition of clear weather, dry pavement, and low magnitude of
wind on May 2022.
All study approaches have two lanes in each direction. The lane widths for all
locations are 3.50 (m), 3.50 (m) for the inner and outer lanes, respectively.
The measurement of delay was made by observing the traveling of vehicles to
intersections. According to IRC. It needs at least two people for measuring average delay.
The first onestood at the head of the queue and the second one stood at the stop line. The
first one countedthe number of vehicles approaching the intersection, while the second one
counted thenumber of vehicles passing the stop line. Both of them started counting
simultaneously and inthe same time interval.
 Step 1 - Identify Traffic Flow Volumes, Traffic flow volumes are identified, including
turning movements.
 Step 2 - Identify Junction Layout, Lane Geometry and Site Characteristics The junction
layout, including lane geometry and site characteristics are identified. It may be necessary,
if revealed in Step 4 or Step 7, to modify the layout to cater for turning movements,
pedestrians or to enhance capacity and/or safety.
 Step 3 - Identify Signal Phasing and Method of Control The method of control to be used
for analysis is identified.
 Step 4 - Check Turning Movements and Pedestrians Adequate provision for turning
movements and pedestrians should be checked. It may be identified at this stage that the
assumed method of control would need adjustment before continuing. Adequate allowance
in calculations for parallel pedestrian minimum green crossing times should be made.
 Step 5 - Estimate Saturation Flows The saturation flows for various approaches /
movements are identified. In critical cases the saturation flows for important movements
may have to be measured on site.
 Step 6 - Compute Y, L, the lost times, flow factors and sum of the critical flow factors are

computed.
 Step 7 - Compute Reserve Capacity The maximum reserve capacity of the intersection is
then calculated as a measure of operating performance. If this is not satisfactory, then it
may be necessary to go back to Step 2, modify data and layouts and recalculate. A
minimum provision of 25% reserve capacity should be provided wherever possible for new
junctions. A lower standard may be adopted for existing junctions where further
improvement is restrictedby space limitations.
 Step 8 - Compute Co, Cm, and Cp. The optimum, minimum and practical cycle times for
operating the junction are then computed for further analysis, if necessary.
 Step 9 - Select C It is then necessary to select a cycle time for operating the intersection.
Sometimes, for reasons of linking, the selected cycle time may be different from the values
calculated in the previous step.
 Step 10 - Compute Green Times, Degree of Saturation The green times of the various
phases are then computed. Degree of saturation may be computed as well if detailed
analysis ofsignal operation is required. If good linking to other junctions requires a cycle
time that results in very low degree of saturation and a very high reserve capacity,
consideration should be given to double cycling this junction within the linking group, i.e.
running it at half the linking cycle time.
 Step 11 - Determine Offset and Other Controller Settings Offset and other controller
settings such as minimum green, maximum green, etc. are then finalized. Offsets for
linking signals may be prepared with the aid of time-distance diagrams or programs such
as TRANSYT.
 Step 12 - Prepare Documentation for record purposes, drawings showing the junction
layout, method of control, stage/phage diagram, traffic flow, etc. need to be prepared and
maintained. Standard symbols should be used wherever applicable.

4.3 STUDY AREA
The study area is located at Barkatpura X road as shown in figure. It is four legged intersection.
The locations are near PF office bus stop and HP petrol station, etc. The entire data were
collected under a condition of clear weather, dry pavement, and low magnitude of wind on
May 2022.
Figure 4.1: Barkatpura Junction

4.4 DATA ANALYSIS
The optimum signal cycle is given by:
C0 = 1.5𝐿+5
1−𝑌
Where,
C0 = optimum cycle length
L = total lost time per cycle, sec = 2n + R (n is the number of phase and R is the all red time
q1 𝑞2
Y = y1 + y , where y1 = , y2=
2 S1 𝑆2
Where S is saturation flow =525w
𝑦1 𝑦2
Then, G1 = (C0 – L) and G2 = (C0 – L)
𝑌 𝑌
PEAK HOURS
VEHICLES APPROACH ON ROAD-1
Bikes - 804×0.25 = 201 PCU (30%)

Cars - 188×1.0 = 188 PCU (28%)
Autos - 16×0.6 = 118 PCU (17%)
Buses - 44×3.6 = 158 PCU (23%)
Heavy vehicles - 196×2.8 = 45 PCU (2%)
total= 710 PCU
PCU
2%
23% 30%
17%
28%
BikesCarsAutosBusesHeavy vehicles
Fig 4.2 Morning Peak hour PCU values Road 1

Bikes - 348×0.25 = 87 PCU (23%)

