Subject Code: BTCS-507-18 Roll No.

2028192

Practical 1. To study the different types of Network Cables and Network topologies.

Theory : To do this experiment following components are required RJ-45 connection

cable, twisted pair cables.
Types of cables : To communicate with all these devices, we need a connector to
connect between the devices is called a cable. Since we are using it to connect the
networks we call it the networking cable. The Networking cables are used to connect
the multiple devices to each device and a single central device. The central device is
called the switch. Basically it is used to send information from one device to another.
There are several types of network cables written below:
1. Coaxial cable
2. Fibre optic cable
3. Twisted pair cable
4. Ethernet cables
Coaxial cable: Coaxial cables, commonly called coax, are copper cables with
metalshieldingdesignedtoprovideimmunityagainstnoiseandgreaterbandwidth. Coax
can transmit signals over larger distances at a higher speed as compared to twisted
pair cables.
Structure of Coaxial Cables: Coax has a central core of stiff copper conductor for
transmitting signals. This is covered by an insulating material. The insulator is encased
by a closely woven braided metal outer conductor that acts as a shield against noise.
The outer conductor is again enclosed by a plastic insulating cover. The structure is
shown in fig.

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Fibre optic cable: Fiber optic cabling consists of a center glass core surrounded by
several layers of protective materials .It transmits light rather than electronic signals
eliminating the problem of electrical interference. This makes it ideal for certain
environments that contain a large amount of electrical interference. It has also made it
the standard for connecting networks between buildings, due to its immunity to the
effects of moisture and lighting. Fiber optic cable has the ability to transmit signals
overmuch longer distances than coaxial and twisted pair. It also has the capability to
carry information at vastly greater speeds. The outer insulating jacket made of teflonor
PVC.

Shielded and Unshielded Twisted Pair (STP) Cable : Although UTP cable is the least
expensive cable, it may be susceptible to radio and electrical frequency interference (it
should not be too close to electric motors, fluorescent lights, etc.). If you must place
cable in environments with lots of potential interference, or if you must place cable in
extremely sensitive environments that may be susceptible to the electrical current in
the UTP, shielded twisted pair may be the solution. Shielded cables can also help to
extend the maximum distance of the cables.UTP Cable is a shorter way of saying
unshielded twisted pair. This is one of the least expensive wires and works for basic
needs of phone systems so it is one of the most commonly installed in residential
industries. The twisted cable pairs work to cancel out EMI (electromagnetic
interference) from external sources. This would be interference from electromagnetic
radiation, ground water, pressure, root systems and more. It also cuts down on
crosstalk. Interestingly enough, UTP wire is accredited with being discovered by
Alexander Graham Bell. It is no surprise that UTP Cable is the single most common type
of copper telephone wire. The two wires in each pair carry opposite signals. Each signal

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is detected as the opposite end when the signal reaches the receiver. Twisting the
pairs together is how the effects of crosstalk are countered.
Shielded twisted pair cable is available in three different configuration:
E ach pair of wires is individually shielded with foil.
There is a foil or braid shield inside the jacket covering all wires (as a group).
There is a shield around each individual pair, as well as around the entire group of
wires (referred to as double shield twisted pair).

Ethernet cable: Ethernet is a way of connecting computers and other network devices
in a physical space. This is often referred to as a local area network or LAN. The idea of
an Ethernet network is that computers and other devices can share files, information
and data between each other efficiently.
Ethernet was released in 1980. By 1982, the Institute of Electrical and Electronics
Engineers (IEEE) standardized the format, so all networking and computer devices
would use the same ports. are a type of network cable. They are designed to work with
Ethernet ports. Ethernet ports can be found on routers, computers, TVs and most
internet and network-enabled devices.

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 Subject Code: BTCS-507-18 Roll No. 2028192

Network Topologies:
1.Star 2.Bus 3.Mesh 4. Ring
Star Topology: in star topology each device in the network is connected to a central
device called hub. Unlike Mesh topology, star topology doesn’t allow direct
communication between devices, a device must have to communicate through hub. If
one device wants to send data to other device, it has to first send the data to hub and
then the hub transmit that data to the designated device.
Advantages of a Star Topology
Easy to install and wire.
No disruptions to the network when connecting or removing devices. Easy to detect
faults and to remove parts.
Disadvantages of a Star Topology
Requires more cable length than a linear topology.
If the hub, switch, or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled. More expensive
than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the hubs etc.

