UNDERSTANDING HUMAN COMMUNICATION

LN: 1 HUMAN COMMUNICATION THEORIES AND CONCEPTS

DEFINING COMMUNICATION:
The act of sharing or exchanging information, ideas, or feelings. The word
‘communication’ is derived from the Latin ‘communicare’ means to share or to be in
relation with. In other words, transmission and interaction of facts, ideas, feelings, opinions
or attitudes. Communication is the essence of management.
Communication as a discipline includes the study of communication in interpersonal
relationship groups, organisation, and across culture, rhetorical studies, argumentation and
persuasion, technologically communication and popular culture.

BASIC MODELS AND LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION:

MODELS OF COMMUNICATION:
1. LINEAR MODEL:
 Lasswell’s model of communication
 Aristotle model of communication
 Shannon and weaves
 Berlo’s SMCR model of communication
2. TRANSACTIONAL MODEL:
 Barnland transactional model
 Helical model of transaction
 Becker’s mosaic model of communication
3. INTERACTIONAL COMMUNICATION:
 Schramm’s interactional model
 Dance helical
 Westly and MacLean’s conceptual model

1. LINEAR MODEL:
 Linear communication models are models where the sender sends the message
& the receiver only receives the message. There's no concept of feedback involved.
The introduction of noise may affect clear communication.
 Aristotle’s model:

Aristotle’s model consists of 5 main elements which make up the framework:

1. Speaker -The one who conveys the message
2. Speech - The message
3. Occasion - Where/when/why the message is being conveyed
4. Target audience - To whom the message is to be conveyed
5. Effect - What impact did the message create?
In his communication model, Aristotle does not assign any importance to the role of
feedback in communication.
Aristotle even identified three elements that have the power to improve communication:

 ethos (credibility)
 pathos (the ability to connect)
 logos (logical argument).

This model was created for the purpose of understanding how to become a more effective
& persuasive communicator
  lasswell’s model:

This model of communication attempts to understand a communication event by asking

five important questions:
1. Who? - The one who wants to convey the message
2. What? - The message that is to be conveyed
3. Which channel? - The medium used to convey the message
4. To whom? - Whom is the message conveyed?
5. What effect? - What effect did it have on the receiver?

 Shannon and weaver model:

This model considers communication to occur in five parts:

1.Sender
2. Encoder
3. Channel
4. Decoder
5. Receiver.
It stresses the importance of encoding and decoding messages for them to be transmitted.
This was the first model to acknowledge the existence of noise in communication that
could disrupt or alter a message. This noise could refer to something like the static on a
radio broadcast, but it could include spelling errors in written communication or the
receiver mishearing the message.

 Berlo’s SMCR model:

 Berlo’s model explains communication in four steps: This model provides a thorough
account of the key elements in every one of the steps that will affect the manner in which
the message is communicated.

 Source: The elements included in the source are the sender’s communication skills,
attitude, and culture.
 Message: The elements included in the message are the content, structure, and code
of the message.
 Channel: The elements included in the channel are the senses of hearing, seeing,
touching, smelling, etc.
 Receiver: The elements of the receiver are their attitude, knowledge, and culture.

2.TRANSACTIONAL MODEL:

 Barnland transactional model:

 Barnland transactional model was proposed by DEAN BARNLAND in

1970.
  It presents a multi-layer’s feedback system for all parties involved, and
recognized that anyone can be a sender and receivers at the same time
 Layers of feedback consists of both verbal and
non-verbal, cues.
 Transactional model talks about simultaneous message sending, noise
and feedback.
Barnlund’s transactional model consists of 5 main elements:

 Communicators
 Encoding
 Message
 Channel
 Decoding

‍
Barnlund’s model also emphasizes the role of cues in impacting your communication. It
sheds light on public cues (environmental cues), private cues (personal thoughts and
background), behavioural cues (verbal or non-verbal actions) Essentially, this model shows
us the factors that influence what we think & say.

