Muscular System 21.
21. The heart muscle is smaller and less powerful than some other muscles in the body. Why is the heart the muscle
1. What is the muscular system? The muscular system is the organ system that consists of all the muscles in the body.
2. Describe muscle cells and their function.
Muscle cells (or fibres) are long, thin cells that are specialized for the function of contracting. They contain protein
filaments that slide over one another using energy in ATP. The sliding filaments increase the tension in, or shorten the
length of, the muscle fibres and cause contractions. Muscle contractions are responsible for virtually all the movements
of the body, both inside and out.
3. Identify three types of muscle tissue and where each type is found. Three types of muscles are skeletal, smooth, and
cardiac muscles. Skeletal muscle is attached to bones, cardiac muscle makes up the walls of the heart, and smooth
muscle is found in the walls of internal organs and other internal structures.
4. Define muscle hypertrophy and muscle atrophy. Muscle hypertrophy is an increase in the size of muscle. Muscle
atrophy is a decrease in the size of muscle.
5. What are possible causes of muscle hypertrophy? Possible causes of muscle hypertrophy include increased use
(physical exercise) and hormones such as testosterone.
6. Give three reasons that muscle atrophy may occur. Answers may vary. Sample answer: Three reasons that muscle
atrophy may occur include lack of physical activity, such as might occur with immobility due to a broken bone or surgery;
starvation; and certain diseases, such as AIDS or cancer.
7. How do muscles change when they increase or decrease in size? When muscles increase or decrease in size, the
individual muscle fibres grow wider or narrower, respectively.
8. How do changes in muscle size affect strength? Muscle size is the main determinant of muscle strength. Therefore,
an increase in muscle size generally causes an increase in strength, and a decrease in muscle size generally causes a
decrease in strength.
9. Explain why astronauts can easily lose muscle mass in space. Answers may vary. Sample answer: Astronauts can
easily loss muscle mass in space because they are in a weightless environment. On Earth, muscle cells are continually
challenged by gravity, and moving and lifting objects against gravity is a form of physical activity that helps maintain the
size of muscle fibres. Without this constant challenge to the muscles, astronauts will lose muscle mass unless they
proactively exercise.
10. Describe how the terms muscle cells, muscle fibres, and myocytes relate to each other. Both muscle fibres and
myocytes are muscle cells. The term muscle fibre is mainly used to describe muscle cells in skeletal and cardiac muscles.
The term myocyte is mainly used to describe muscle cells in smooth muscles.
11. Name two systems in the body that work together with the muscular system to carry out movements. Answers
will vary. Sample answer: The skeletal system and the nervous system.
12. Describe one way in which the muscular system is involved in regulating body temperature. Answers may vary.
Sample answer: Smooth muscles in the blood vessels can contract to cause vasoconstriction, or relax to cause
vasodilation. This conserves body heat or dissipates it, respectively.
12.3 Types of Muscle Tissue: Review Questions and Answers
13. What is muscle tissue?Muscle tissue is a soft tissue that makes up most of the tissues in the muscles of the human
muscular system. It is the only type of tissue that has cells with the ability to contract.
14. Where is skeletal muscle found, and what is its general function?Skeletal muscle is attached to bones by tendons.
Its general function is to power voluntary body movements.
15. Why do many skeletal muscles work in pairs?Many skeletal muscles work in opposing pairs to move bones back and
forth at joints.
16. Describe the structure of a skeletal muscle.A skeletal muscle consists of bundles of muscle fascicles, each of which
in turn consists of bundles of muscle fibres. Skeletal muscles also have connective tissue supporting and protecting the
muscle tissue.
17. Relate muscle fibre structure to the functional units of muscles.Each muscle fibre consists of a bundle of myofibrils,
which are bundles of protein filaments. The filaments are arranged in repeating units called sarcomeres, which are the
basic functional units of skeletal muscles.
18. Why is skeletal muscle tissue striated? Skeletal muscle tissue is striated because of the pattern of sarcomeres in its
fibres.
19. Where is smooth muscle found? What controls the contraction of smooth muscle? Smooth muscle is found in the
walls of internal organs and vessels. Contractions of smooth muscles are not under conscious control. Instead, they are
controlled by the autonomic nervous system, hormones, and other substances.
20. Where is cardiac muscle found? What controls its contractions? Cardiac muscle is found only in the wall of the
heart. Contractions of cardiac muscle are involuntary like those of smooth muscle. They are controlled by electrical
impulses from specialized cardiac cells and may be influenced by hormones and other factors.
that performs the greatest amount of physical work in the course of a lifetime? How does the heart resist fatigue? The
heart is the muscle that performs the greatest amount of physical work in the course of a lifetime because it beats
continuously throughout life without rest. Its cells contains a great many mitochondria to produce ATP for energy and
help the heart resist fatigue.
22. Give one example of connective tissue that is found in muscles. Describe one of its functions. Answers will vary.
Sample answer: The connective tissue called epimysium surrounds skeletal muscles and anchors the muscles to
tendons.
12.4 Muscle Contraction: Review Questions and Answers
23. What is a skeletal muscle contraction? A skeletal muscle contraction is an increase in the tension or a decrease in
the length of a skeletal muscle.
24. Explain sliding filament theory and describe crossbridge cycling. The sliding filament theory is the most widely
accepted explanation for how a muscle contraction occurs. According to this theory, thick myosin filaments repeatedly
attach to and pull on thin myosin filaments. This shortens sarcomeres and thus causes contractions.
25. If the acetylcholine receptors on muscle fibres were blocked by a drug, what do you think this would do to muscle
contraction? Explain your answer. Answers may vary. Sample answer: If the acetylcholine receptors were blocked,
muscle contraction would be prevented or at least inhibited. This is because the neurotransmitter acetylcholine is
necessary to trigger muscle contractions at the neuromuscular junction by binding to its receptors on the muscle fibres.
