MODULE A: THE SOUNDS OF ENGLISH

WORD STRESS INDICATORS IN DICTIONARIES

Let’s begin with an obvious remark: if a word is monosyllabic, then it does not have a stress
indicator in the dictionary. Stress indicators are used only for words with more than one syllable.

Stress
The traditional way of indicating stress in dictionaries is by means of a high stress mark (like an
apostrophe) BEFORE the stressed syllable. For example:

- on the first syllable:

satellite /ˈsætəlaɪt/ painstaking /ˈpeɪnzteɪkɪŋ/

- on the last syllable:

control /kənˈtrəʊl/ event /ɪˈvent/

- in mid-word position:

comparative /kəmˈpærətɪv/ gesticulate /dʒesˈtɪkjʊleɪt/

This method is used, for example, by the MacMillan Dictionary, the Oxford Advanced Learners the
Oxford Dictionary Online – which also provide audios for each word listed – and by most bilingual
Italian-English dictionaries. However, it is better not to use bilingual dictionaries to check
pronunciation.

N.B. What we are discussing here is normal stress patterns, but these may change if a more specific
emphasis is required. For example, the words ‘thirteen’, ‘fourteen’ etc. are usually stressed on the
second syllable, but in specific circumstances the stress may shift to the first syllable, for example
“You misunderstood me – I said THIRteen, not FOURteen”.

Note also that what we discuss in this module is primary stress (the main stress of the word), not
secondary stress. This question is relevant for longer words, for example opportunistic has the
secondary stress, indicated by a low stress mark, on the first syllable:

/ˌɒpətju:ˈnɪstɪk/
WORD STRESS EXERCISE (1)

Indicate where the primary stress falls in the following words. For proper nouns, for example n.23
and 38, you could try the Oxford Advanced Learner’s at
https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/definition/english

1. technique 2. event
3. capitalism 4. develop
5. inadequate 6. comfortable
7. percentage 8. centimetre
9. interesting 10.variety / society / anxiety
11. engine 12. report
13. category 14. vinegar
15. effort 16. syringe
17. police 18. Catholic
19. adjective 20. component
21. ignorance* 22. machine
23. Ian (McEwan) 24. accompany
25. afternoon 26. Milan
27. lunatic 28. July
29. (an) essay 30. character
31. absurd 32. origin
33. result 34. calendar
35. hemisphere / atmosphere 36. talented
37. balloon 38. Marilyn Monroe
39. advertise 40. image
41. Andrea** 42. Nicola
43. narrator 44. influence(r)
45. perseverance 46. Halloween

*The stress is on the first vowel (ignorance), but the verb (ignore) is stressed on the second. This is
anomalous because nouns ending with the suffixes -ance and -ence generally have the same stress
as the related verb (if there is one), for example: accept/acceptance, insure/insurance,
resist/resistance, insist/insistence

**Here’s an example of how to pronounce this name on Craig Ferguson’s Late, Late Show, at 0.44
and 1.01. The interviewee is the actress Andrea Riseborough:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=figSpmr0AJw
SCHWA /ə/
Schwa is far and away the most common phonetic vowel in English. It occurs in all sorts of words,
and may be fixed or variable:

-Fixed schwas. Fixed schwas are always pronounced, and are therefore always present in the
phonemic transcription provided by dictionaries:

again /əˈɡen/ alert /əˈlɜ:t/

harbour /ˈhɑːbə/ compass /ˈkʌmpəs/ Christopher /ˈkrɪstəfə/

banana /bəˈnɑːnə/ Madonna /məˈdɒnə/ assessment /əˈsesmənt/

-Variable schwas. These may or may not be present in the pronunciation. It often depends upon
how quickly the word in question is pronounced. For example, mid-word schwa usually disappears
in spontaneous speech, e.g.:

preposterous /prɪˈpɒst(ə)rəs/ reasonable /ˈriːz(ə)nəbəl/ restaurant /ˈrest(ə)rɒnt/, average

/ˈæv(ə)rɪdʒ/, Deborah /ˈdeb(ə)rə/, marvellous /ˈmɑːv(ə)ləs/, national /ˈnæʃ(ə)nəl/, Canberra
/ˈkænb(ə)rə/

The way dictionaries deal with these cases varies: some dictionaries place this ‘disappearing schwa’
in brackets (as above), some dictionaries use a superscript, for example /ˈriːz ənəbəl/, some
dictionaries eliminate the schwa completely - /ˈnæʃnəl/ - while others consider the schwa to be
fixed, i.e., /ˈnæʃənəl/.

-Schwas in grammar words

Note also that in normal speech, the vowels of ‘grammar words’ such as and, but, that, just, of, as,
her, for, them, have, did, do, will, shall and also can are almost always schwas, though in these
cases it may be the pure vowel pronunciation (/ænd/ /bʌt/ /ðæt/ /ðem/ etc.) which is listed in
dictionaries.
For example, in the sentence ‘I told them to leave at once’, the vowels of them, to and at will almost
certainly be schwas. However, if for reasons of emphasis you decide to stress a grammar word, then
the vowel remains ‘pure’, e.g. ‘I told THEM to leave, not YOU’: with this type of stress, the vowel
of them is /e/, and the vowel of you is /u:/.

Carry on Cleo Infamy

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oBtOpA7x3LM from 0.40

Infamy! Infamy! They’ve all got it in for me! (= Ce l’hanno tutti con me!)

In the word infamy the second vowel is a fixed schwa, and the word for has the variable schwa
usually found in grammar words. The result is that infamy and in for me sound identical, at least in
non-rhotic varieties of English.
Schwas in grammar words:

 as soon as possible, not as tall as you

 she’s taller than me
 are you sure that he knows?
 Laurel and Hardy, Romeo and Juliet, War and Peace, fish and chips, rock and roll, Mum and
Dad
 cup of tea (Would you like a cuppa?), pack of cards, son of a bitch
 for good (= for ever), time for lunch,
 it’s ten to eight, sent to prison, to be or not to be, I’ve got to go (gotta go)
 from bad to worse, a postcard from Jill, he’s from Barcelona
 naughty but nice, she was disappointed but she took it well
 if you can’t beat them join them, let them go
 I was driving over the speed limit
 Can you let me know when she comes?
 Shall I call a taxi?
 He’d have been really mad, what have you done?

BUT prepositions at the end of a sentence tend not to have vowel reduction:

 Who were you talking to? You don’t have to.

 Where are you from?
 Who are you waiting for? Who’s the present for?

GOLDEN RULE
In most varieties of English (New Zealand is the most salient exception), stressed vowels cannot
be pronounced with a schwa. For example in the words treacherous, cinnamon (=cannella) and
Agatha there are two fixed schwas, and in Jerusalem there are three fixed schwas, but the stressed
vowel always remains ‘pure’: /ˈtretʃərəs/, /ˈsɪnəmən/, /ˈægəθə/, /dʒəˈruːsələm/
WORD STRESS EXERCISE (2)

Indicate where the primary stress falls in the following words.