 Helical model of communication:

 The helical model of communication is a communication model in which

communication is explained by means of a helix.
 The helical model of communication is bath linear and circular and
stands in contrast to exclusively linear models or models based on
circularity such as the Aristotle communication model or Berlo’s SBSW
model.
 The helical model of communication was proposed by Frank dance in
1967.
 Becker’s mosaic model:

 Sam becker’s proposed a communication model in “the prospect of

rhetoric, which is known as Becker’s mosaic model of communication.
 The model explains the complexity of human communication. It also
describes the randomness of the origin of message and communication
as a dynamic process.
3, INTERACTIONAL COMMUNICATION:
 Schramm’s interactional model
 The Schramm model views communication as a process that
takes place between a sender (transmitter) and a receiver: there will be also a
message, and a medium through which the message can be transmitted
(Schramm, 1948).
 Encoding and decoding are the important factors of effective
communication,
 Schramm’s model revolves around this principle
 Emphasis that communication is incomplete until the sender
receiver feedback from the receiver.
 Schramm believed that an individual knowledge experienced and
cultural background also place an important role in communication.
 Any communication in which the sender does not receive the
feedback the communication is incomplete.

 DANCE HELICAL:
 In 1967, Frank Dance has proposed the communication model called Dance’s Helix Model for a better
communication process. The name helical comes from “Helix” which means an object having a three-
dimensional shape like that of a wire wound uniformly around a cylinder or cone. He shows
communication as a dynamic and non-linear process. Dance’s model emphasized the difficulty of
communication. Frank Dance uses the form of a Helix to describe the communication process. He
developed this theory based on a simple helix which gets bigger and bigger as it moves or grows. The main
characteristics of a helical model of communication is that it is evolutionary.

Frank Dance explains the communication process based on this Helix structure and compares it with
communication. In the Helix structure, the bottom or starting is very small then it gradually moves upward
in a back-and-forth circular motion which forms the bigger circle in the top and it is still moves further. The
whole process takes some time to reach. As like helix, the communication process starts very slowly and
defined small circle only. The communicators shared information only with a small portion of themselves to
their relationships. Its gradually develops into next level but which will take some time to reach and
expanding its boundaries to the next level. Later the communicators commit more and shared more
portions by themselves.

Example
When a child is born the only means of communication for him is crying, he cries for everything like hunger,
pain, cold etc... As the child grows the means of communication become wider and broader. He learns to
make noises then he learns a language to obtain attention and to fulfil his needs. As a Helix, the process of
communication, in this case, started as crying and later it developed into a complex and compound means.
The Helical model of communication is largely dependent on its past. A child learns to pronounce a word in
his elementary classes and throughout his life he uses that word in the same way he learnt. Just like that,
we used to react to certain things in a certain way in our childhood and such reactions and habits lasts with
us forever. The communication evolves in the beginning in some simple forms then the same process of
communication functions and develops based on past activities. Thus, his way of communication or his
reactions may also different from the past behaviour and experiences. It develops further with
modifications according to the situations. Therefore, the model concludes that the process of
communication is like a continuous curve with some changes or flexibility. The base of the helical curve
(lower level) can be affected and/or altered at any time accordingly the experience of an individual.

 Westly and MacLean’s conceptual model

Westley & MacLean Model of Communication doesn't start as soon as a person
starts talking or sends a message, but rather shows how a person reacts to his or
her physical environment. The model shows a strong relationship between
environmental factors and messages and the communication process.

LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION:
I. EXTRA PERSONAL:
  Communication process takes place between human activities and
non-human activities as well.
 When communication is done with non-human activities is called
extra personal communication.
 Perfect coordination and understanding between human and non-
human activities result in extra personal communication.
 One participant uses sign language and the other is verbal.
 E.g., Wagging of tail by new dog where the master shows bone.
 e.g., chirping of birds when strangers are at door.

II. INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION:

 Involves two parties – a sender and a receiver
 Who use common language to transit message
 Either through oral communication or written communication
 Communication directly with people one to one or in a small group.
 ‘inter’ means communication between different individuals.

III. INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION:

 Intrapersonal communication is all about talking to ourselves.
 Admitting the truth to ourselves – reflects self-awareness.
 Intra means within hence interpersonal communication is self-talk.
 Active internal involvement of individual is symbolic progressing of
messages. The internal thought process keeps on working even at sleep
hours.
 e.g.: about any event or episode from once day/life.

IV. ORGANISATIONAL COMMUNICATION:

 In team-based business organisation, communication is very important
 Organisational communication includes external and internal communication.