Bus Topology: A linear bus topology consists of a main run of cable with a terminator a
teach end. All nodes (fileserver, workstations, and peripherals) are connected to the
linear cable.

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Advantages of a Linear Bus Topology

Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus. Requires less cable length
than a star topology.
Disadvantages of a Linear Bus Topology
Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.
Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable. Difficult to identify the
problem if the entire network shuts down.
Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.

Mesh Topology : In a mesh topology there is no central connection point. Instead, each
node is connected to at least one other node and usually to more than one.
Eachnodeiscapableofsendingmessagestoandreceivingmessagesfromothernodes.Theno
desactas relays, passing on a message towards its final destination.

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Ring Topology: A ring topology is a network configuration where device connections

create a circular data path. Each networked device is connected to two others, like
points on a circle. Together, devices in a ring topology are referred to as a ring
network.

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PRACTICAL 2: Practically implement and test the cross-wired cable and

straight through cable using clamping tool and network lab cable tester .
Apparatus (Components): RJ-45 connector, Clamping Tool, Twisted pair Cable
Procedure: To do these practical following steps should be done:
1. Start by stripping off about 2 inches of the plastic jacket off the end of the cable. Be
very careful at this point, as to not nick or cut into the wires, which are inside. Doing so
could alter the characteristics of your cable, or even worse render is useless. Check the
wires, one more time for nicks or cuts. If there are any, just whack the whole end off,
and start over.
2. Spread the wires apart, but be sure to hold onto the base of the jacket with your
other hand. You do not want the wires to become untwisted down inside the jacket.
Category 5cable must only have 1/2 of an inch of 'untwisted' wire at the end;
otherwise it will be 'out of spec'. At this point, you obviously have ALOT more than 1/2
of an inch of un-twisted wire.
3. You have 2 end jacks, which must be installed on your cable. If you are using a pre-
made cable, with one of the ends whacked off, you only have one end to install – the
crossed over end. Below are two diagrams, which show how you need to arrange the
cables for each type of cable end. Decide at this point which end you are making and
examine the associated picture below.

Diagram shows you how to prepare Cross-wired connection.

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 Subject Code: BTCS-507-18 Roll No. 2028192

PRACTICAL 3: Study and familiarization with various network devices.

Apparatus (Software): No software or hardware needed.

Procedure: Following should be done to understand this practical.
1. Repeater: Functioning at Physical Layer. A repeater is an electronic device that
receives a signal and retransmits it at a higher level and/or higher power, or onto the
other side of an obstruction, so that the signal can cover longer distances. Repeater
have two ports, so cannot be use to connect for more than two devices.
Types of Repeaters: According to the types of signals that they regenerate, repeaters
can be classified into two categories −

 Analog Repeaters− They can only amplify the analog signal.

 Digital Repeaters−They can reconstruct a distorted signal

HUB: A hub is a physical layer networking device which is used to connect multiple
devices in a network. They are generally used to connect computers in a LAN.
A hub has many ports in it. A computer which intends to be connected to the
network is plugged into one of these ports. When a data frame arrives at a port, it is
broadcast to every other port, without considering whether it is destined for a
particular destination or not.

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Switch: A network switch or switching hub is a computer networking device that

connects network segments. The term commonly refers to a network bridge that
processes and routes data at the data link layer (layer 2) of the OSI model. Switches
that additionally process data at the network layer (layer 3 and above) are often
referred to as Layer 3switchesormultilayer switch.

Bridge: A network bridge connects multiple network segments at the data link layer
(Layer2) of the OSI model. In Ethernet networks, the term bridge formally means a
device that behaves according to the IEEE 802.1D standard. A bridge and switch are
very much alike a switch being a bridge with numerous ports. Switch or Layer 2 switch
is often used interchangeably with bridge. Bridges can analyze incoming data packets
to determine if the bridge is able to send the given packet to another segment of the
network.

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 Subject Code: BTCS-507-18 Roll No. 2028192

Router: A router is an electronic device that interconnects two or more computer

networks, and selectively interchanges packets of data between them. Each data
packet contains address information that a router can use to determine if the source
and destination are on the same network, or if the data packet must be transferred
from one network to another.