1. unique 2. (electrical) appliance

3. recipe 4. Canberra
5. interview (noun and verb) 6. canal
7. Protestant 8. (drug, telly, e-mail) addict
9. applicant 10. personnel vs personal
11. Romeo and Juliet 12. Catholicism
13. princess 14. insurance
15. Himalayas 16. Canterbury
17. orchestra 18. Niagara Falls
19. horizon 20. UFO, SMS, BBC
21. reservoir 22. Aladdin
23. Japan 24. necessary
25. subsequent 26. (to/a) comment
27. invalid (this depends on the meaning) 28. midday
29. Amazon 30. Arabic vs Arabian
31. caregiver 32. hotel
33. infamous 34. acronym
35. kilometre 36. margarine
37. dessert vs to desert vs a desert 38. hypocrite vs hypocritical
39. Macbeth* 40. maintenance**
41. manipulate 42. tourism
43. colleague 44. e-mail
45. sleep in, take off, get off on (phrasal verbs) 46. a friend of hers
47. (to) vary

*Anglicisms in Italian: some anglicisms have developed a different stress in Italian, e.g., Macbeth,
influencer, email, turnover, background, hamburger, cheeseburger, teenager, download.
The stress of these words in English is Macˈbeth, ˈinfluencer, ˈemail, ˈturnover, ˈbackground,
ˈhamburger, ˈcheeseburger, ˈteenager.

**See n.21 of Stress Exercise 1. This too is anomalous: maintenance but to maintain.
Rhoticity
Your understanding of English pronunciation will greatly improve if you learn to distinguish
between rhotic and non-rhotic accents of English:

- A rhotic accent is one in which the letter ‘r’ is always pronounced, for example standard
American:

Jon Hamm Big Questions 0-1.16

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EuujCvqRWiE

Note that Hamm always pronounces the letter ‘r’, whatever its position in the word.

years, teacher, early, very, first grade production, sort of, throughout, theatre, more, car, work

- A non-rhotic accent is one in which the letter ‘r’ is pronounced only before a phonetic
vowel.

What is a phonetic vowel? Phonetic vowels are those which are produced in speech: get, sing,
potato. They are to be distinguished from vowels which are silent (predominantly the letter ‘e’):
made, meme, leisure, watched, smoked, giraffe, village, colleague, tongue, unique, guarantee: these
vowels are orthographic but not phonetic.

The rapper and actor Riz Ahmed is from London and speaks with a London accent, which is non-
rhotic.

Riz Ahmed: rapper

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P5W8x4Q7N9c

Interview with rapper and actor Riz Ahmed:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ftRevOsgY40&t=14s 0.00-0.13, 1.38-2.42

Here I have highlighted the instances where Ahmed pronounces the letter ‘r’ before a phonetic
vowel:

0.00-0.13: The first time I left London was at the age of 2 to go to Pakistan to be circumsised. Yeah,
we make a whole song and dance about it. That’s my first memory, still traumatised.

(As a Muslim, do you get stopped at airports?)

1.38-2.42: I don’t get stopped in the US, because I’ve got a visa, but I get stopped in the UK before
I board the plane. What’s funny is that the neighbourhood that Heathrow airport is in is a heavily
south-Asian neighbourhood, so the kids working there are like often fans of mine, so the kids that
pull me aside to search me are also like asking me for selfies while they’re swabbing me for
explosives and stuff, or you know going through my underpants and like quoting my raps back at
me. So quite a surreal experience, but I guess that speaks to the kind of dichotomy insider-outsider
status that I know I’ve felt all my life.

(What movies make you cry?)

What movie doesn’t make me cry, man? I’m an actor, you know, I’m just this far away from crying
most of the time. This interview’s been emotional … ET. ET made me cry a lot. I relate to the alien.
If you’re a child of immigrants you relate to the alien, on ET. They’re coming to take me, they say I
can’t stay here, they’re gonna burst into our homes and take us away. I was ET in that film.

Notice, however, that when the letter ‘r’ is not before a phonetic vowel – that is, when it is before a
silent vowel (more) or before a consonant (board) or at the end of a word (insider) – Ahmed does
not produce it. Here I have highlighted the instances where Ahmed does not pronounce the letter
‘r’:

0.00-0.13: The first time I left London was at the age of 2 to go to Pakistan to be circumsised. Yeah,
we make a whole song and dance about it. That’s my first memory, still traumatised.

1.38-2.42: I don’t get stopped in the US, because I’ve got a visa, but I get stopped in the UK before
I board the plane. What’s funny is that the neighbourhood that Heathrow airport is in is a heavily
south-Asian neighbourhood, so the kids working there are like often fans of mine, so the kids that
pull me aside to search me are also like asking me for selfies while they’re swabbing me for
explosives and stuff, or you know going through my underpants and like quoting my raps back at
me. So quite a surreal experience, but I guess that speaks to the kind of dichotomy and the insider-
outsider status that I know I’ve felt all my life.

What movie doesn’t make me cry, man? I’m an actor, you know, I’m this far away from crying
most of the time. This interview’s been emotional. ET. ET made me cry a lot. I relate to the alien. If
you’re a child of immigrants you relate to the alien, on ET. They’re coming to take me, they say I
can’t stay here, they’re gonna burst into our homes and take us away. I was ET in that film.

So, Ahmed would produce the ‘r’ of staring, because it is before a phonetic vowel, but he would not
produce the ‘r’ in stare, stared, stares (because it is before a silent vowel) or in start or starve
(because it is before a consonant) or in star (because it is at the end of a word).

The main rhotic accents of English are Standard American, Canadian, Irish, Scottish, the West
Country of England (for example Cornwall, Dorset, Devon).
The main non-rhotic accents of English are all varieties spoken in England apart from the West
Country, Welsh, Australian, New Zealand, South African.

Phonetic transcription 1

1 /səˈvaɪvəl skɪlz/
2 /ˈfɜːðə ˈdeɪtə/
3 /ˈpʌblɪk ˈlaɪbrəri/
4 /jɔː ˈθɜːtɪəθ ænɪˈvɜːsəri/
5 /tʃaɪˈniːz ˈkælɪndə/
6 /ˈfɔːlti ˈkiːbɔːd/
7 /ˈnæʃnəl pɑːk/
8 /ˈjuːsfəl ˈkrɪtɪsɪzəm/
9 /ɪnˈtʃɑːntɪŋ ˈsiːnəri/
10 /kəˈneɪdɪən ˈlɪtrətʃə/
11 /ˈtjuːzdei ɑːftəˈnuːn/
12 /ˈʌtə ˈrʌbɪʃ/
13 /ˈeɪnʃənt ˈbɪldɪŋz/
14 /əˈprɒksɪmət ˈfɪɡəz/
15 /ˈpɪkləd ˈvedʒtəbəlz/
16 /ˈfɔːwəd pɑːs/
17 /ɑːˈtɪstɪk ˈherɪtɪdʒ/
18 /ˈiːstə selɪˈbreɪʃənz/
19 /ˈfebjueri ɪɡˈzæmz/
20 /ænˈtiːk ˈfɜːnɪtʃə/
21 /maɪld ˈklaɪmət/
22 /fəˈmɪlɪə ˈfeɪsɪz/
23 /ˈsɜːfɪs ˈeəriə/
24 /frəm bæd tə wɜːs/
25 /ˈnɪkələs ˈnɪkəlbi/
26 /ˈleʒəli wɔːk/
27 /dʒɔːdʒ ˈkluːni/
28 /ˈkeɪbəl kɑː/
29 /ˈplezənt ɪkˈspɪərɪəns/
30 /ˈtreʒə hʌnt/

Key to phonetic transcription 1

1. survival skills
2. further data
3. public library
4. your thirtieth anniversary
5. Chinese calendar
6. faulty keyboard
7. national park
8. useful criticism
9. enchanting scenery
10. Canadian literature
11. Tuesday afternoon
12. utter rubbish
13. ancient buildings
14. approximate figures
15. pickled vegetables
16. forward pass
17. artistic heritage
18. Easter celebrations
19. February exams
20. antique furniture
21. mild climate
22. familiar faces
23. surface area
24. from bad to worse
25. Nicholas Nickleby
26. leisurely walk
27. George Clooney
28. cable car
29. pleasant experience
30. treasure hunt

Long vowel or short vowel: /u:/ or /u/?