Cars - 156×1.0 = 156 PCU (41%)
Autos - 92×0.6 = 55 PCU (14%)
Buses - 24×3.6 = 86 PCU (2%)
Heavy vehicles - - = -
total= 384 PCU
PCU
22% 23%
14%
41%
BikesCarsAutosBuses
Bikes - 2750×0.25 = 690 PCU (31%)

Cars - 812×1.0 = 812 PCU (37%)
Autos - 524×0.6 = 314 PCU (14%)
Buses - 76×3.6 = 274 PCU (12%)
total= 2224 PCU

PCU
6%
12%
31%
14%
37%
BikesCarsAutosBusesHeavy vehicles
Bikes - 360×0.25 = 90 PCU (43%)

Cars - 76×1.0 = 76 PCU (36%)
Autos - 72×0.6 = 43 PCU (21%)
Buses - - = -
total= 209 PCU
PCU
21%
43%
36%
BikesCarsAutos

Approach Volume on Roads (q):

Approach volume on road-1 (q1) = 710
2500
2000
1500
Vehicle density
1000
500
0
Road 1 Road 2 Road 3 Road 4
Graph 1: Approach volume on roads at morning peak hours

Width of roads(w):
Width of road-1 (w1) = 7.5+2.5 = 10m
Width of road-2 (w2) = 7.5+2.5 = 10m
Width of road-3 (w3) = 7.5+2.5 = 10m
Width of road-4 (w4) = 3.75+2.5 = 6.25m
Saturation flow (s):
Saturation flow on road-1(s1) = 525 × w1= 525 ×10 = 5250
Saturation flow on road-4(s4) = 525 × w4= 525 ×6.25 = 3281.3

Critical flow ratio (Y) = volume/saturation flow
q1 710
y1 = = = 0.135
𝑆1 5250
y2 =
𝑞2 384
= = 0.073
𝑆2 5250
y3 =
𝑞3 2224
= = 0.42
𝑆3 5250
y3 =
𝑞4 209
= = 0.063
𝑆4 3281.3
Y = y1+y2+y3+ y4
Y = 0.135+0.073+0.42+0.063
Y =0.691
L = 2n+R = 2×4+12 = 20
C0 = 1.5𝐿+5 = 1.5×20+5 = 113.26 ≅ 113.3 𝑠e𝑐o𝑛𝑑𝑠

1−𝑌 1−0.691
Total cycle time C0 = 113.3 seconds
Total cycle time = 113.3 seconds
Green Time (G):
𝑦1
G = (𝐶0 − 𝐿) = 0.135 (113 − 20) = 18 𝑠e𝑐o𝑛𝑑𝑠
1 0.691
𝑌
𝑦2
G2 = (𝐶0 − 𝐿) = 0.073 (113 − 20) = 10 𝑠e𝑐o𝑛𝑑𝑠
𝑌 0.691
𝑦3
G = (𝐶0 − 𝐿) = 0.42 (113 − 20) = 57 𝑠e𝑐o𝑛𝑑𝑠
3 0.691
𝑌
𝑦4
G4 = (𝐶0 − 𝐿) = 0.063 (113 − 20) = 8 𝑠e𝑐o𝑛𝑑𝑠
0.691
𝑌

Road 4 91 28 12
Road 3 32 2 57 10 12
Road 2 20 210 69 12
Road 1 2 18 81 12
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
RedAmberGreen
Chart 1: Morning Peak hour Traffic Signal timing

PEAK HOURS
Evening time (5:30 to 7:30 PM)
Bikes - 872×0.25 = 218 PCU (37%)

Cars - 216×1.0 = 216 PCU (37%)
Autos - 220×0.6 = 132 PCU (22%)
Buses - 24×3.6 = 86 PCU (4%)
total= 652 PCU
PCU
4%
22%
37%
37%
BikesCarsAutosBuses
Fig 4.6 Evening Peak hour PCU values Road 1

Bikes - 656×0.25 = 164 PCU (32%)
Cars - 228×1.0 = 228 PCU (45%)
Autos - 120×0.6 = 72 PCU (14%)
Buses - 12×3.6 = 43 PCU (9%)
total= 507 PCU

PCU
9%
14% 32%
45%
BikesCarsAutosBuses
Bikes - 1284×0.25 = 321 PCU (29%)

Cars - 488×1.0 = 488PCU (44%)
Autos - 376×0.6 = 226 PCU (20%)
Buses - 24×3.6 = 72 PCU (7%)
total= 1107 PCU
PCU
7%
29%
20%
44%
RoadCarsAutosBuses