Gateway: In a communications network, a network node equipped for interfacing

with another network that uses different protocols. A gateway may contain devices
such as protocol translators, impedance matching devices, rate converters, fault
isolators, or signal translators as necessary to provide system interoperability. It also
requires the establishment of mutually acceptable administrative procedures
between both networks.

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 Subject Code: BTCS-507-18 Roll No. 2028192

PRACTICAL 4: Familiarization with Packet Tracer Simulation tool/any other related

tool.

Material needed: Cisco packet tracer installer.

Theory: Get real world experience with this powerful network simulation tool built by
Cisco. Practice building simple and complex networks across a variety of devices and
extend beyond routers and switches. Create interconnected solutions for smart cities,
homes, and enterprises. Use Packet Tracer as a learning environment for instructional
courses, distance learning, professional training, work planning or just to have some
fun.
Modes: There are two types of modes
1. Real time mode: Network behaves like real devices. It gives an immediate, real time
response to all activities.
2 . Simulation mode: The user can watch and control time intervals. They can view the
inside operation of data transfer and delivery of data across network.
Cisco Packet Tracer has two work-spaces - Logical and Physical.
The logical workspace allows users to build logical network topologies by placing,
connecting and clustering virtual network devices.
The physical workspace pro-vides a graphical physical dimension of the logical
network, giving a sense of scale and placement in how network devices such as
routers, switches, and hosts would look in a real environment.
Components of packet tracer: There are mainly four types of components.
1. Network Devices : hardware devices that are used to connect computers and other
devices . There devices transfer the data in a secure fast and correct . There are
following network devices:
1. Router 2. Switch 3. Wireless device

4. Security Devices 5. WAN emulation 6.Hubs

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2. End Devices: 1. PC 2. Laptops 3. Server 4.Printer

5. TV 6. Tablets 7.Smartphones 8. Wireless devices
3. Connection: The connections are nothing but used to connect the different devices
to transfer the data from one to other devices.

1. Console 2. Fiber 3. Serial DCE 4. Octal 5.Coaxial

6. Phone 7.Cross over 8. Straightwire.

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PRACTICAL 5: Study and Implementation of IP Addressing Schemes.

IP address is an address having information about how to reach a specific host,
especially outside the LAN. An IP address is a 32 bit unique address having an address
space of 232. Generally, there are two notations in which IP address is written, dotted
decimal notation and hexadecimal notation. An addressing scheme is clearly required
for communication in a computer network within an addressing . Each of three layer
2,3,4 of tcp/ip stack model produce as a header. There are three types of addresses
are as follow:
1. Link layer address (48bit)
2. Network layer add. (32bit)
3. Transport layer add. (16bit)
Some points to be noted about dotted decimal notation:
The value of any segment (byte) is between 0and 255 (both included).
There are no zeroes preceding the value in any segment (054 is wrong, 54 is correct).

Classful Addressing
The 32 bit IP address is divided into five sub-classes.
These are: Class A Class B Class C
Class D Class E
Each of these classes has a valid range of IP addresses. Classes D and E are reserved
for multicast and experimental purposes respectively. The order of bits in the first
octet determine the classes of IP address.
IPv4address is divided into two parts:
 Network ID

 Host ID

CLASS A: IP address belonging to class A are assigned to the networks that contain a
large number of hosts.
The network ID is 8 bits long.

The host ID is 24bits long.

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The higher order bit of the first octet in class A is always set to 0. The remaining 7 bits
in first octet are used to determine network ID. The 24 bits of host ID are used to
determine the host in any network. The default subnet mask for class A is255.x.x.x.

CLASS B: IP address belonging to class B are assigned to the networks that ranges from
medium-sized to large-sized networks.
The network ID is 16 bits long. The host ID is 16bits long.
The higher order bits of the first octet of IP addresses of class B are always set to 10.
The remaining 14 bits are used to determine network ID. The 16 bits of host ID is used
to determine the host in any network. The default sub-net mask for class B is
255.255.x.x.

CLASS C: IP address belonging to class C are assigned to small-sized

networks.ThenetworkIDis24bits long.
The host ID is 8bitslong.
The higher order bits of the first octet of IP addresses of class C are always set to 110.
The remaining 21 bits are used to determine network ID. The 8 bits of host ID is used
to determine the host in any network. The default sub-net mask for class C
is255.255.255.x.