Try to distinguish between the long vowel /u:/ and the short vowel /u/. Note that the short vowel /u/
is often represented as /ʊ/ in EFL materials, but that the long vowel is always represented as /u:/.
Two of the words listed can have either pronunciation in RP.

1. moon
2. foot
3. fool
4. saloon
5. mood
6. good
7. shook
8. wound
9. sugar
10. soon
11. tool
12. pull
13. Hugh / Hughes
14. room
15. youtube
16. food
17. hood
18. approve
19. boot
20. root
21. nephew
22. zoom
23. crook
 24. canoe
25. gloomy
26. manoeuvre
27. minute (= tiny)
28. wood
29. wool
30. shoot
31. soot (=fuliggine)
32. shrewd
33. queue
34. pursue
35. Worcester
36. curfew
37. broom
38. brew
39. route
40. suit
41. fruit juice
42. loose / lose
43. (Penelope) Cruz
44. (Tom) Cruise, crews
45. gobbledegook

Long vowel or short vowel? /u:/ or /u/?

Solutions

1. moon /u:/
2. foot /u/
3. fool /u:/
4. saloon /u:/
5. mood /u:/
6. good /u/
7. shook /u/
8. wound /u:/
9. sugar /u/
10. soon /u:/
11. tool /u:/
12. pull /u/
13. Hugh /u:/
14. room /u:/ OR /u/
15. youtube /u:/ x2
16. food /u:/
17. hood /u/
18. approve /u:/
19. boot /u:/
20. root /u:/
21. nephew /u:/
 22. zoom /u:/
23. crook /u/
24. canoe /u:/
25. gloomy /u:/
26. manoeuvre /u:/
27. minute /u:/
28. wood /u/
29. wool /u/
30. shoot /u:/
31. soot /u/
32. shrewd /u:/
33. queue /u:/
34. pursue /u:/
35. Worcester /u/
36. curfew /u:/
37. broom /u:/ OR /u/
38. brew /u:/
39. route /u:/ US /raut/
40. suit /u:/
41. fruit juice /u:/ x2
42. loose / lose /u:/ loose (adjective) = /lu:s/ lose (verb) = /lu:z/
43. (Penelope) Cruz /u:/
44. (Tom) Cruise, crews /u:/
45. gobbledegook /u:/

Rhoticity tests

A rhotic or a non-rhotic accent? Daniel Craig (from 0.35):

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7-wt-Ouj1cY

Craig’s accent is non-rhotic because he does not produce /r/ in the following cases:

years, rare air, opportunity, career, clearly, terms, bitter, person, (takes) over

Craig hails from working-class Liverpool but his accent is standard British.

Now listen to the comedian John Bishop talking about his native city. Does he have a rhotic or a
non-rhotic accent?

0.35-1.12, 2.00-2.22:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NzqetTkDkJw
The answer is non-rhotic, because Bishop does not produce /r/ before a consonant or at the end of a
word:

Liverpool, year, culture, particularly, morning, normal, downstairs […] Manchester, first

Don’t be deceived by the way he produces /r/, i.e., with a flap when it is intervocalic or when it
follows a consonant and precedes a vowel (brilliant, breakfast, proud, emigrated, married). The
quality of a person’s /r/ has nothing to do with rhoticity. Bishop produces /r/ before a phonetic
vowel (related, generation, front), but so do all speakers of English, so from the point of view of
rhoticity this is irrelevant.

He produces the flapped /r/ – represented phonetically as [ɾ] – because he is a Liverpudlian (from
Liverpool). This sound is is present in Liverpudlian, in Scottish and in many accents of African and
Indian English.

Phonetic transcription 2

1. /ɪkˈstrɔːdənri lʌk/
2./krɒsˈkʌntrɪ ˈskiːɪŋ/
3./ləˈbɒrətri tekˈnɪʃən/
4./θɜːtiˈwʌn ˈpæsɪndʒəz/
5./ˈreɪdɪəu ˈsaɪləns/
6./hɔːs ˈreɪsɪz/
7./jʌŋ skwɒd/
8. /ˈtʃeɪmbər əv ˈkɒmɜːs/
9./feə heə/
10./ˈləʊkəl əˈmiːnətiz/
11./haɪ ˈɔːltə/
12./pɪˈdestrɪən ˈpriːsɪŋkt/
13./ɪntəˈnæʃnəl əˈfeəz/
14./ˈflɒrəntaɪn ˈɑːkɪtektʃə/
15./ˈeɪtɪəθ ˈbɜːθdeɪ/
16/ˈtəʊtəli ɪnˈækjʊrət/
17./ˈhɔːntɪd ˈkɑːsəl/
18./fɔːˈmɪdəbəl əˈpəʊnənts/
19./ˈəʊʃən ˈlaɪnə/
20./ˈfjuːər ɒpəˈtjuːnɪtiz/
21./dʒuːˈlaɪ ənd ˈɔːɡəst/
22./ˈbɒtəld ˈwɔːtə/
23./ˈbrekfəst ˈsɪərɪəl/
24./pəˈsɪfɪk ˈaɪlənd/
25./rəʊst pəˈteɪtəʊz/
26./ˈsentrəl ˈlʌndən/
27./ˈdeɪli ruːˈtiːn/
28./ˈpɒpjʊlər ɪkˈskɜːʃən/
29./ˈəʊpənɪŋ ˈaʊəz/
30./ˈstʌnɪŋ vjuːz/

Key to phonetic transcription 2

1. extraordinary luck
2. cross-country skiing
3. laboratory technician
4. thirty-one passengers
5. radio silence
6. horse races
7. young squad
8. Chamber of Commerce
9. fair hair
10. local amenities
11. high altar
12. pedestrian precinct
13. international affairs
14. Florentine architecture
15. eightieth birthday
16. totally inaccurate
17. haunted castle
18. formidable opponents
19. ocean liner
20. fewer opportunities
21. July and August
22. bottled water
23. breakfast cereal
24. Pacific island
25. roast potatoes
26. central London
27. daily routine
28. popular excursion
29. opening hours
30. stunning views
The linking /r/

In the phonetic transcription exercise 2 you will have noticed the insertion of the sound /r/ as a
superscript:

ˈfjuːər ɒpəˈtjuːnɪtiz/ fewer opportunities

/ˈpɒpjʊlər ɪkˈskɜːʃən/ popular excursion

As we have already discussed, in non-rhotic varieties of English a word-final orthographic ‘r’ (ever,
for, teacher and also stare because the ‘e’ is silent) is generally not pronounced, but it is magically
resurrected if the following word begins with a vowel: for ever and ever; don’t stare at them,
sooner or later, more and more, four hours

However, if there is a pause between the two words, then the /r/ is not produced, for example when
Daniel Craig says rare air (0.55) in the clip we examined last lesson, where he does not pronounce
the second ‘r’ in rare. The reason for this is that Craig produces these two words rather slowly,
perhaps because rare air is not a particularly common expression, and perhaps because if he had
inserted the linking /r/, the result would have sounded like ‘rare rare’, which might have been hard
to understand for the audience.
Indeed the linking /r/ can occasionally cause confusion among native and non-native speakers of
English, so for example ‘Jennifer Aniston’ might be understood as ‘Jennifer Raniston’, ‘Mr Reeves’
as ‘Mr Eves’ and ‘another alley’ (vicolo) as ‘another rally’.