V. MASS COMMUNICATION:
 Newspaper /magazines- means of communication
 Frequently used for oral or written communication.
 Public communication transmitted through electronical or mechanical
communication.

FLOW OF COMMUNICATIOM:
Downward: (top to bottom)
 Communication from higher level of communication to lower level or down the
chain.
  Transmit work related information to lower-level employees like employee
feedback, communicate vision mission of the organisation
Upward:
 Lower level of organisation to upward or higher level
 Allows employees to convey opinions or ideas
 Employees have voice and ownership within organisation

Lateral:
 Communication with everyone with no difference or hierarchy
 Communication takes place at the same level of hierarchy within an organisation.
 Builds rapport with co workers
Diagonal:
 Flows in all direction
 Manages work with employees from another department or work group
 Effective diagonal communication leads to uniformity across an organisation, helps to
prevent misunderstanding that may occur through the communication chain
 Quick and efficient

SEVEN TRADITIONS OF COMMUNICATION:

ROBERT CRAIG'S SEVEN TRADITIONS OF COMMUNICATION THEORY

The communication is quite a complicated process which has many particles,

many variables, and many parts which we have to consider. Let's now focus
on the communication theory itself and to talk about Robert Craig's seven
traditions of communication theory. He starts with the notion that many,
many definitions of communication exist.
Craig divides seven traditions:
1) cybernetic,
2) socio-psychological,
3) socio-cultural
4) critical,
5) rhetorical,
6) phenomenological,
7) semiotic.
 Cybernetic tradition is communication as a sort of information process. So
here, we focus on the system, we focus at individuals or organizations and the
channels which are used in order to transmit the message. Communication
within this tradition is always goal-oriented. And the sender has an initial goal
before he creates the message and utilizes particular communication channel
to transmit it or send it. Still, what is received by the receiver and decoded
initially is different from the sender's message.

Socio-psychological tradition sees communication as interpersonal

interaction. It lies under this umbrella of behavioural approach, focusing on
stimuli and reaction. So here, we speak about cause-and-effect relationships
within the communicative process. It's all about expression, interaction, and
influence. It originates in psychology and sociology; it tends to be quite
objective. And the theorists from the socio-psychological tradition are quite
objective.

Socio-cultural tradition sees communication as symbolic process in

reproduction or production of social order. It's all about context, culture, and
social practices. So, if we were focusing in the previous tradition at the level of
an individual or a group in the way how would they respond to the different
stimuli. Here, we place an enormous importance on the context, and the way
how the society operates itself. So, the social practices which are our
everyday routines and the way how we understand and see the world, they
are created due to the interaction. So, individuals tend to talk to each other
and while they are communicating, they create the shared meaning and the
shared understanding on what the world is and what this particular situation
is.

Language and ideology are two main focuses of the critical tradition, as
scholars believe that the group who controls the language can actually be
dominant within the given society. Ideology for critical scholars is very
important, as it's embedded and that it also reproduces through the different
tools and through the different forms of media. That's why critical scholars
are focusing on media itself as mass form of communication which transmits
the ideology to the broader publics. And after all, this ideology through media
becomes a part of the overall discourse.
When you come to the public presentations, you use all your public speaking.
This is rhetorical tradition, and it originates in ancient Greece as we know
that the most of the important steps and important suggestions on the way
how to structure your public speech were developed. It's all about rhetoric,
and the way how we can influence through verbal and nonverbal
communication.

The phenomenological tradition, says that communication process can be

seen and perceived differently by different people. So, communication as
experience of self and others through the dialog is a key focus of this
tradition. We consider stem points and perceptions of different people in
different situations within the given context. So, if we try to understand how
the minority group, understand the reality and how do they conduct their
communication? We would better understand the consequences of side
interactions.
Phenomenological traditions questioning rhetoric and semiotics. As the signs
and symbols can be seen differently by people with different backgrounds and
rhetoric as the art of public speaking does not usually work the same different
audiences.

The semiotic tradition, is related to the signs and symbols as communication seen as
sharing meaning through system of signs. What does it mean? If we get into the
conversation of two people who know each other quite well, we might not completely
understand what's going on or we can misinterpret this conversation. Because these
people would already have a list of already spoken. So, they have special names and
special different jargon for the situations and for the previous experiences they already
have. And us trying to understand what are the signs and what are the symbols within
the interaction is quite essential and important. Representation and transmission of the
meaning is always given through the signs and symbols.