CLASS D: IP address belonging to class D are reserved for multi-casting. The higher
order bits of the first octet of IP addresses belonging to class D are always set to 1110.
The remaining bits are for the address that interested hosts recognize. Class D does
not posses any sub-net mask. IP addresses belonging to class D ranges from 224.0.0.0 –
239.255.255.255

Class E: IP addresses belonging to class E are reserved for experimental and research
purposes. IP addresses of class E ranges from 240.0.0.0 -255.255.255.254. This class
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doesn’t have any sub-net mask. The higher order bits of first octet of class E are always
set to 1111.

Rules for assigning Host ID:

Host ID’s are used to identify a host within a network. The host ID are assigned based
on the following rules: Within any network, the host ID must be unique to that
network.
Host ID in which all bits are set to 0 cannot be assigned because this host ID is used to
represent the network ID of the IP address.
Host ID in which all bits are set to 1 cannot be assigned because this host ID is
reserved as a broadcast address to send packets to all the hosts present on that
particular network.

Rules for assigning Network ID:

Hosts that are located on the same physical network are identified by the network ID,
as all host on the same physical network is assigned the same network ID. The
network ID is assigned based on the following rules:
The network ID cannot start with 127 because 127 belongs to class A address and is
reserved for internal loop-back functions.
All bits of network ID set to 1 are reserved for use as an IP broadcast address and
therefore, cannot be used.
All bits of network ID set to 0 are used to denote a specific host on the local network
and are not routed and therefore, aren’t used.

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PRACTICAL 6: Creation of Simple Networking topologies using hubs and switches.

Apparatus: Hub, Switch, cables, end devices etc.
Theory: Hub – It will usually broadcast the network.
Switch– It supports uni-casting of packets .
DHCP Server- Stands for dynamic host control protocol. It is pool addresses.
Procedure: To add PC’s in network:
1. From the button tool bar click on the end devices and select PC and then click the
screen.
2. Repeat the same step and add more PC.
To add switch in network:
3. Click the switch icon, select the switch type which you want to use for your network
then add selected switch in the logical area.
To add Hub in network:
4. Click hub under network devices and drag it to the logical area.

Add connection:
5. To connect PC’s hub , switch we require cables. Select connections from the tool bar
and select crosswire.
Assigning IP addresses:
6. To add IP address to PC’s uniquely and manually we will add dhcp server to network
or we can give one by one IP address to each and every PC.
To check successful connection:
7. From secondary toolbar at the top ,select add sample PDU that is second last icon of
that bar.
8. Then select PC’s from where you want to send and receive that PDU.
9. Successful transmission means successful connection in the network topology.

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 Subject Code: BTCS-507-18 Roll No. 2028192

PRACTICAL 7. Simulation of web traffic in Packet Tracer.

Network Simulation:
Switch to Simulation Mode by selecting the tab that is partially hidden behind the Real
Time tab in the bottom right-hand corner. The tab has the icon of a stopwatch on it.
When Simulation Mode is chosen, a Simulation Panel will appear on the right side of the
screen. This panel can be moved by moving the cursor at the top of the panel until it
changes and then double-clicking on it. The panel can be restored to the original
location by double-clicking on the Title bar. If the panel is closed, click on the Event List
button.

Click on Edit Filters, and then select All/None to deselect every filter. Then choose ARP
and ICMP and click in the workspace to close the Edit Filters window.

Select a Simple PDU by clicking the closed envelope in the Common Tools Bar on the
right. Move to PC0 and click to establish the source. Move to PC1 and click to establish
the destination. Notice that two envelopes are now positioned beside PC0. This is
referred to as a data traffic scenario. One envelope is an ICMP packet, while the other is
an ARP packet. The Event List in the Simulation Panel will identify exactly which
envelope represents ICMP and which represents an ARP.A scenario may be deleted by
clicking on the Delete button in the Scenario panel.
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Multiple scenarios can be created by clicking on the New button in the Scenario panel.
The scenarios can then be toggled between without deleting.
Select Auto Capture/ Play from the Simulation Panel Play Controls.

Below the Auto Capture / Play button is a horizontal bar, with a vertical button that
controls the speed of the simulation. Dragging the button to the right will speed up the
simulation, while dragging it to the left will slow down the simulation.
Choose the Reset Simulation button in the Simulation window.
Notice that the ARP envelope is no longer present. This has reset the simulation but has
not cleared any configuration changes or MAC / ARP table entries.