What is striking, however, is that Riz Ahmed, another non-rhotic speaker that we listened to a few
lessons back, does not produce linking /r/ systematically, perhaps because he is a speaker of (non-
rhotic) ‘multi-cultural London English’, a recent variety of London which has been influenced by
African, Indian and West Indian varieties of English:
-search me are also like asking (1.58)
-swabbing me for explosives (2.02)
-insider-outsider status (2.13)
-this far away (2.21)

Now listen to Kit Harington, one of the stars in Game of Thrones, interviewed by Jimmy Fallon.
Harington is from north London, though his accent is mostly standard British. Try to identify any
examples of linking /r/ in the interview (start until 3.00):

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sn8ptplqQ38

-no member of the public (1.15)

-pulls me over and I (1.40)
-like you’re all laughing and his face was just … and he said ‘I have to tell you, whether I take you
into the police station depends on what your answer is’ (2.14-2.22).

I have emphasised that the linking /r/ is a feature of non-rhotic varieties of English. Does this mean
that the linking /r/ is absent in rhotic varieties? The answer is yes, as a phenomenon it is absent,
simply because it doesn’t make sense to hypothesise a linking /r/ with reference to a variety in
which the letter ‘r’ is always pronounced. When the standard American speaker Jon Hamm says ‘I
packed my car up’ (1.08) he certainly produces /r/, but he always produces /r/ in the word car, so
properly speaking there is no ‘link’.

Rhoticity test 3

Now listen to Inspector Campbell (the actor Sam Neill) in Peaky Blinders (1.13-end). Does he have
a rhotic or a non-rhotic accent? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gs_k_rwezbo

Lexis and transcript:

maggot = larva, verme; corpse = cadavere; to swell = gonfiarsi, moltiplicarsi; to swarm =
sciamare, brulicare; bolster = rafforzare; to swear in = insediare (tramite giuramento)

The Peaky Blinders, they feed on the pus of all this corruption like maggots in a corpse. And like
maggots, if left to swell they will eventually swarm like flies and spread their rotten philosophy
across the country and across the world. Those, then, are our enemies. A three-headed beast. It is
my job to decapitate each one and by God I will do it.
I don’t trust any of youse until you earn my trust, and that takes some earning. These are the new
men who will bolster your ranks. Good men, from God-fearing families. By the time the sun sets,
they will be sworn in and in uniform, and by sunrise tomorrow they will be on the streets. God help
those who stand in our way.

The answer is rhotic, because he produces /r/ before a consonant and at the end of a word:

The Peaky Blinders, they feed on the pus of all this corruption like maggots in a corpse. And like
maggots, if left to swell they will eventually swarm like flies and spread their rotten philosophy
across the country and across the world. Those, then, are our enemies. A three-headed beast. It is
my job to decapitate each one and by God I will do it.
I don’t trust any of youse until you earn my trust, and that takes some earning. These are the new
men who will bolster your ranks. Good men, from God-fearing families. By the time the sun sets,
they will be sworn in and in uniform, and by sunrise tomorrow they will be on the streets. God help
those who stand in our way.
Listen to Virginia Raggi speaking English. Overall her pronunciation is acceptable but there is one
word – used several times in the two clips – that she pronounces incorrectly. Which word is it?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gm8pzqlzWl4&t=55s

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0tMDqCXOA4Y

The word is law, whose pronunciation should be /lɔː/. Check the relevant PP slide and try not to
make the same mistake!

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gm8pzqlzWl4&t=55s
0.50, 1.20, 1.34

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0tMDqCXOA4Y
0.55

Phonetic transcription 3

1./ˈselɪbreɪtɪd ˈsɜːdʒən/
2./ˈdʒɪɡsɔː ˈpʌzəl/
3./bæŋk ˈhɒlədeɪ/
4./ˈveərɪəs aɪˈtɪnəreriz /
5./ˈkʌltʃərəl ɪˈnɪʃətɪv/
6./medɪˈiːvəl ˈfɔːtrɪsɪz/
7./ˈblækbəri paɪ/
8./ʌnˈjuːʒʊəl ˈfeɪzɪz/
9./ˈkəʊstəl rɪˈzɔːt/
10./brɪdʒ əv saɪz/
11./ˈwʊstəʃɪə sɔːs/
12./fɜːst kəˈmju:nɪən/
13./rɪˈlɪdʒəs ˈɪmɪdʒɪz/
14./ˈiːɡə ˈbiːvə/
15./beə nɪˈsesɪtɪz/
16./ˈɡaɪdɪd ˈmɪsaɪl/
17./niː ˈɪndʒəri/
18./ˈeɪprəl ðə θɜːˈtiːnθ/
19./sɜːtʃ ˈendʒɪn/
20./ˈblɪsfəli ˈpiːsfəl/
21./kɑː ˈseɪlzmən/
22./ˈneɪtʃə rɪˈzɜːv/
23./əˈnɔɪɪŋ ˈɪəreɪk/
24./ˈsɒkə ˈtɔːnəmənt/
25./fruːt dʒuːs/
26./kəˈrʌpt reɪˈʒiːm/
27./ˈmaʊntɪn ˈvɪlɪdʒɪz/
28./lɑːdʒ ˈɔːfənɪdʒ/
29./ˈrɑːðər əˈrɪdʒənəl/
30./kɑːr ɪnˈʃʊərəns/

Key to phonetic transcription 3

1. celebrated surgeon
2. jigsaw puzzle
3. bank holiday
4. various itineraries
5. cultural initiative
6. medieval fortresses
7. blackberry pie
8. unusual phases
9. coastal resort
10. Bridge of Sighs
11. Worcestershire sauce*
12. first communion
13. religious images
14. eager beaver
15. bare (bear) necessities**
16. guided missile
17. knee injury
18. April the thirteenth
19. search engine
20. blissfully peaceful
21. car salesman/salesmen
22. nature reserve
23. annoying earache
24. soccer tournament
25. fruit juice
 26. corrupt regime
27. mountain villages
28. large orphanage
29. rather original
30. car insurance

* An Italian pronouncing Worcestershire sauce:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1qK68MJdb1I

* The bare necessities / the bear necessities

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9ogQ0uge06o&t=86s
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PuudWztVX9o

Variable schwas in action

The Tonight Show: Harington recounts the story of how he blabbed about being alive in the next
season of Game of Thrones:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sn8ptplqQ38

0.45 to 3.00
The presence of fixed schwas in the interview

You can’t tell your mum, you can’t tell your dad, you can’t tell your brother, you can’t tell your
friends, no-one. No-one knew .. I told mum and dad straight away. It’s mum and dad! No-one else,
well, my girlfriend knew, a few people knew quite quickly … but they were all very trusted people.
No member of the public, no stranger- well actually that’s not strictly true … Well ok, one
policeman knew … There’s a story behind it in that I was going down- I was driving back from my
parents’ house and I was driving too fast actually, I was being a bit naughty, I was going over the
speed limit, and I feel the sirens go off behind me. And this policeman comes up, pulls me over and
I a bit sheepishly said ‘Really sorry, I wasn’t looking at the clock, and he said ‘Do you realise how
fast you were going and that’s a bookable offence?’ And I said ‘Yes, I’m very very sorry, sir.’ And
he said ‘Look, there’s two ways we could do this: you can either follow me back to the police
station now and I book you in, or you can tell me whether you live in the next series of Game of
Thrones.
Yeah, and I laughed, like you’re all laughing and his face was just … and he said ‘I have to tell you,
whether I take you into the police station depends on what your answer is’. So I looked at him and
went ‘I’m alive next season.’ And he goes, he says:
‘On your way Lord Commander. On your way Lord Commander, keep your speed down this far
south of the wall’. Isn’t that brilliant?
The presence of variable schwas in grammar words in the interview with Kit Harington