Bikes - 240×0.25 = 60 PCU (57%)

Cars - 20×1.0 = 20PCU (19%)
Autos - 44×0.6 = 26 PCU (24%)
Buses - - = -
total= 106 PCU
PCU
24%
57%
19%
BikesCarsAutos
Approach volume on road(q):

Width of road(w)
Width of road-1 (w1) = 7.5+2.5 = 10
Width of road-2 (w2) = 7.5+2.5 = 10
Width of road-3 (w3) = 7.5+2.5 = 10
Width of road-4 (w4) = 3.75+2.5 = 6.25

1200
1000
800
Vehicle Density
600
400
200
Graph 2: Approach volume on roads at evening peak hour
Saturation flow on road(s)

Critical flow ratio (Y) = volume/saturation flow
q1 352
y1 = = = 0.067
𝑆1 5250
𝑞2 507
y2 = = = 0.096
𝑆2 5250
𝑞3 1107
y3 = = = 0.210
𝑆3 5250
𝑞4 106
y4 = = = 0.02
𝑆4 3281.3
Y = y1+y2+y3+y4
Y = 0.067+0.096+0.21+0.02 = 0.393

L = 2n+R = 2×4+12 = 20
C0 = 1.5𝐿+5 = 1.5×20+5 = 57.66 ≅ 58 𝑠e𝑐o𝑛𝑑𝑠

1−𝑌 1−0.393
Total cycle time = 58 seconds
Road 4 39 2 2 3 12
Road 3 17 2 20 7 12
Road 2 829 27 12
Road 126 38 12
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
RedAmberGreen
Chart 2: Evening Peak hour Traffic Signal timing
Green time (G)
𝑦1
G = (𝐶0 − 𝐿) = 0.067 (58 − 20) = 6 𝑠e𝑐o𝑛𝑑𝑠
1 0.393
𝑌
𝑦2
G = (𝐶0 − 𝐿) = 0.096 (58 − 20) = 9 𝑠e𝑐o𝑛𝑑𝑠
2 0.393
𝑌
𝑦3
G = (𝐶0 − 𝐿) = 0.210 (58 − 20) = 20 𝑠e𝑐o𝑛𝑑𝑠
3
𝑌 0.393
𝑦4
G = (𝐶0 − 𝐿) = 0.02 (58 − 20) = 2 𝑠e𝑐o𝑛𝑑𝑠
4
𝑌 0.393

NON-PEAK HOURS
Bikes - 464×0.25 = 116 PCU (20%)

Cars - 128×1.0 = 128 PCU (22%)
Autos - 148×0.6 = 89 PCU (15%)
Buses - 52×3.6 = 187 PCU (33%)
total= 576 PCU
PCU
10%
20%
33%
22%
15%
BikesCarsAutosBusesHeavy Vehicles
Fig 4.10: Non peak hour PCU values Road 1
Bikes - 84×0.25 = 21 PCU (6 %)

Cars - 204×1.0 = 204 PCU (62%)
Autos - 84×0.6 = 50 PCU (15%)
Buses - 12×3.6 = 43 PCU (13%)
total= 329 PCU

PCU
3%7%
13%
15%
62%
Fig 4.11: Non peak hour PCU values Road 2
Bikes - 548×0.25 = 137 PCU (13%)

Cars - 468×1.0 = 468 PCU (44%)
Autos - 292×0.6 = 175PCU (16%)
Buses - 60×3.6 = 216PCU (20%)
Heavy vehicles - 28×2.8 = 78PCU (7 %)
total= 1074 PCU
PCU
7% 13%
20%
16% 44%
Fig 4.12 Non peak hour PCU values Road 3

Bikes - 96×0.25 = 24 PCU (37 %)

Cars - 12×1.0 = 12 PCU (19%)
Autos - 24×0.6 = 14 PCU (22%)
Buses - 4×3.6 = 14 PCU (22%)
total= 64 PCU
PCU
22%
37%
22%
19%
BikesCarsAutosBuses
Fig 4.13 Non peak hour PCU values Road 4
Approach volume on road(q):

Width of road(w):
Width of road-1 (w1) = 7.5+2.5 = 10
Width of road-2 (w2) = 7.5+2.5 = 10
Width of road-3 (w3) = 7.5+2.5 = 10
Width of road-4 (w4) = 3.75+2.5 = 6.25

1200
1000
800
Vehicle dwnsity
600
400
200
Graph 3: Approach volume on roads at non peak hours
Saturation flow on road(s):