Choose the Capture/Forward button.

Notice that the ICMP envelope moved forward one device and stopped. The Capture
/Forward button will allow you to move the simulation one step at a time.
Choose the Power Cycle Devices button on the bottom left, above the device icons.
Choose Yes, Notice that both the ICMP and ARP envelopes are now present. The Power
Cycle Devices will clear any configuration changes not saved and clear the MAC / ARP
tables.

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Practical 8: Study and Implementation of various router configuration commands.

1. Configure the LAPTOP terminal software with the right console parameters.
2. Configure the router host name to "GATEWAY".
3. Configure the enable password and secret to "cisco".
4. Configure password encryption on the router to secure stored passwords
5. Configure the console access:
- Login: yes
- Password: "cisco"
- History: 10commands
- Logging synchronous
- Timeout: 2 minutes 45 seconds.

1. Configure the laptop terminal software

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The terminal software is not correctly configured on the laptop. You have to change the
settings to 9600/8/None/1 to connect to the router's console.

2. Configure the router's name

The hostname command has to be used to change the router's hostname. Router>enable
Router #configure terminal
Enter configuration commands, one per line. End with CNTL/Z.
Router(config) #hostname GATEWAY

3. Configure the enable password and secret to "cisco"

The enable secret<password>command stores a MD5 hash of the password required for
privileged mode access.
The enable secret password of a Cisco ISR router is used for restricting access to enable
mode and to the global configuration mode (configure terminal) of a router.
GATEWAY(config)#enable secret cisco

4. Configure password encryption for this router

GATEWAY(config)#servicepassword-encryption

5. Configure the console access

Console access is protected by the 'cisco' password and login is required at console
access. The exec-timeout command automatically logs off user from console after defined
in activity period
GATEWAY(config)#lineconsole0
GATEWAY(config-line)#password cisco
GATEWAY(config-line)#login
GATEWAY(config-line)#logging synchronous
GATEWAY(config-line)#exec-timeout245
GATEWAY(config-line)#historysize10
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Practical 9: Creation of Networks using routers.

Apparatus : Hub , Switch, cables end devices, Routers, server etc.

Theory: Hub – It will usually broadcast the network.

Switch– It supports uni-casting of packets .
DHCP server- Stands for dynamic host control protocol. It is pool addresses.
Router- Router will check packets routing table to determine if destination address is for a
system on one of its attached network or if message be forwarded through another router.

Procedure:
1. Open cisco packet tracer.
2. Select end devices, switch, hub and drag them one by one on logical
workspace screen.
3. Then drop routers on workspace as well.
4. Connect all end devices and network devices accordingly with suitable cables.
5. Allocate IP addresses manually or with the help of DHCP server.
6. Set the required gateways for network.
7. Configure the routers and set RIP routing paths for routers .
8. Verify the successful network by sending a simple PDU from sender to receiver.
9. If successfully sent network is working properly.

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Practical 10: Configuring networks using the concept of Subnetting.

Subnetting is the practice of dividing a network into two or more smaller networks. It
increases routing efficiency, enhances the security of the network and reduces the size
of the broad cast domain.

In the picture above we have one huge network: 10.0.0.0/24. All hosts on the network
are in the same subnet, which has the following Disadvantages:
A single broadcast domain– All hosts are in the same broadcast domain. A broadcast
sent by any device on the network will be processed by all hosts, creating lots of
unnecessary traffic.

Network security– Each device can reach any other device on the network, which can
present security problems. For example, a server containing sensitive information
shouldn’t be in the same network as user’s workstations.

Organizational problems – In large networks, different departments are usually grouped

into different subnets. For example, you can group all devices from the Accounting
department in the same subnet and then give access to sensitive financial data only to
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hosts from that subnet.

The network above could be sub netted like this:

Now, two subnets were created for different departments: 10.0.0.0/24 for Accounting
and 10.1.0.0/24 for Marketing. Devices in each subnet are now in a different broadcast
domain. This will reduce the amount of traffic flowing on the network and allow us to
implement packet filtering on the router.