26. Explain how crossbridge cycling and sliding filament theory are related to each other. Sliding filament theory
describes how actin and myosin filaments slide past each other during muscle contraction. Crossbridge cycling is the
specific mechanism by which the filaments slide past each other, which involves the use of ATP.
27. When does anaerobic respiration typically occur in human muscle cells? Anaerobic respiration typically only occurs
in human muscle cells during strenuous exercise when sufficient oxygen cannot be delivered to the muscle to keep up
with the demand for ATP.
28. If there were no ATP available in a muscle, how would this affect crossbridge cycling? What would this do to
muscle contraction? Answers may vary. Sample answer: ATP is required to move the myosin head into the cocked
position. If this does not occur, the myosin head cannot attach to the actin filament and the “power stroke” cannot
occur. The filaments would not slide past each other and therefore muscle contraction would not occur.
12.5 Physical Exercise: Review Questions and Answers
29. How do we define physical exercise?Physical exercise is defined as any bodily activity that enhances or maintains
physical fitness and overall health even if it is not done for its health benefits.
30. What are current recommendations for physical exercise for adults? Current recommendations for physical exercise
for adults are 30 minutes a day of moderate exercise.
31. Define flexibility exercise, and state its benefits. What are two examples of flexibility exercises? Flexibility exercise
is any physical activity that stretches and lengthens muscles. Benefits of flexibility exercise include improving range of
motion and reducing risk of injury. Examples may vary. Sample answer: Two examples of flexibility exercises include
stretching and yoga.
32. In general, how does physical exercise affect health, quality of life, and longevity? In general, physical exercise
improves physical, mental, and emotional health. It also increases quality of life and longevity.
33. What mechanism may underlie many of the general health benefits of physical exercise? The mechanism that may
underlie many of the general health benefits of physical exercise is the release of hormones called myokines from
contracting muscles. Myokines are endocrine hormones that promote tissue repair and growth and have anti-
inflammatory effects.
34. Relate physical exercise to cardiovascular disease risk. Physical exercise can reduce risk factors for cardiovascular
disease, including hypertension, high levels of “bad” and total cholesterol, and excess body weight. Physical exercise can
also increase factors associated with good cardiovascular health, such as “good” cholesterol level and the mechanical
efficiency of the heart.
35. What may explain the positive benefits of physical exercise on cognition? Positive benefits of physical exercise on
cognition may be explained by an increase in blood flow to the brain, which brings more oxygen to brain cells; an
increase in growth factors that promote growth of brain cells and neuronal pathways in the brain; and an increase in
neurotransmitters in the brain.
36. How does physical exercise compare with antidepressant drugs in the treatment of depression? Numerous studies
suggest that regular aerobic exercise works as well as pharmaceutical antidepressants in treating mild-to-moderate
depression, possibly because it increases synthesis of natural euphoriants in the brain.
37. Identify several other health benefits of physical exercise. Other health benefits of physical exercise include
improved sleep, better immune system function, and reduced risk of type 2 diabetes and obesity.
38. Explain how genetics may influence the way individuals respond to physical exercise. Genetic differences in
proportions of slow-twitch and fast-twitch skeletal muscle fibres may influence how people respond to physical exercise.
People with more slow-twitch fibres may be able to develop greater endurance from aerobic exercise, whereas people
with more fast-twitch fibres may be able to develop greater muscle size and strength from anaerobic exercise.
39. Can too much physical exercise be harmful? Some adverse effects may occur if exercise is extremely intense and the
body is not given proper rest between exercise sessions. Many people who overwork their muscles develop delayed
onset muscle soreness (DOMS), which may be caused by tiny tears in muscle fibres.
12.6 Disorders of the Muscular System: Review Questions and Answers
40. What are musculoskeletal disorders? What causes them? Musculoskeletal disorders are injuries that occur in
muscles or associated tissues such as tendons because of biomechanical stresses. The disorders may be caused by
sudden exertion, over-exertion, repetitive motions, and similar stresses.
41. How does a muscle strain occur? A muscle strain occurs when muscle fibres tear as a result of overstretching.
42. Define tendinitis. Why does it occur? Tendinitis is inflammation of a tendon. It occurs when a tendon is over-
extended or worked too hard without rest.
43. Identify first-aid steps for treating musculoskeletal disorders, such as muscle strains and tendinitis. First-aid steps for
treating musculoskeletal disorders such as muscle strains and tendinitis include protection, rest, ice, compression, and
elevation.
44. Describe carpal tunnel syndrome and how it may be treated. Carpal tunnel syndrome is a biomechanical problem
that occurs in the wrist when the median nerve becomes compressed between carpal bones, often due to repetitive use
of the wrist and typically causing pain, numbness, and eventually muscle wasting in the thumb and first two fingers of
the hand if untreated. Carpal tunnel syndrome may be treated by wearing a wrist splint, receiving corticosteroid
injections, or undergoing surgery to cut the carpal ligament and reduce pressure on the median nerve.
45. Define neuromuscular disorders. Neuromuscular disorders are systemic disorders that occur because of problems
with the nervous control of muscle contractions or with the muscle cells themselves.
46. Identify the cause and symptoms of muscular dystrophy. Muscular dystrophy is a genetic disorder caused by
defective proteins in muscle cells. Its symptoms include progressive skeletal muscle weakness due to the death of
muscle cells and tissues.
47. Outline the cause and progression of myasthenia gravis. Myasthenia gravis is a genetic neuromuscular disorder
most often caused by immune system antibodies blocking acetylcholine receptors on muscle cells and the actual loss of
acetylcholine receptors. It is characterized by fluctuating muscle weakness and fatigue, with more muscles becoming
affected and muscles becoming increasingly weakened as the disorder progresses.
48. What is Parkinson’s disease? List four characteristic signs of the disorder. Parkinson’s disease is a degenerative
disorder of the central nervous system that mainly affects the muscular system and movement. Four characteristic signs
of the disorder are muscle tremor, rigidity, slowness of movement, and postural instability.