You can’t tell your mum, you can’t tell your dad, you can’t tell your brother, you can’t tell your
friends, no-one. No-one knew .. I told mum and dad straightaway. It’s mum and dad! No-one else,
well, my girlfriend knew, a few people knew quite quickly … but they were all very trusted people.
No member of the public, no stranger- well actually that’s not strictly true … Well ok, one
policeman knew … There’s a story behind it in that I was going down- I was driving back from my
parents’ house and I was driving too fast actually, I was being a bit naughty, I was going over the
speed limit, and I feel the sirens go off behind me. And this policeman comes up, pulls me over and
I a bit sheepishly said ‘Really sorry, I wasn’t looking at the clock, and he said ‘Do you realise how
fast you were going and that’s a bookable offence?’ And I said ‘Yes, I’m very very sorry, sir.’ And
he said ‘Look, there’s two ways we could do this: you can either follow me back to the police
station now and I book you in, or you can tell me whether you live in the next series of Game of
Thrones.
Yeah, and I laughed, like you’re all laughing and his face was just …and he said ‘I have to tell you,
whether I take you into the police station depends on what your answer is’. So I looked at him and
went ‘I’m alive next season.’ And he goes, he says: ‘On your way Lord Commander. On your way
Lord Commander, keep the speed down this far south of the wall’. Isn’t that brilliant?

Singers and schwas

For reasons of emphasis, singers do not always respect fixed schwas. In the following clips, listen to
what happens to the fixed schwa in the word angel, which in normal speech is
pronounced /ˈeɪndʒəl/ (see your dictionaries):

U2 – Angel of Harlem:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=biNvjeHYGt8

The Eurythmics - Must be talking to an angel:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IVjVYjKtLeM

The respective singers clearly use the pronunciation /ˈeɪndʒel/, though Bono uses /ˈeɪndʒəl/ within
the sequence ‘angel of Harlem’.

For a similar scenario see:

TakeThat - Patience:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kpa-GQBe4ok
Phonetic transcription 4

1./ɒnˈlaɪn ˈbæŋkɪŋ/
2./ˈspeɪʃəs ənd ˈkʌmftəbəl/
3./ fəˈsɪlɪtiz fə ˈtʃɪldrən/
4./əˈvɔɪdəbəl ˈerə/
5./fɪʃ ˈfɪŋɡəz/
6./ˈtæləntɪd ˈdɔːtə/
7./ruːm ˈtemprətʃə/
8./hjuː ˈlɒri/
9./vɑːst əˈreɪ/
10./ˈɒprə ˈsiːzən/
11./ˈnɔɪzi ˈneɪbəz/
12./ʌnəˈtendɪd kɑː pɑːk/
13./fəʊtəˈgræfɪk ɪˈkwɪpmənt/
14./ˈkæntəbri kəˈθiːdrəl/
15./ˈtemprəri daɪˈvɜːʃən/
16. /ˈɡluːtən friː ˈmenjuː/
17./ɒsˈtreɪliən ˈkʌzən/
18./ˈeɪʒən kəˈmjuːnɪti/
19./ðə ˈbudər əv səˈbɜːbɪə/*
20./juːˈnaɪtɪd ˈjʊərəp/
21./əʊˈeɪsɪs əv kɑːm
22./ˈpɒkɪt ˈdaɪəlɪŋ/ /bʌt ˈdaɪəlɪŋ/
23./pɔːtʃʊˈɡiːz ɡests/
24./ˈdʒuːɪʃ trəˈdɪʃən/
25./wɜːst əv ɔːl/
26./ɪkˈsepʃənəl ˈkwɒlɪtɪz/
27./ˈsuːðɪŋ ˈsɔːnə/
28./peər əv ˈsɪzəz/
29./ spɑː rɪˈzɔːt/
30./ˈkrɪsməs iːv/
Key to phonetic transcription 4

1 online banking
2 spacious and comfortable
3 facilities for children
4 avoidable error
5 fish fingers
6 talented daughter
7 room temperature (temperatura ambiente)
8 Hugh Laurie
9 vast array
10 opera season
11 noisy neighbours
12 unattended carpark / car park
13 photographic equipment
14 Canterbury cathedral
15 temporary diversion
16 gluten-free menu
17 Australian cousin
18 Asian community
19 The Buddha of Suburbia* (a novel by Hanif Kureishi)
20 united Europe
21 oasis of calm
22 pocket dialling (butt dialling)
23 Portuguese guests
24 Jewish tradition
25 worst of all
26 exceptional qualities
27 soothing sauna
28 pair of scissors
29 spa resort
30 Christmas Eve

Phonetic transcription 5

1./ strəˈtiːdʒɪk pəˈzɪʃən/

2./ spɔɪlt fə tʃɔɪs/
3./ˈdrɑːmər ɪn njuː jɔːk/
4./səˈraʊndɪŋ ˈkʌntrisaɪd/
5./ˈpiːnʌt ˈbʌtə/
6./jiːst ˈekstrækt/
7./ˈɪnflaɪt mæɡəˈziːn/
8./ˈrɪəli ɪɡˈzɔːstɪd/
9./lɔːntʃ ə ˈprɒdʌkt/
10./faɪˈnænʃəl kənˈsʌltənt/
11./left ˈlʌɡɪdʒ/
12./ˈbrɪtɪʃ ˈbrɔːdkɑːstɪŋ kɔːpəˈreɪʃən/
13./naɪˈjæɡrə fɔːlz/
14./θruː ðə ˈɡreɪpvaɪn/
15./ˈliːnɪənt ɪɡˈzæmɪnə/
16./ˈwiːpɪŋ ˈwɪləʊ/
17./hɑːd ˈʃəʊldə/
18./ˈstrenjʊəs haɪk/
19./ˈbɑːθruːm ˈmɪrə/
20./ˈsætəlaɪt tiːˈviː/
21./ˈkaʊnsəl əv trent/
22./ˈtʃeri ˈɔːtʃədz/
23./hɪˈstɒrɪkəl ˈsɔːsɪz/
24./hɑːfˈbɔːd reɪts/
25./ˈmʌltɪpleks ˈsɪnəmə/
26./rɪˈnaʊnd ˈsaɪəntɪst/
27./ɒn ði əˈdʒendə/
28./ˈbɪznɪs klɑːs/
29./rɪˈsiːt əv ˈpeɪmənt/
30./pɜːsəˈnel ˈmænɪdʒə/

Key to phonetic transcription 5

1 strategic position
2 spoilt for choice
3 drama in New York
4 surrounding countryside
5 peanut butter
6 yeast extract
7 inflight magazine
8 really exhausted
9 launch a product
10 financial consultant
11 left luggage
12 British Broadcasting Corporation
13 Niagara Falls
14 through the grapevine*
15 lenient examiner
16 weeping willow
17 hard shoulder
18 strenuous hike
19 bathroom mirror
20 satellite tv
21 council of Trent
22 cherry orchards
23 historical sources
24 half-board rates
25 multiplex cinema
26 renowned scientist
27 on the agenda = all’ordine del giorno
28 business class
29 receipt of payment
30 personnel manager

*Marvin Gaye I heard it through the grapevine

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hajBdDM2qdg

At 0.48 the lyrics include ‘dontcha know that…’ instead of the standard ‘Don’t you know that…’.

This reflects not only the frequent reduction – in many varieties of English – of /ju:/ to /jə/, but also
the fact that the combination /tj/ is frequently realised as /tʃ/: For examples see transcription
questions 1.10, 1.20, 2.14, 3.5, 3.22, 4.7, 4.23. My surname is often pronounced /ˈstʃuwət/.