KEY CONCEPTS OF MESSAGE PROCESSING:

Message processing refers to the study of the physical and psychological activities in which people
engage in order to create mutual understanding in social interaction. This definition differs from other
scholars' uses of the term in a few ways worth explicitly noting.
Deliver — The messaging system moves the message from the sender to the receiver, making it available to the
receiver. Receive — The receiver reads the message from the channel
SOCIO – PSYCHOLOGICAL:

 It addresses the way our understandings, meaning, norms, roles, and

rules are worked interactively in communication.
 This tradition holds that reality is not an objective set of arrangements
outside us but is constructed through a process of communicating in
groups, society, and cultures.
 Socio psychological tradition focuses on patterns of interactions rather
than individual characteristics or mental modes.
 Knowledge is highly interpretive and constructed.
 The socio- psychological tradition is a theory that focuses on the internet
processes of an individual’s judgment with relation to a communicated
message.
 SPT was intended to be an explanatory method designed to detail when
persuasive messages are most likely to succeed.

BRANCHES OF SOCIO-PSYCHOLOGICAL TRADITION OF

COMMUNICATION:
 BEHAVIORAL, associated with a stimulus-response approach,
concentrates on how people actually behave in communication
situations.
 COGNITIVE, the mental operations used in managing information
that leads to behavioural outputs, is much more in vogue today
because many see the behavioural as too simplistic.
 COMMUNIBIOLOGY is the study of communication from a
biological perspective.

APPROACH TO COMMUNICATION TRAIT FACTOR MODEL:

Basis of Five Factor Model
Under each of the factors, various other sub-factors are included such as
gregariousness, assertiveness, excitement seeking, warmth, activity, and
positive emotions under extraversion.

The five factors, commonly known as OCEAN, are as follows:

1. Openness to Experience
This includes appreciation for art, emotion or adventure, creating unusual ideas
that induce curiosity, and variety of experiences. Openness is considered to be
positive; the basic understanding was ‘the more open the person is, the more
the potential for intellectual curiosity, creativity, appreciation of art and
sensitivity to beauty.’ It is also an indication of how imaginative and
independent the individual is. People who score high on openness prefer a
multitude of activities over a daily schedule with the same activities.

2. Conscientiousness
This includes how individuals’ control, regulate, and direct their impulses.
People who score high on conscientiousness avoid trouble and confrontations.
They usually achieve success due to careful planning and organizing. They are
also perceived as intelligent, reliable and self-disciplined. However, on the
negative side, they can be perfectionists and compulsive.

3. Extroversion
The person with extroversion trait is found to be very sociable, talkative, and
bold with high amount of emotional expressions. Extroverts have a pronounced
engagement with the external world. They enjoy being around people and
usually experience positive emotions. Introverts, however, are the complete
opposite. They usually prefer quiet places and keep to themselves. Their social
interaction is limited and often cut off from the social environment.

4. Agreeableness
This includes traits like trust, altruism, kindness, affection, and other prosocial
behaviours. It reflects the ability to be compassionate, cooperative and to strive
for social harmony rather than suspicious and antagonistic towards others.
Agreeable people are usually friendly, generous and get along with everyone
around them. They strive for peace and are willing to compromise. They are
generally positive in their outlook and are honest and decent. Disagreeable
individuals focus on their own self-interests and are usually not bothered about
other individual’s concerns. They are sceptical, suspicious and do not trust
people easily.

5. Neuroticism
This includes attributes like emotional unsteadiness, nervousness, sullen, and
sad. People with such traits tend to experience negative emotions and the
degree of emotional stability and impulse control. The individuals who score
high on neuroticism are emotionally reactive and often experience emotions like
anxiety, depression and/or anger. Their negative emotions tend to last for
longer periods of time and minor situations or things would trigger them, which
would usually not affect other people. Such emotional feelings can hinder their
ability to cope with stress and to make rational decisions.

ARGUMENTATIVES COMMUNICATION:

Communication devices, systems, strategies and tools that replace or support natural
speech are known as augmentative.

Examples include gestures, eye gaze, vocalizations, sign language, and facial expressions.