49. What are the main differences between musculoskeletal disorders and neuromuscular disorders? Answers may
vary. Sample answer: Musculoskeletal disorders are due to biomechanical stresses; typically only affect just one or a few
muscles; and are often fully treatable. Neuromuscular disorders are not due to biomechanical stresses (they often have
a genetic cause); they usually affect most or all of the muscles in the body; and they are often progressive and incurable.
50. is padding of a strained muscle part of the typical treatment? A strained muscle is caused by the tearing of muscle
fibres. Padding of a strained muscle protects it from further impact.
51. What are two tissues — other than muscle tissue — that can experience problems that result in muscular system
disorders? Answers may vary. Sample answer: Tendons and nervous system tissue.
52. What are tendons? Name a muscular system disorder involving tendons. Tendons are bundles of collagen fibres
that attach skeletal muscles to bone. Answers may vary. Sample answer. Tendonitis.
53. Describe the relationship between muscles, muscle fibres, and fascicles. Muscle fibres are the cells that make up
skeletal muscle tissue. Muscle fibres are bundled together in fascicles. In turn, bundles of fascicles make up individual
muscles.
54. The biceps and triceps muscles are shown above. Answer the following questions about these arm muscles.
55. When the biceps contract and become shorter (as in the picture above), what kind of motion does this produce in
the arm? The arm bends at the elbow and the forearm will move up.
56. Is the situation described in part (a) more likely to be an isometric or isotonic contraction? Explain your answer. It
is more likely to be an isotonic contraction because the muscle is shortening and isotonic contractions involve a change
in muscle length. Isometric contractions do not involve a change in muscle length.
57. If the triceps were to then contract, which way would the arm move? The arm would straighten out.
58. What are Z discs? What happens to them during muscle contraction? Z discs are structures that mark the end of a
sarcomere in a muscle fibre. They are attached to actin filaments. During muscle contraction, the sliding of the actin and
myosin filaments pulls the Z discs closer together, shortening the sarcomere.
59. What is the function of mitochondria in muscle cells? Which type of muscle fibre has more mitochondria ¬— slow-
twitch or fast-twitch? The function of mitochondria in muscle cells is to provide energy for the muscles in the form of
ATP, through aerobic respiration. Slow-twitch.
60. What is the difference between primary and secondary Parkinson’s disease? Primary Parkinson’s disease occurs
mostly in older people, for no known reason. Secondary Parkinson’s disease occurs due to some kind of known or
suspected cause, such as repeated head trauma or exposure to toxins.
61. Why can carpal tunnel syndrome cause muscle weakness in the hands? Answers may vary. Sample answer: Carpal
tunnel syndrome is due to the compression of the median nerve in the wrist. This nerve is then unable to adequately
stimulate the muscles that it innervates, causing muscle weakness.
62. Describe the following system issues/diseases/disorders (READ THIS IN THE BOOKS):
Rheumatoid arthritis - is an autoimmune and inflammatory disease, which means that your immune system attacks
healthy cells in your body by mistake, causing inflammation (painful swelling) in the affected parts of the body. RA
mainly attacks the joints, usually many joints at once.
Gouty arthritis - Gout is a type of inflammatory arthritis that causes pain and swelling in your joints, usually as flares
that last for a week or two, and then resolve. Gout flares often begin in your big toe or a lower limb.
Osteoarthritis - is a degenerative joint disease, in which the tissues in the joint break down over time. It is the most
common type of arthritis and is more common in older people. People with osteoarthritis usually have joint pain and,
after rest or inactivity, stiffness for a short period of time.
Tendonitis - inflammation of a tendon, most commonly from overuse but also from infection or rheumatic disease
Bursitis - is inflammation of a bursa. A bursa is a closed, fluid-filled sac that works as a cushion and gliding surface to
reduce friction between tissues of the body.
Poliomyelitis - is a disabling and life-threatening disease caused by the poliovirus. The virus spreads from person to
person and can infect a person's spinal cord, causing paralysis
Spina bifida - It is a type of neural tube defect (NTD). Spina bifida can happen anywhere along the spine if the neural
tube does not close all the way.
Osteoporosis - is a bone disease that develops when bone mineral density and bone mass decreases, or when the
quality or structure of bone changes. This can lead to a decrease in bone strength that can increase the risk of broken
bones (fractures).
Duchenne muscular dystrophy - is one of the most severe forms of inherited muscular dystrophies. It is the most
common hereditary neuromuscular disease and does not exhibit a predilection for any race or ethnic group. Mutations
in the dystrophin gene lead to progressive muscle fiber degeneration and weakness.
Nervous System
1. What are the functions of the Nervous System?
To carry out its normal role, the nervous system has three overlapping functions.
1. Monitoring changes. Much like a sentry, it uses its millions of sensory receptors to monitor changes occurring
both inside and outside the body; these changes are called stimuli, and the gathered information is called
sensory input.
 2. Interpretation of sensory input. It processes and interprets the sensory input and decides what should be done 4. Enumerate and Describe the Supporting Cells?
at each moment, a process called integration. Supporting cells in the CNS are “lumped together” as neuroglia, which literally means “nerve glue”.
3. Effects responses. It then effects a response by activating muscles or glands (effectors) via motor output. 1. Neuroglia. Neuroglia includes many types of cells that generally support, insulate, and protect the delicate
4. Mental activity. The brain is the center of mental activity, including consciousness, thinking, and memory. neurons; in addition, each of the different types of neuroglia, also simply called either glia or glial cells, has
5. Homeostasis. This function depends on the ability of the nervous system to detect, interpret, and respond to special functions.
changes in internal and external conditions. It can help stimulate or inhibit the activities of other systems to 2. Astrocytes. These are abundant, star-shaped cells that account for nearly half of the neural tissue; astrocytes
help maintain a constant internal environment. form a living barrier between the capillaries and neurons and play a role in making exchanges between the two
2. Explain the Anatomy of the Nervous System as seen in the illustration below. so they could help protect neurons from harmful substances that might be in the blood.