In the same way /dj/ is often realised as /dʒ/, for example duke, during, residue. Last year my sister
told me she was planning to watch the film The Last Duel, but I understood The Last Jewel…

Rhoticity test 4

Listen to English actress Amara Karan (the stress is Amara Karan). Has she a rhotic or a non-rhotic
accent?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gC4BsF69d-o 2.40-3.50

Lexis
make the call, a short stint, high-powered job, take the plunge, I had no connections

Her accent is non-rhotic, because she does not pronounce ‘r’:

-before a consonant:
university, participated, short, understanding, world

-at the end of a word:

after, theatre, consider

Karan’s accent is a good example of Received Pronunciation, that is British dictionary English or
‘teacher’s English’ (when I say a good example I mean there is very little regional influence). This
is the pronunciation provided in dictionaries and EFL materials, and it is the accent studied during
this course.
RP is heard mostly in England, though it is spoken by a very small percentage of the population. It
is a social accent, not a regional accent, spoken mostly by professional people (doctors, lawyers,
politicians, teachers) throughout England.

The intrusive /r/

In non-rhotic varieties of English, a mysterious /r/ can follow word-final /ə/ and /ɔː/ if the next word
begins with a vowel:

Word-final /ə/ + vowel:

-I’ll put the pasta on /aɪl put ðə ˈpæstər ɒn/

-media attention /ˈmi:dɪər əˈtenʃən/

-a panda in a cage /ə ˈpændər ɪn ə keɪdʒ/

-Australia and New Zealand /ɒˈstreɪlɪər ənd nju ˈzi:lənd/

-Jessica and Chris /ˈdʒesɪkər ənd krɪs/

Word-final /ɔː/ + vowel:

-we saw an interesting film /wi: sɔ:r ən ˈɪntrəstɪŋ fɪlm/

-the law of the jungle /ðə lɔ:r əv ðə ˈdʒʌŋɡəl/

-raw eggs /rɔːr egz/

Intrusive /r/ can even appear within a single word:

-awe-inspiring /ˈɔːrɪnspaɪrɪŋ/

-drawing /ˈdrɔːrɪŋ/

In our exercises so far we have seen two examples of this at Transcription 4, n.19 ( The Buddha of
Suburbia) and Transcription 5, n.3 (drama in New York)

This intrusive /r/ has developed by analogy with the linking /r/:
-doctor of philosophy, teacher of French; Buddha of Suburbia

Many British people disapprove of the intrusive /r/, and television newscasters tend to avoid it.
The intrusive /r/ is not generally present in rhotic varieties. Consequently, and paradoxically, rhotic
speakers – who always pronounce the letter ‘r’ – sometimes accuse non-rhotic speakers of
producing /r/ excessively!

Like the linking /r/, the intrusive /r/ can cause some confusion among rhotic speakers of English and
among non-native speakers of English, so for example in conversation ‘Laura Ashley’ (an important
chain of stores selling primarily clothes and furnishings) might be construed as ‘Laura Rashley’,
and ‘Julia ached all over’ as ‘Julia raked (rastrellò) all over’.

/ʌ/ or /u/?

As we have seen, the vowel /ʌ/ is part of RP: see Kit Harington (brother, mum, public) and Amara
Karan (loved, once, plunge, nothing, understanding).
More generally, /ʌ/ is also part of accents across the south of England: listen to the clip of Riz
Ahmed, who is not an RP speaker but who is from London (London, funny, stuff, underpants,
doesn’t).

However, you may have noticed that John Bishop, the comedian from Liverpool, uses /u/ rather
than /ʌ/, e.g., culture (0.40, 0.51), mum 0.5

Listen also to the following clip from an interview with the singer and TV personality Cheryl Cole
(0-0.35, 1.07-1.39):
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WjQPD5VUNxs
snuggly = comfortable; dull = boring

She produces /u/ in snuggly jumper, cup of tea, dull, love, snuggly clothes, stuff

Cheryl Cole is a Geordie, i.e., she is from the north-east of England (the area around Newcastle),
and she has a Geordie accent.

So what’s the deal? Within England (England, not Britain), people from south of the town of
Birmingham tend to produce /ʌ/ in the type of words indiciated in your PP slide, whereas people
from Birmingham and north of Birmingham tend to produce /u/ rather than /ʌ/.
However, RP speakers – wherever they are from – produce /ʌ/ (remember that RP is a social accent
rather than a regional accent). So for example both Daniel Craig and John Bishop are from
Liverpool, but Craig speaks RP (and therefore produces /ʌ/), while Bishop has a distinctly
Liverpudlian accent (and therefore produces /u/)

Map of England
https://www.google.com/maps/place/England,+UK/@52.8382004,-2.3278149,6z/data=!3m1!4b1!
4m6!3m5!1s0x47d0a98a6c1ed5df:0xf4e19525332d8ea8!8m2!3d52.3555177!4d-1.1743197!
16zL20vMDJqeDE?entry=ttu
Phonetic transcription 6

1./ˈhɒstaɪl ˈklaɪmət/
2./ˈwaɪndɪŋ pɑːθ/
3./məˈmentəs ɪˈvent/
4./ˈjuːən məˈɡreɡə/
5./ˈɡreɪpfruːt dʒuːs/
6./ˈnʌθɪŋ tə dɪˈkleə/
7./ɪˈməʊʃənəl ˈbæɡɪdʒ/
8./stʌft ˈəʊbəʒiːnz/
9./ˈsɔːlzbri plein/
10./pres rɪˈliːsɪz/
11./ɪkˈsaɪtɪŋ reɪs/
12./ɪnkənˈviːnɪənt əˈpɔɪntmənt/
13./ˈmæsɑːʒ ˈpɑːlə/
14./ˈkʌrənt əˈkaʊnt/
15./ˈʃʌtəl ˈsɜːvɪs/
16./ˈedɪnbrə ˈkɑːsəl/
17./ˈhiːθrəʊ ˈtɜːmɪnəl fɔː/
18./ˈkrɪsməs ˈkrækəz/
19./ˈʃʊɡəfriː ˈbɪskɪts/
20./bæŋk ˈtʃɑːdʒɪz/
21./tʊər ˈɒpəreɪtə/
22./ði ˈʌmptiːnθ ˈtaɪm/
23./beə wɪð miː/
24./ʃɔːt ˈsɜːkɪt/
25./ʃruːd dɪˈsɪʒən/
26./ˈdʒuːljəs ˈsiːzə/
27./ɪlɪzəˈbiːθən ˈθɪətə/
28./ˈwembliː əˈriːnə/
29./ˈwɔːtə ˈʃɔːtɪdʒ/
30./ˈkɔːtruːm ɪnˈtɜːprətə/

Key to phonetic transcription 6

1. hostile climate
2. winding path
 3. momentous event
4. Ewan McGregor
5. grapefruit juice
6. nothing to declare
7. emotional baggage
8. stuffed aubergines
9. Salisbury Plain
10. press releases
11. exciting race
12. inconvenient appointment
13. massage parlour
14. current account
15. shuttle service
16. Edinburgh castle
17. Heathrow terminal 4
18. Christmas crackers
19. sugar-free biscuits
20. bank charges
21. tour operator
22. the umpteenth time
23. bear with me
24. short circuit
25. shrewd decision
26. Julius Caesar
27. Elizabethan theatre
28. Wembley Arena
29. water shortage
30. courtroom interpreter