Before and After Subnetting:

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PRACTICAL 11: Practical implementation of basic network command and Network

configuration commands like ping, ipconfig, netstat, tracert etc. for troubleshooting
network related problems.

Apparatus (Software): Command Prompt And Packet Tracer.

Procedure: To do this EXPERIMENT follow these steps:

In this EXPERIMENT-students have to understand basic networking commands e.g

ping, tracert etc. All commands related to Network configuration which includes how
to switch to privilege mode and normal mode and how to configure router interface
and how to save this configuration to flash memory or permanent memory. This
commands includes:
• Configuring the Router commands
• General Commands to configure network
• Privileged Mode commands of a router
• Router Processes & Statistics
• IP Commands
• Other IP Commands e.g. show ip route etc
Ping:

Ping (8) sends an ICMP ECHO_REQUEST packet to the specified host. If the host
responds, you get an ICMP packet back. Sound strange? Well, you can “ping” an IP
address to see if a machine is alive. If there is no response, you know something is
wrong.

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Trace route:
Tracert is a command which can show you the path a packet of information takes from
your computer to one you specify. It will list all the routers it passes through until it
reaches its destination, or fails to and is discarded.

In addition to this, it will tell you how long each 'hop' from router to router takes.

nslookup:
Displays information from Domain Name System(DNS) name servers.
NOTE: If you write the command as above it shows as default your pc's server name
firstly.
pathping:

A better version of tracert that gives you statics about packet lost and latency.

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Getting Help
In any command mode, you can get a list of available commands by entering a
question mark (?).Router>?To obtain a list of commands that begin with a particular
character sequence, type in those characters followed immediately by the question
mark (?).

Router#co?
configure connect copy
To list keywords or arguments, enter a question mark in place of a keyword or
argument. Include a space before the question mark.
Router#configure?
memory Configure from NV memory network Configure fromat FTP network host
terminal Configure from the terminal
You can also abbreviate commands and keywords by entering just enough characters
to make the command unique from other commands. For example, you can abbreviate
the show command to sh.
Configuration Files

Any time you make changes to the router configuration, you must save the changes to
memory because if you do not they will be lost if there is a system reload or power
outage. There are two types of configuration files: the running (current operating)
configuration and the start up configuration.

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Problem12: Configuration of networks using static and default routes.

A router can learn about remote networks in one of two ways:

Manually: Remote networks are manually entered into the route table
using static routes.
Dynamically: Remote routes are automatically learned using a dynamic
routing protocol.

Standard Static Route(2.1.2.2)

Both IPv4 and IPv6 support the configuration of static routes. Static
routes are useful when connecting to a specific remote network.
Shows that R2 can be configured with a static route to reach the sub
network 172.16.3.0/24.

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When to Use Static Routes(2.1.1.3)

Static routing has three primary uses:

Providing ease of routing table maintenance in smaller networks that
are not expected to grow significantly.
Routing to and from stub networks.
A stub network is a network accessed by a single route, and the router
has only one neighbor. Using a single default route to represent a path
to any network that does not have a more specific match with another
route in the routing table. Default routes are used to send traffic to any
destination beyond the next upstream router.
Shows an example of a stub network connection and a default route
connection. Notice in the figure that any network attached to R1 would
only have one way to reach other destinations, whether to networks
attached to R2, or to destinations beyond R2. This means that network
172.16.3.0 is a stub network and R1isa stub router. Running a routing
protocol betweenR2 and R1 is a waste of resources
In this example, a static route can be configured on R2 to reach the R1
LAN. Additionally, because R1has only one way to send out non-local
traffic, a default static route can be configured on R1 to point to R2 as
the next hop for all other networks.

Default Static Route(2.1.2.3)

A default static route is a route that matches all packets. A default route
identifies the gateway IP address to which the router sends all IP packets
that it does not have a learned or static route for. A default static route
is simply a static route with 0.0.0.0/0 as the destination IPv4 address.
Configuring a default static route creates a Gateway of Last Resort.

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Subject Code: BTCS-507-18 Roll No. 2028192

All routes that identify a specific destination with a larger subnet mask
take precedence over the default route.

Default static routes are used:

When no other routes in the routing table match the packet destination
IP address. In other words, when a more specific match does not exist. A
common use is when connecting a company’s edge router to the ISP
network.
When a router has only one other router to which it is connected. This
condition is known as tub router.

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