The nervous system does not work alone to regulate and maintain body homeostasis; the endocrine system is a second 3. Microglia. These are spiderlike phagocytes that dispose of debris, including dead brain cells and bacteria.
important regulating system. 4. Ependymal cells. Ependymal cells are glial cells that line the central cavities of the brain and the spinal cord; the
beating of their cilia helps to circulate the cerebrospinal fluid that fills those cavities and forms a protective
cushion around the CNS.
5. Oligodendrocytes. These are glia that wraps their flat extensions tightly around the nerve fibers, producing fatty
insulating coverings called myelin sheaths.
6. Schwann cells. Schwann cells form the myelin sheaths around nerve fibers that are found in the PNS.
7. Satellite cells. Satellite cells act as protective, cushioning cells.

5. What are the parts of Neuron?

Organization of the Nervous System Neurons, also called nerve cells, are highly specialized to transmit messages (nerve impulses) from one part of the body
We only have one nervous system, but, because of its complexity, it is difficult to consider all of its parts at the same to another.
time; so, to simplify its study, we divide it in terms of its structures (structural classification) or in terms of its activities
(functional classification).

3. Discuss the Structural Classification of the nervous system?

The structural classification, which includes all of the nervous system organs, has two subdivisions- the central nervous
system and the peripheral nervous system.
1. Central nervous system (CNS). The CNS consists of the brain and spinal cord, which occupy the dorsal body cavity
and act as the integrating and command centers of the nervous system
2. Peripheral nervous system (PNS). The PNS, the part of the nervous system outside the CNS, consists mainly of the
nerves that extend from the brain and spinal cord.
1. Cell body. The cell body is the metabolic center of the neuron; it has a transparent nucleus with a
conspicuous nucleolus; the rough ER, called Nissl substance, and neurofibrils are particularly abundant in
the cell body.
2. Processes. The armlike processes, or fibers, vary in length from microscopic to 3 to 4 feet; dendrons convey
incoming messages toward the cell body, while axons generate nerve impulses and typically conduct them
away from the cell body.
3. Axon hillock. Neurons may have hundreds of branching dendrites, depending on the neuron type, but each
neuron has only one axon, which arises from a conelike region of the cell body called the axon hillock.
4. Axon terminals. These terminals contain hundreds of tiny vesicles, or membranous sacs that contain
neurotransmitters.
Functional Classification 5. Synaptic cleft. Each axon terminal is separated from the next neuron by a tiny gap called the synaptic cleft.
The functional classification scheme is concerned only with PNS structures. 6. Myelin sheaths. Most long nerve fibers are covered with a whitish, fatty material called myelin, which has a
1. Sensory division. The sensory, or afferent division, consists of nerves (composed of nerve fibers) that convey waxy appearance; myelin protects and insulates the fibers and increases the transmission rate of nerve
impulses to the central nervous system from sensory receptors located in various parts of the body. impulses.
2. Somatic sensory fibers. Sensory fibers delivering impulses from the skin, skeletal muscles, and joints are called 7. Nodes of Ranvier. Because the myelin sheath is formed by many individual Schwann cells, it has gaps, or
somatic sensory fibers. indentations, called nodes of Ranvier.
3. Visceral sensory fibers. Those that transmit impulses from the visceral organs are called visceral sensory fibers.
4. Motor division. The motor, or efferent division carries impulses from the CNS to effector organs, the muscles,
and glands; the motor division has two subdivisions: the somatic nervous system and the autonomic nervous
system.
5. Somatic nervous system. The somatic nervous system allows us to consciously, or voluntarily, control our 6. What are the types of neurons?
skeletal muscles. Classification; Neurons may be classified either according to how they function or according to their structure.
6. Autonomic nervous system. The autonomic nervous system regulates events that are automatic, or involuntary;
this subdivision, commonly called the involuntary nervous system, has two parts: the sympathetic and
parasympathetic, which typically bring about opposite effects.

Nervous Tissue: Structure and Function

Even though it is complex, nervous tissue is made up of just two principal types of cells- supporting cells and neurons.

 Functional classification. Functional classification groups neurons according to the direction the nerve
impulse is traveling relative to the CNS; on this basis, there are sensory, motor, and association neurons.
7. Explain the role of Sensory neurons. Neurons carrying impulses from sensory receptors to the CNS are sensory, or
afferent, neurons; sensory neurons keep us informed about what is happening both inside and outside the body.
8. Explain the role of Motor neurons. Neurons carrying impulses from the CNS to the viscera and/or muscles and glands
are motor, or efferent, neurons.
9. Interneurons. The third category of neurons is known as the interneurons or association neurons; they connect the
motor and sensory neurons in neural pathways.
 Structural classification. Structural classification is based on the number of processes extending from the
cell body.
 Multipolar neuron. If there are several processes, the neuron is a multipolar neuron; because all motor and
association neurons are multipolar, this is the most common structural type.
 Bipolar neurons. Neurons with two processes- an axon and a dendrite- are called bipolar neurons; these are
rare in adults, found only in some special sense organs, where they act in sensory processing as receptor
cells.
 Unipolar neurons. Unipolar neurons have a single process emerging from the cell’s body, however, it is very
short and divides almost immediately into proximal (central) and distal (peripheral) processes.
Central Nervous System
During embryonic development, the CNS first appears as a simple tube, the neural tube, which extends down the dorsal
median plan of the developing embryo’s body.
10.What is a Brain?
Because the brain is the largest and most complex mass of nervous tissue in the body, it is commonly discussed in terms
of its four major regions – cerebral hemispheres, diencephalon, brain stem, and cerebellum.