Phonetic transcription 7

1./saʊθ kəˈrɪə/
2./ˈvæljʊəbəl ˈpraɪzɪz/
3./ ʌnˈɜːnd ˈɪnkʌm/
4./bɜːst ˈtaɪə/
5./ˈmembər əv ˈpɑːləmənt/
6./ˈwaɪdspred ˈflʌdɪŋ/
7./ˈnjuːklɪər ˈenədʒi/
8./əˈfɔːdəbəl ˈpraɪsɪz/
9./nɔːˈwiːdʒən əkɒməˈdeɪʃən/
10./ˈdʒækɪt pəˈteɪtəʊz/
11./ˈdjʊəl ˈsɪtɪzənʃɪp/
12./ˈbaɪsɪkəl ˈhaɪə/
13./ˈkɒlɪflaʊə tʃiːz/
14./ˈwɪndskriːn ˈwaɪpə/
15./ðə ˈjuːʒʊəl səˈluːʃən/
16./ə ˈnɜːsɪz ˈweɪdʒɪz/
17./suːˈpɜːb jɒt/
18./kiːʃ ləˈreɪn/
19./ɪnˈdeɪndʒəd ˈspiːʃiːz/
20./smuːð ˈɒpəreɪtə/
21./ˈpɪrɪəd ət jeɪl/
22./ˈsliːpɪŋ pəˈliːsmən/
23./aɪl pʊt jə θruː/
24./ˈtiːðɪŋ ˈprɒbləmz/
25./ˈrəʊlɪŋ ˈʃʌtə/
26./ˈhendrɪksɪz ˈdʒiːnɪəs/
27./ˈpɒthəʊlɪŋ ɪnˈθjuːzɪæst/
28./ˈpɑːsli ənd seɪdʒ/
29./ˈsiːzənz ˈɡriːtɪŋz/
30./ʌnˈsetəld det/

Key to phonetic transcription 7

1. South Korea
2. valuable prizes
3. unearned income = rendita income = reddito
4. burst tyre (American: tire)
5. member of parliament
6. widespread flooding
7. nuclear energy
8. affordable prices
9. Norwegian accommodation
10. jacket potatoes
11. dual citizenship
12. bicycle hire
13. cauliflower cheese
14. windscreen wiper
15. the usual solution
16. a nurse’s wages
17. superb yacht
 18. quiche lorraine
19. endangered species
20. smooth operator*
21. period at Yale
22. sleeping policemen
23. I’ll put you through
24. teething problems
25. rolling shutter
26. Hendrix’s genius
27. potholing enthusiast**
28. parsley and sage***
29. season’s greetings
30. unsettled debt

*Sade Smooth Operator 1.04

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UNk6LTZYokk

**For the mother of all potholes, click on this link to the film Sanctum:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OgW7L2uq2VM

***Simon and Garfunkel Scarborough Fair: examples of herbs!

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-BakWVXHSug

Last lesson we discussed the distribution in England of the sounds /ʌ/ and /u/ in words like bus.
Some English people say /bʌs/, while others say /bus/.

Listen to this clip from an interview with the English singer Sam Fender (30.25-31.10), who’s
discussing his new album and his low self-esteem when he was younger. Is he a /bʌs/ person or a
/bus/ person?

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pmBwCzsFlB8

He’s a /bus/ person, because he produces /u/ in stuff, comes, does, done.

Like Cheryl Cole, Sam Fender is also a Geordie, and has a Geordie accent.

The former British prime minister Theresa May producing /ɑː/ in the words are and our (2.05-2.30):

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cfFKf4jFBBU
[…] but the reason this all matters is because it affects the future of our country … it is about what
kind of country we are, and about our faith in our democracy. Of course it is frustrating that almost
all the remianing points of disagreement are focused on how we manage a scenario which both
sides hope should never come to pass, and which if it does will only be temporary.

It is clear that in May’s prounciation the words are and our are homophones, but our is often
prounounced in the same way as hour.

Note also her (RP) pronunciation of pass and scenario (2.22), further examples of /ɑː/.

Reginald D. Hunter, a comedian from the southern states of America, talks about British ‘arse’ and
American ‘ass’:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4o6c8gGrKwk

Pronunciation of (i) third person singular forms, (ii) plural forms, (iii) Saxon genitive forms:
/s/, /z/ or /ɪz/?

Premise: before we examine endings in –s, let me refresh your memory about the pronunciation of
regular past tense forms. If the final sound of the base form is /d/ or /t/, then an extra syllable is
added, for example ‘ended, loaded, persuaded, waited, started, invited’ are all have an extra
syllable. If the final sound of the base form is not /d/ or /t/, then there is not an extra syllable, e.g.,
‘watched, wished, called, listened, measured, smoked, judged, taped, faced, missed, annoyed,
allowed’.

Now let’s go back to endings in –s.

Rule 1: when the letter ‘s’ is word-final in the cases (i), (ii) and (iii) above, it is pronounced:
 /s/ after a voiceless consonant (consonante sorda), for example, /p/, /t/, /k/:, steps, flats,
Rick’s
 /z/ after a voiced consonant (consonante sonora), for example /b/, /d/, /m/, /n/: jobs, reads,
tons, seems, John’s
 /z/ after a (phonetic) vowel: days, goes, knows, Elena’s

Rule 2: if a word has the ending ‘-es’ in the spelling, then the final syllable is pronounced /ɪz/ after:
- /tʃ/ churches, witches, watches, fetches
- /ʃ/ crashes, dishes, wishes, washes
- /ʤ/ judges, bridges, sledges, hedges, ages, cages, villages
- /s/ releases, nurses, glasses, juices, races, notices, pieces; /ks/ fixes, boxes
- /z/ sizes, mazes, amazes, whizzes, surprises, teases, cheeses, pauses
In all other cases of final ‘-es’ in the spelling, the /ɪ/ is not present:
vibes, shades, miles, hires, times, Jones, types, tapes, antiques, mosques, cares, goes, frescoes,
tastes, plates, sites, bathes, loves, raves, lives, knives, plagues, rogues, owes, eyes

Pronounce the following words:

Plural nouns: telephones, breezes, games, whales, fetishes, doves, tubes, losses, switches, races,
sides, fares, leagues, bridges, phases, wives, voices, aches, planes, beaches, miles, cures, apes,
hikes, fines, taxes, ogres, cages, roles, goodbyes

Verbs in the third person singular: soothes, reduces, saves, catches, decides, takes, freezes, mates,
rises, waves, ages, chases, bakes, dines, blames, bathes, itches, stares, bites, dates, jokes, crashes,
realises, fades

N.B. A consequence of this situation is that, for example, (i) tastes, guides, fades are monosyllabic,
but tasted, guided, faded are bisyllabic; (ii) chases, fixes, gazes, crashes are bisyllabic, but chased,
fixed, gazed, crashed are monosyllabic.