Critical flow ratio (Y) = volume(q)/saturation flow(s)
q1 576
y1 = = = 0.109
𝑆1 5250
𝑞2 329
y2 = = = 0.06
𝑆2 5250
𝑞3 1074
y3 = = = 0.204
𝑆3 5250
𝑞4 64
y4 = = = 0.012
𝑆4 3281.3

Y = y1+y2+y3+y4
Y = 0.109+0.06+0.204+0.012
Y = 0.385
L = 2n+R = 2×4+12 = 20
C0 = 1.5𝐿+5 = 1.5×20+5 = 56.9 ≅ 57 𝑠e𝑐o𝑛𝑑𝑠

1−𝑌 1−0.385
Total cycle time = 58 seconds
Green time (G):
𝑦1
G = (𝐶0 − 𝐿) = 0.109 (57− 20) = 10 𝑠e𝑐o𝑛𝑑𝑠
1 0.385
𝑌
𝑦2
G = (𝐶0 − 𝐿) = 0.06 (57 − 20) = 6 𝑠e𝑐o𝑛𝑑𝑠
2 0.385
𝑌
𝑦3
G = (𝐶0 − 𝐿) = 0.204 (57 − 20) = 20 𝑠e𝑐o𝑛𝑑𝑠
3
𝑌 0.385
𝑦4
(𝐶0 − 𝐿) = (58 − 20) = 2 𝑠e𝑐o𝑛𝑑𝑠
4G = 0.012
𝑌 0.385
Road 4 40 2 2 1 12
Road 3 18 2 20 5 12
Road 2 12 2 6 25 12
Road 1 2 10 33 12
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
RedAmberGreen
Chart 3: Non Peak hour Traffic Signal timing



RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The paper proposes the modified Webster’s model to estimate delay for heterogeneous traffic
conditions at pre-timed signalized intersections. Traffic volumes approaching the signalized
intersection are classified into four groups: Motorized two-wheeler, Car, Minibus, and Bus.
The passenger car unit (PCU) is estimated by using the linear multiple regression analysis.
The regression function expresses the relationship between the saturated green time and the
total number of vehicles of all groups passing the approach. Saturation flows are estimated
with the consideration of different types of vehicles traveling together. Distributions of
saturation flow are computed to follow the normal distribution at all observed intersections.
Then, an expectation function method and Taylor series expansion are utilized to estimate the
mean and the variance of delay. The model is evaluated at three pre-timed signalized
intersections, then compared with the conventional Webster’s and observed delays. The
results identify that the output of the proposed methodology is close to the observed data and
better than that of the conventional Webster’s, especially when the degree of saturation is
close to 1.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Intersections are the critical component of roadway system and frequently act as a choke
point on the transport system.
The current data shows the increment in traffic as well as site constraints. The engineer needs
to design methods and criteria based on fundamental relationship between capacities, flow of
traffic, geometry design, safety that will enable users to get directly from proposed geometry
to the realistic estimates of operating conditions. The result of this study gives the idea that
what measures are suggested to remove such kind of problems and the precautions to be used
to remove congestion at intersection. The traffic study and analysis at Barkatpura intersection
reveals the conclusion as following:
 The numbers of cars travelling are more when compared to bikes on Saturday & Sundays.
 The number of cars is more when compared to buses.
 So, if numbers of buses are increased, then the dependency on Public transports increase.
 This will make decrease in number of personal vehicles.
 Thus, the traffic situation in the Barkatpura intersection is critical in the peak hours as the
optimum cycle length is about to expand and escalate the standard value of optimum.
 It is very essential to recommend an alternative transportation infrastructure in the
Barkatpura intersection so as to abate the delay in the traffic and thereby congestion gets
reduced and free Flow of Traffic shall be achieved.

REFERENCES
1. Traffic Analysis and Road Accidents: A Case Study of Hyderabad using GIS by
M.Bhagyaiah, B. Shrinagesh.
2. Traffic Survey and analysis by Mr.Udit Batra (Assistant Professor), Mr.Mandar V.Sarode
(Assistant Professor) GNIEM, Nagpur Maharashtra.
3. Study of Urban Cities Traffic Problems Due To Delay and Overcrowding by Dr Awari
Mahesh Babu.
4. Evaluation of Delay Characteristics at Signalized Intersections for Improvement in Level of
Service by Adepu Ramesh and Kumar Molugaram.
5. Approximate Mean Delay Analysis for a Signalized Intersection With Indiscipline Trafficby
Samrat Mukhopadhyay, Pramod M. J and Anurag Kumar.
6. Saturation Flow Estimation At Signalized Intersections Under Mixed Traffic Conditions by
Arpita Saha, Satish Chandra.
7. A Study on Comparison of Interpolation Techniques For Air Pollution by K ShashiKumar, R
Ramu, Dr. R Srinivasa Kumar.
8. Characteristics of Motorcycle traffic At Signalized Intersections by Chu Cong Minh.
9. Comparison of delay estimates at under-saturated and over-saturated pre-timed signalized