Cerebral Hemispheres
The paired cerebral hemispheres, collectively called the cerebrum, are the most superior part of the brain, and together
are a good deal larger than the other three brain regions combined.
 Gyri. The entire surface of the cerebral hemispheres exhibits elevated ridges of tissue called gyri, separated
by shallow grooves called sulci.
 Fissures. Less numerous are the deeper grooves of tissue called fissures, which separate large regions of the
brain; the cerebral hemispheres are separated by a single deep fissure, the longitudinal fissure.
 Lobes. Other fissures or sulci divide each hemisphere into a number of lobes, named for the cranial bones
that lie over them.
 Regions of the cerebral hemisphere. Each cerebral hemisphere has three basic regions: a superficial cortex of
gray matter, an internal white matter, and the basal nuclei.
 Cerebral cortex. Speech, memory, logical and emotional response, as well as consciousness, interpretation of
sensation, and voluntary movement, are all functions of neurons of the cerebral cortex.
 Parietal lobe. The primary somatic sensory area is located in the parietal lobe posterior to the central sulcus;
impulses traveling from the body’s sensory receptors are localized and interpreted in this area.
 Occipital lobe. The visual area is located in the posterior part of the occipital lobe.
 Temporal lobe. The auditory area is in the temporal lobe bordering the lateral sulcus, and the olfactory area
is found deep inside the temporal lobe.
 Frontal lobe. The primary motor area, which allows us to consciously move our skeletal muscles, is anterior
to the central sulcus in the front lobe.
 Pyramidal tract. The axons of these motor neurons form the major voluntary motor tract- the corticospinal
or pyramidal tract, which descends to the cord.
11. Describe Broca’s area. A specialized cortical area that is very involved in our ability to speak, Broca’s area, is found at
the base of the precentral gyrus (the gyrus anterior to the central sulcus).
 Speech area. The speech area is located at the junction of the temporal, parietal, and occipital lobes; the
speech area allows one to sound out words.
 Cerebral white matter. The deeper cerebral white matter is composed of fiber tracts carrying impulses to,
from, and within the cortex.
 Corpus callosum. One very large fiber tract, the corpus callosum, connects the cerebral hemispheres; such
fiber tracts are called commissures.
 Fiber tracts. Association fiber tracts connect areas within a hemisphere, and projection fiber tracts connect
the cerebrum with lower CNS centers.
 Basal nuclei. There are several islands of gray matter, called the basal nuclei, or basal ganglia, buried deep
within the white matter of the cerebral hemispheres; it helps regulate voluntary motor activities by
modifying instructions sent to the skeletal muscles by the primary motor cortex.
12. What are the organs in the Diencephalon?
The diencephalon, or interbrain, sits atop the brain stem and is enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres.
 Thalamus. The thalamus, which encloses the shallow third ventricle of the brain, is a relay station for sensory
impulses passing upward to the sensory cortex.
13. Describe Hypothalamus.
The hypothalamus makes up the floor of the diencephalon; it is an important autonomic nervous system center because
it plays a role in the regulation of body temperature, water balance, and metabolism; it is also the center for many drives
and emotions, and as such, it is an important part of the so-called limbic system or “emotional-visceral brain”; the
hypothalamus also regulates the pituitary gland and produces two hormones of its own.
 Mammillary bodies. The mammillary bodies, reflex centers involved in olfaction (the sense of smell), bulge
from the floor of the hypothalamus posterior to the pituitary gland.
 Epithalamus. The epithalamus forms the roof of the third ventricle; important parts of the epithalamus are
the pineal body (part of the endocrine system) and the choroid plexus of the third ventricle, which forms the
cerebrospinal fluid.
Brain Stem
The brain stem is about the size of a thumb in diameter and approximately 3 inches long.
14. What are the Structures in the brain stem?
Its structures are the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata.
 Midbrain. The midbrain extends from the mammillary bodies to the pons inferiorly; it is composed of two
bulging fiber tracts, the cerebral peduncles, which convey descending and ascending impulses.
 Corpora quadrigemina. Dorsally located are four rounded protrusions called the corpora quadrigemina
because they remind some anatomists of two pairs of twins; these bulging nuclei are reflex centers involved
in vision and hearing.
 Pons. The pons is a rounded structure that protrudes just below the midbrain, and this area of the brain stem
is mostly fiber tracts; however, it does have important nuclei involved in the control of breathing.
15. Describe Medulla oblongata.
The medulla oblongata is the most inferior part of the brain stem; it contains nuclei that regulate vital visceral activities;
it contains centers that control heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, swallowing, and vomiting among others.
 Reticular formation. Extending the entire length of the brain stem is a diffuse mass of gray matter, the
reticular formation; the neurons of the reticular formation are involved in motor control of the visceral
organs; a special group of reticular formation neurons, the reticular activating system (RAS), plays a role in
consciousness and the awake/sleep cycles.
16. What is function of Cerebellum?
The large, cauliflower-like cerebellum projects dorsally from under the occipital lobe of the cerebrum.
Structure. Like the cerebrum. the cerebellum has two hemispheres and a convoluted surface; it also has an outer cortex
made up of gray matter and an inner region of white matter.
Function. The cerebellum provides precise timing for skeletal muscle activity and controls our balance and equilibrium.
Coverage. Fibers reach the cerebellum from the equilibrium apparatus of the inner ear, the eye, the proprioceptors of
the skeletal muscles and tendons, and many other areas.
17. Describe the Protection of the Central Nervous System?
Nervous tissue is very soft and delicate, and the irreplaceable neurons are injured by even the slightest pressure, so
nature has tried to protect the brain and the spinal cord by enclosing them within the bone (the skull and vertebral
column), membranes (the meninges), and a watery cushion (cerebrospinal fluid).
18. What are Meninges?
The three connective tissue membranes covering and protecting the CNS structures are the meninges.