Rule 3: almost the same rule as Rule 2 above applies to the pronunciation of the Saxon genitive,
whether ‘-es’ is present or absent: /ɪz/ is used after final /tʃ/, /ʃ/, /ʤ/ (and after final /ʒ/, though this
is extremely rare), /z/ and /s/:
- /tʃ/ Mitch’s job, Ibrahimović’s best goals, John Malkovich’s performance, Judy Dench’s
best films, witch’s brew, that bitch’s brother, the Catholic Church’s doctrines
- /ʃ/ Hamish’s brother, George Bush’s policies, the parish’s magazine
- /ʤ/ Nicholas Cage’s latest film, the judge’s decision, George’s bike
- /z/ Maz’s brother, Liz’s passport, St James’s Gate
- /s/ the boss’s son, Chris’s house, Tess’s generosity, Micky Mouse’s adventures,
Venice’s canals, Florence’s theatres, Miami Vice’s best episodes
- /ʒ/ Raj’s flatmates

In all other cases the /ɪ/ is not present:

Dave’s girlfriend; Ruth’s pictures, Philip Roth’s novels, at death’s door, the Earth’s surface;
Philip’s computer; London’s theatres, a stone’s throw; Rome’s restaurants, Tom’s family; Cardiff’s
pubs, a dog’s dinner

Exercise: Colin Firth’s brother, Liz’s sister, Cameron Diaz’s car, The Clash’s hit singles, Van
Gogh’s paintings, Macbeth’s wife, Johnny Cash’s music, Black Sabbath’s greatest hits, Ken
Loach’s best films, Jesus’s miracles, Tom Cruise’s house, Will Smith’s earnings

When a name already ends with the letter ‘s’, /ɪz/ is normally pronounced, whatever the spelling:

Richard Curtis’ films / Richard Curtis’s films

Marcus’ memoirs / Marcus’s memoirs
Francis’ cat / Francis’s cat
Inverness’ churches / Inverness’s churches
Ben Nevis’ ridges / Ben Nevis’s ridges

Finally, note also the case of acronyms ending in ‘s’, for example SMS. The plural is SMS’s,
pronounced with /ɪ/: /eseˈmesɪz/

Phonetic transcription 8

1./ˈplɔːzɪbəl ɔːlˈtɜːnətɪv/
2./ˈbrəʊkən θəˈmɒmɪtə/
3./ˈtəʊkən ˈdʒestʃə/
4./səˈspɪʃəs ˈpækɪdʒ/
5./ˈbevərɪdʒɪz ənd snæks/
6./stɑːf kænˈtiːn/
7./ˈrekləs ˈdraɪvəz/
8./ˈfɒrən ˈpɒləsi/
9./ˈkeɪtərɪŋ fɜːm/
10./rekrɪˈeɪʃənəl ækˈtɪvətiz/
11./ˈkʌləfəl ˈkʊʃən/
12./nɔɪz pəˈluːʃən/
13./ˈkrɒkəri ənd ˈkʌtləri/
14./ˈwɪʃfəl ˈθɪŋkɪŋ/
15./kliːn ˈlɪnən/
16./ˈbrɔːdə kliːənˈtel/
17./kənˈvɪktɪd əv ˈmænslɔːtə/
18./ˈrɪɡərəs ˈtreɪnə/
19./ˈhɑːdbɔɪld eɡz/
20./tɪnd spəˈɡeti/
21./wɜːld wɔː tuː/
22./ˈʃɜːlɒk həʊmz/
23./θɜːtiˈfɔː ˈjʊərəʊz/
24./məˈtɜːnɪti liːv/
25./laɪt bʌlb/
26./ˈkɒntæktləs trænˈzækʃənz/
27./ˈelənə ˈrɪgbi/
28./ðə ˈneɪkɪd aɪ/
29./ˈdʒentəl pəsˈweɪʒən/
30./ˈwʌðərɪŋ haɪts/

Key to phonetic transcription 8

1. plausible alternative
2. broken thermometer
3. token gesture
4. suspicious package
5. beverages and snacks
6. staff canteen
7. reckless drivers
8. foreign policy
9. catering firm
10. recreational activities
11. colourful cushion
12. noise pollution
13. crockery and cutlery
14. wishful thinking
15. clean linen
16. broader clientele
17. convicted of manslaughter
18. rigorous trainer
19. hardboiled eggs
20. tinned spaghetti
21. World War II
22. Sherlock Holmes
23. thirty-four euros
24. maternity leave
25. light bulb
26. contactless transactions
27. Eleanor Rigby*
28. the naked eye
29. gentle persuasion
30. Wuthering Heights

* Eleanor Rigby
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HuS5NuXRb5Y

Listen to this interview (0.35-2.30) with the singer Adele, who has a broad London accent:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=16cH5a16Oig&list=RD16cH5a16Oig&t=89

Adele produces a glottalised sound in, for example, the words totally, twitter and excited. This is the
glottal stop [ʔ], which most often replaces /t/, particularly in British varieties of English. It is
especially audible when it occurs in intervocalic position. More next time!

Phonetic transcription 9

1./əˈpɔːlɪŋ njuːz/
2./ˈpliːnəri ˈseʃən/
3./ˈrʌʃən ˈkɒliːɡ/
4./ˈkɑːbən ˈfʊtprɪnt/
5./ˈkɪərə ˈnaɪtli/
6./ɡlɑːs ˈsiːlɪŋ/
7./biːn ðeə dʌn ðæt/
8./praɪd ənd ˈpredʒʊdɪs/
9./ˈdiːmənz ənd ˈəʊɡəz/
10./juːl lɒg/
11./ˈlɔɪəl ˈfɒləʊə/
12./ˈhʌriːd kənkˈluːʒən/
13./prɪˈpɒstərəs ˈnəʊʃən/
14./ˈfæbjʊləs ˈdʒʊəlz/
15./ˈtʌtʃi ˈsʌbdʒekt/
16./ˈsaʊə ɡreɪps/
17./sənt ˈpiːtəz skweə/
18./ɪnˈdʒɔɪ ði ˈɒprə/
19./ˈeɪkɪŋ lɪmz/
20./ɪnˈtɜːnəl ˈkɔːtjɑːd/
21./ˈweɪnɪŋ ɪmˈjuːnɪti/
22./ˈhʌntɪŋ ˈsiːzən/
23./brɔːd ˈæksent/
24./ˈwɜːði əˈpəʊnənt/
25./bəʊ ənd ˈærəʊz/
26. /ˈkʌmpəs pɔɪnts/
27./ˈfjʊərɪəs raʊ/
28./blæk ˈpʊdɪŋ/
29./ˈfeərɪteɪl ˈkærəktə/
30./ˈʃɪəldɪŋ ˈprəugræm/
Phonetic transcription 10

1./kʌps ənd ˈsɔːsəz/

2./graɪm ˈɑːtɪst/
3./ˈfəʊldəbəl ˈsmɑːtfəʊn/
4./ˈɔːkwəd pɔːz/
5./ˈkruːʃəl ˈbreɪkθruː/
6./spaɪk ɪn ʌnɪmˈplɔɪmənt/
7./rɪˈtaɪəd ˈbɪldə/
8./əˈnʌðə jɪə/
9./ˈdaʊntən ˈæbi/
10./ˈsentə kɔːt/
11./ðə ˈbɒsɪz ˈməʊbaɪl/
12./ˈsʌbɜːbz əv ˈwɔːsɔː/
13./ˈbenədɪkt ˈkʌmbəbætʃ/
14./ˈlɔːfəl eə/
15./ˈɡrenɪtʃ ˈvɪlɪdʒ/
16./blʌd ˈpreʃə/
17./ˈplaʊmənz lʌntʃ/
18./pɜːl ˈnekləs/
19./ˈdʌbəlgleɪzd ˈwɪndəʊz/
20./mɑːd baɪ ˈvaɪələns/
21./ˈməʊɪŋ ðə lɔːn/
22./wɪðˈaʊt ˈwɔːnɪŋ/
23./stɜːn ɪkˈspreʃən/
24./ˈrɒbət ˈredfəd/
25./peɪtrɪˈɒtɪk ˈænθəm/
26./ˈsɪərɪəs draʊt/
27./prɪˈkɔːʃənəri ˈmeʒəz/
28./ˈpru:vən træk ˈrekɔːd/
29./kɔːz fə kənˈsɜːn/
30./ˈkrɪsməs ˈpæntəmaɪm/