intersections by Youn-Soo Kang.
10. Travel Time and Delay Study of Selected Links of Kalupur Area – IJERT by N. I.Prajapati.
11. Khanna S.K & Justo C.E.G, “Highway Engineering “New Chand and Bros. Roorkee.
12. Traffic Engineering & Transportation Planning L.K Kandiyali- Khanna publication.
13. K Venkatesh1, Ratod Vinod Kumar2 “Traffic Impact Study and Signal Design”.
14. R.M. Kimber and E.M. Hollis. Traffic Queues and Delays at Road Junctions. TRRL
laboratory report. Traffic Systems Division, Transport and Road Research Laboratory,1979.
15. F. V. Webster. Traffic signal settings. Technical Report Road Research Technical Paper No.
39, Her Majesty’s Stationery Office, Department of Scientific And Industrial Research Road
Research Laboratory, 1958.
16. Geometric design standards of urban roads in plains-IRC: 70-1977, The Indian Road
Congress, New Delhi, 1977.
17. IRC-17-1977 Guidelines on repopulation and control of mixed traffic in urban areas.

18. IRC-108-1996 Guidelines for traffic prediction on rural highways.

19. IRC: 106-1990, “Guidelines for Capacity of Urban Roads in Plain areas”, The Indian
Roads Congress, New Delhi.
20. IRC: 93-1985, “Guidelines on Design and Installation of Road Traffic Signals”, The Indian
Roads Congress, New Delhi.
21. IRC: 70-1977, “Guidelines on Regulation and Control of Mixed Traffic in Urban Areas”,The
Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi.
22. IRC: SP: 41-1994, “Guidelines on Design of At-grade intersections in Rural and Urban
areas”, The Indian Roads Congress, New Delhi.

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A

DESIGN AND ANALYSIS OF TRAFFIC SIGNAL AT

In partial fulfillment for the award of the degree of

JAGTHAY JATIN KARTHIK (19845A0128)

MAKAM SURYA KIRAN (19845A0138)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

AURORA’S TECHNOLOGICAL AND RESEARCH

(Accredited by NAAC with ‘A’ Grade)

Parvathapur, Uppal, Hyderabad-500098

Jagthay Jatin karthik

INTERNAL GUIDE HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT

PROJECT COORDINATOR DIRECTOR

We profoundly thank DR.A.MAHESH BABU (Professor) who has been an

Jagthay Jatin Karthik

Keywords — Signal Design, Webster method, Traffic control, PCU, Intersection,

Chapters Page No.

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 60

Fig No. Figures Name Page No.

3.1 Mechanical Counting Machine 16

Graph No. Graph Name Page No.

1 Approach volume on roads at morning peak hour 44

Chart No. Chart Name Page No.

1 Morning Peak hour Traffic Signal timing 46

Table No. Table Name Page No.

1 Passenger car unit 37

DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, Page

DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, Page

M. Bhagyaiah, B. Shrinagesh (2011)

Udit Batra, Mandar V.Sarode (2013)

Dr Awari Mahesh Babu (2017)

DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, Page

Adepu Ramesh, Kumar Molugaram (2018)

Samrat Mukhopadhyay, Pramod M.J (2015)

DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, Page

Arpita Saha, Satish Chandra (2017)

Delay caused to an individual vehicle at a signalized intersection is a performance measure to

K Shashi Kumar, R Ramu, Dr. R Srinivasa Kumar (2015)

DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, Page

DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, Page

DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, Page 7

DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, Page 8

DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, Page 9

3.1 Webster’s Method of Traffic Signal Design

DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, Page

3.1.1 Study Magnitude

 Time of the day

DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, Page

3.1.2 TRAFFIC FLOW

 Frequency of Traffic counts

 Daily pattern: The day-to-day variation throughout the week.

DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, Page

 Monthly and yearly patterns

DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, Page

seasonal variation in traffic flow, such occurrence should be considered so as to adequately

3.1.3 Types of Traffic Survey:

3. Origin and destination survey.

4. Household interview server.

5. Speed and delay.

8. Intermediate public transport operator survey.

9. Intermediate public transport user survey.

3.2 Methods of traffic survey counting:

3.2.1 Manual Method:

DEPT. OF CIVIL ENGINEERING, Page