 Dura mater. The outermost layer, the leathery dura mater, is a double-layered membrane where it surrounds
the brain; one of its layers is attached to the inner surface of the skull, forming the periosteum (periosteal
layer); the other, called the meningeal layer, forms the outermost covering of the brain and continues as the
dura mater of the spinal cord.
 Falx cerebri. In several places, the inner dural membrane extends inward to form a fold that attaches the
brain to the cranial cavity, and one of these folds is the falx cerebri.
 Tentorium cerebelli. The tentorium cereberi separates the cerebellum from the cerebrum.
 Arachnoid mater. The middle layer is the weblike arachnoid mater; its threadlike extensions span the
subarachnoid space to attach it to the innermost membrane.
 Pia mater. The delicate pia mater, the innermost meningeal layer, clings tightly to the surface of the brain and
spinal cord, following every fold.
19. Describe Cerebrospinal Fluid, its contents and function.
Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is a watery “broth” similar in its makeup to blood plasma, from which it forms.
 Contents. The CSF contains less protein and more vitamin C, and glucose.
 Choroid plexus. CSF is continually formed from the blood by the choroid plexuses; choroid plexuses are
clusters of capillaries hanging from the “roof” in each of the brain’s ventricles.
 Function. The CSF in and around the brain and cord forms a watery cushion that protects the fragile nervous
tissue from blows and other trauma.
 •Normal volume. CSF forms and drains at a constant rate so that its normal pressure and volume (150 ml-
about half a cup) are maintained.
 •Lumbar tap. The CSF sample for testing is obtained by a procedure called lumbar or spinal tap; because the
withdrawal of fluid for testing decreases CSF fluid pressure, the patient must remain in a horizontal position
(lying down) for 6 to 12 hours after the procedure to prevent an agonizingly painful “spinal headache”.
20. Describe The Blood-Brain Barrier.
No other body organ is so absolutely dependent on a constant internal environment as is the brain, and so the blood-
brain barrier is there to protect it.
 Function. The neurons are kept separated from bloodborne substances by the so-called blood-brain barrier,
composed of the least permeable capillaries in the whole body.
 Substances allowed. Of water-soluble substances, only water, glucose, and essential amino acids pass easily
through the walls of these capillaries.
 Prohibited substances. Metabolic wastes, such as toxins, urea, proteins, and most drugs are prevented from
entering the brain tissue.
 Fat-soluble substances. The blood-brain barrier is virtually useless against fats, respiratory gases, and other
fat-soluble molecules that diffuse easily through all plasma membranes.
21. What is a Spinal Cord?
The cylindrical spinal cord is a glistening white continuation of the brain stem.
 Length. The spinal cord is approximately 17 inches (42 cm) long.
 Major function. The spinal cord provides a two-way conduction pathway to and from the brain, and it is a
major reflex center (spinal reflexes are completed at this level).
 Location. Enclosed within the vertebral column, the spinal cord extends from the foramen magnum of the
skull to the first or second lumbar vertebra, where it ends just below the ribs.
 Meninges. Like the brain, the spinal cord is cushioned and protected by the meninges; meningeal coverings
do not end at the second lumbar vertebra but instead, extend well beyond the end of the spinal cord in the
vertebral canal.
 Spinal nerves. In humans, 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the cord and exit from the vertebral column
to serve the body area close by.
 Cauda equina. The collection of spinal nerves at the inferior end of the vertebral canal is called cauda
equina because it looks so much like a horse’s tail.
22. Describe Gray Matter of the Spinal Cord and Spinal Roots
The gray matter of the spinal cord looks like a butterfly or a letter H in cross-section.
 Projections. The two posterior projections are the dorsal, or posterior, horns; the two anterior projections are the
ventral, or anterior, horns.
 Central canal. The gray matter surrounds the central canal of the cord, which contains CSF.
 Dorsal root ganglion. The cell bodies of sensory neurons, whose fibers enter the cord by the dorsal root, are
found in an enlarged area called dorsal root ganglion; if the dorsal root or its ganglion is damaged, the sensation
from the body area served will be lost.
 Dorsal horns. The dorsal horns contain interneurons.
 Ventral horns. The ventral horns of gray matter contain cell bodies of motor neurons of the somatic nervous
system, which send their axons out the ventral root of the cord.
 Spinal nerves. The dorsal and ventral roots fuse to form the spinal nerves.
23. Describe White Matter of the Spinal Cord
The white matter of the spinal cord is composed of myelinated fiber tracts- some running to higher centers, some
traveling from the brain to the cord, and some conducting impulses from one side of the spinal cord to the other.
 Regions. Because of the irregular shape of the gray matter, the white matter on each side of the cord is divided
into three regions- the dorsal, lateral, and ventral columns; each of the columns contains a number of fiber tracts
made up of axon with the same destination and function.
 Sensory tracts. Tracts conducting sensory impulses to the brain are sensory, or afferent, tracts.
 Motor tracts. Those carrying impulses from the brain to skeletal muscles are motor, or efferent, tracts.
24. What is Peripheral Nervous System
The peripheral nervous system consists of nerves and scattered groups of neuronal cell bodies (ganglia) found outside
the CNS.
25. Describe the Structure of a Nerve
A nerve is a bundle of neuron fibers found outside the CNS.
 Endoneurium. Each fiber is surrounded by a delicate connective tissue sheath, an endoneurium.
 Perimeurium. Groups of fibers are bound by a coarser connective tissue wrapping, the perineurium, to form fiber
bundles, or fascicles.
 Epineurium. Finally, all the fascicles are bound together by a tough fibrous sheath, the epineurium, to form the
cordlike nerve.
 Mixed nerves. Nerves carrying both sensory and motor fibers are called mixed nerves.
 Sensory nerves. Nerves that carry impulses toward the CNS only are called sensory, or afferent, nerves.
 Motor nerves. Those that carry only motor fibers are motor, or efferent, nerves.
26. What are the Cranial Nerves?
The 12 pairs of cranial nerves primarily serve the head and the neck
 Olfactory. Fibers arise from the olfactory receptors in the nasal mucosa and synapse with the olfactory bulbs; its
function is purely sensory, and it carries impulses for the sense of smell.
 Optic. Fibers arise from the retina of the eye and form the optic nerve; its function is purely sensory and carries
impulses for vision.
 Oculomotor. Fibers run from the midbrain to the eye; it supplies motor fibers to four of the six muscles (superior,
inferior, medial rectus, and inferior oblique) that direct the eyeball; to the eyelid; and to the internal eye muscles
controlling lens shape and pupil size.
 Trochlear. Fibers run from the midbrain to the eye; it supplies motor fibers for one external eye muscle ( superior
oblique).
 Trigeminal. Fibers emerge from the pons and form three divisions that run to the face; it conducts sensory
impulses from the skin of the face and mucosa of the nose and mouth; also contains motor fibers that activate the
chewing muscles.
 Abducens. Fibers leave the pons and run to the eye; it supplies motor fibers to the lateral rectus muscle, which
rolls the eye laterally.
 Facial. Fibers leave the pons and run to the face; it activates the muscles of facial expression and the lacrimal and
salivary glands; which carry sensory impulses from the taste buds of the anterior tongue.
 Vestibulocochlear. fibers run from the equilibrium and hearing receptors of the inner ear to the brain stem; its
function is purely sensory; vestibular branch transmits impulses for the sense of balance, and cochlear branch
transmits impulses for the sense of hearing.
 Glossopharyngeal. Fibers emerge from the medulla and run to the throat; it supplies motor fibers to the pharynx
(throat) that promote swallowing and saliva production; it carries sensory impulses from the taste buds of the
posterior tongue and from pressure receptors of the carotid artery.
 Vagus. Fibers emerge from the medulla and descend into the thorax and abdominal cavity; the fibers carry
sensory impulses from and motor impulses to the pharynx, larynx, and the abdominal and thoracic viscera; most
motor fibers are parasympathetic fibers that promote digestive activity and help regulate heart activity.
 Accessory. Fiber arise from the medulla and superior spinal cord and travel to muscles of the neck and back;
mostly motor fiber that activate the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles.
 Hypoglossal. Fibers run from the medulla to the tongue; motor fibers control tongue movements; sensory fibers
carry impulses from the tongue.
27. How many pairs does the human Spinal Nerves have?
28. Describe Nerve Plexuses
The 31 pairs of human spinal nerves are formed by the combination of the ventral and dorsal roots of the spinal cord.
 Rami. Almost immediately after being formed, each spinal nerve divides into dorsal and ventral rami, making each
spinal nerve only about 1/2 inch long; the rami contains both sensory and motor fibers.
 Dorsal rami. The smaller dorsal rami serve the skin and muscles of the posterior body trunk.
 Ventral rami. The ventral rami of spinal nerves T1 through T12 form the intercostal nerves, which supply the
muscles between the ribs and the skin and muscles of the anterior and lateral trunk.
 Cervical plexus. The cervical plexus originates from the C1-C5, and the phrenic nerve is an important nerve; it
serves the diaphragm, skin, and muscles of the shoulder and neck.
 Brachial plexus. The axillary nerve serves the deltoid muscles and skin of the shoulder, muscles, and skin of the
superior thorax; the radial nerve serves the triceps and extensor muscles of the forearm, and the skin of the
posterior upper limb; the median nerve serves the flexor muscles and skin of the forearm and some muscles of
the hand; the musculocutaneous nerve serves the flexor muscles of the arm and the skin of the lateral forearm;
and the ulnar nerve serves some flexor muscles of forearm; wrist and many hand muscles, and the skin of the
hand.
 Lumbar plexus. The femoral nerve serves the lower abdomen, anterior and medial thigh muscles, and the skin of
the anteromedial leg and thigh; the obturator nerve serves the adductor muscles of the medial thigh and small
hip muscles, and the skin of the medial thigh and hip joint.
 Sacral plexus. The sciatic nerve (the largest nerve in the body) serves the lower trunk and posterior surface of the
thigh, and it splits into the common fibular and tibial nerves; the common fibular nerve serves the lateral aspect
of the leg and foot, while the tibial nerve serves the posterior aspect of leg and foot; the superior and inferior
gluteal nerves serve the gluteal muscles of the hip.
29. What is Autonomic Nervous System?
The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is the motor subdivision of the PNS that controls body activities automatically.
 Composition. It is composed of a specialized group of neurons that regulate cardiac muscle, smooth muscles, and
glands.
 Function. At every moment, signals flood from the visceral organs into the CNS, and the automatic nerves make
adjustments as necessary to best support body activities.
 Divisions. The ANS has two arms: the sympathetic division and the parasympathetic division.
30. Describe the Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division
The parasympathetic division allows us to “unwind” and conserve energy.
 Preganglionic neurons. The preganglionic neurons of the parasympathetic division are located in brain nuclei of
several cranial nerves- III, VII, IX, and X (the vagus being the most important of these) and in the S2 through S4
levels of the spinal cord.
 Craniosacral division. The parasympathetic division is also called the craniosacral division; the neurons of the
cranial region send their axons out in cranial nerves to serve the head and neck organs.
 Pelvic splanchnic nerves. In the sacral region, the preganglionic axons leave the spinal cord and form the pelvic
splanchnic nerves, also called the pelvic nerves, which travel to the pelvic cavity.
31. Describe the Anatomy of the Sympathetic Division
The sympathetic division mobilizes the body during extreme situations and is also called the thoracolumbar division
because its preganglionic neurons are in the gray matter of the spinal cord from T1 through L2.
 Ramus communicans. The preganglionic axons leave the cord in the ventral root, enter the spinal nerve, and then
pass through a ramus communicans, or small communicating branch, to enter a sympathetic chain ganglion.
 Sympathetic chain. The sympathetic trunk, or chain, lies along the vertebral column on each side.
 Splanchnic nerves. After it reaches the ganglion, the axon may synapse with the second neuron in the sympathetic
chain at the same or a different level, or the axon may through the ganglion without synapsing and form part of
the splanchnic nerves.
 Collateral ganglion. The splanchnic nerves travel to the viscera to synapse with the ganglionic neuron, found in a
collateral ganglion anterior to the vertebral column.
Physiology of the Nervous System
The physiology of the nervous system involves a complex journey of impulses.
32. Describe Nerve Impulse
Neurons have two major functional properties: irritability, the ability to respond to a stimulus and convert it into a nerve
impulse, and conductivity, the ability to transmit the impulse to other neurons, muscles, or glands.
 Electrical conditions of a resting neuron’s membrane. The plasma membrane of a resting, or inactive, neuron is
polarized, which means that there are fewer positive ions sitting on the inner face of the neuron’s plasma
membrane than there are on its outer surface; as long as the inside remains more negative than the outside, the
neuron will stay inactive.
 Action potential initiation and generation. Most neurons in the body are excited by neurotransmitters released  Signs of sympathetic nervous system activities. A pounding heart; rapid, deep breathing; cold, sweaty skin; a
by other neurons; regardless of what the stimulus is, the result is always the same- the permeability properties of prickly scalp, and dilated pupils are sure signs sympathetic nervous system activities.
the cell’s plasma membrane change for a very brief period.  Effects. Under such conditions, the sympathetic nervous system increases heart rate, blood pressure, and blood
 Depolarization. The inward rush of sodium ions changes the polarity of the neuron’s membrane at that site, an glucose levels; dilates the bronchioles of the lungs; and brings about many other effects that help the individual
event called depolarization. cope with the stressor.
 Graded potential. Locally, the inside is now more positive, and the outside is less positive, a situation called  Duration of the effect. The effects of sympathetic nervous system activation continue for several minutes until its
graded potential. hormones are destroyed by the liver.
 Nerve impulse. If the stimulus is strong enough, the local depolarization activates the neuron to initiate and  Function. Its function is to provide the best conditions for responding to some threat, whether the best response
transmit a long-distance signal called an action potential, also called a nerve impulse; the nerve impulse is an all- is to run, to see better, or to think more clearly.
or-none response; it is either propagated over the entire axon, or it doesn’t happen at all; it never goes partway
along an axon’s length, nor does it die out with distance as do graded potential. Parasympathetic Division
 Repolarization. The outflow of positive ions from the cell restores the electrical conditions at the membrane to The parasympathetic division is most active when the body is at rest and not threatened in any way.
the polarized or resting, state, an event called repolarization; until a repolarization occurs, a neuron cannot  Function. This division, sometimes called the “resting-and-digesting” system, is chiefly concerned with promoting
conduct another impulse. normal digestion, with elimination of feces and urine, and with conserving body energy, particularly by decreasing
 Saltatory conduction. Fibers that have myelin sheaths conduct impulses much faster because the nerve impulse demands on the cardiovascular system.
literally jumps, or leaps, from node to node along the length of the fiber; this occurs because no electrical current  Relaxed state. Blood pressure and heart and respiratory rates rate being regulated at normal levels, the digestive
can flow across the axon membrane where there is fatty myelin insulation. tract is actively digesting food, and the skin is warm (indicating that there is no need to divert blood to skeletal
muscles or vital organs.
33. Describe The Nerve Impulse Pathway  Optical state. The eye pupils are constricted to protect the retinas from excessive damaging light, and the lenses
How the nerve impulse actually works is detailed below. of the eye are “set” for close vision.
 Resting membrane electrical conditions. The external face of the membrane is slightly positive; its internal face is
slightly negative; the chief extracellular ion is sodium, whereas the chief intracellular ion is potassium; the
membrane is relatively permeable to both ions.
 Stimulus initiates local depolarization. A stimulus changes the permeability of a “patch” of the membrane, and
sodium ions diffuse rapidly into the cell; this changes the polarity of the membrane (the inside becomes more
positive; the outside becomes more negative) at that site.
 Depolarization and generation of an action potential. If the stimulus is strong enough, depolarization causes
membrane polarity to be completely reversed and an action potential is initiated.
 Propagation of the action potential. Depolarization of the first membrane patch causes permeability changes in
the adjacent membrane, and the events described in (b) are repeated; thus, the action potential propagates
rapidly along the entire length of the membrane.
 Repolarization. Potassium ions diffuse out of the cell as the membrane permeability changes again, restoring the
negative charge on the inside of the membrane and the positive charge on the outside surface; repolarization
occurs in the same direction as depolarization.

34.
35. Discuss the events of Communication of Neurons at Synapses
The events occurring at the synapse are arranged below.
 Arrival. The action potential arrives at the axon terminal.
 Fusion. The vesicle fuses with the plasma membrane.
 Release. Neurotransmitter is released into the synaptic cleft.
 Binding. The neurotransmitter binds to a receptor on receiving neuron’s end.
 Opening. The ion channel opens.
 Closing. Once the neurotransmitter is broken down and released, the ion channel close.

36. Describe Autonomic Functioning

Body organs served by the autonomic nervous system receive fibers from both divisions.
 Antagonistic effect. When both divisions serve the same organ, they cause antagonistic effects, mainly because
their post ganglionic axons release different transmitters.
 Cholinergic fibers. The parasympathetic fibers called cholinergic fibers, release acetylcholine.
 Adrenergic fibers. The sympathetic postganglionic fibers, called adrenergic fibers, release norepinephrine.
 Preganglionic axons. The preganglionic axons of both divisions release acetylcholine.

Sympathetic Division
The sympathetic division is often referred to as the “fight-or-flight” system.