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PHYSICS
Electricity & Magnetism
Electricity &
Magnetism
4.1) Simple phenomena of magnetism:
 Magnetic forces are due to interaction
between magnetic fields
 Law of magnetic poles :
‘Like poles repel,opposite poles attract’
 When a magnet is freely suspended so
that it can swing in a horizontal plane, it
comes to rest in N-S direction.
 N-pole points towards the north &
South pole points towards the south of
the earth.
● Magnetic materials : are attracted to
magnets, can be magnetized (e.g. iron,
steel, cobalt, nickel).
● Non-magnetic materials : are not
attracted to magnets and cannot be
magnetised (e.g. glass, plastic)
Magnetic fields :
It is the space surrounding a magnet
where it produces a magnetic force.
 Field lines around magnet point from
north to south.
● The direction of a magnetic field line
shows the direction of the force on a north
pole at that point.
1 O-LEVEL
● Field strength decreases with distance
from the magnet.
Plotting lines of force
Induced magnetism:
● Magnetic materials can be:
* Magnetized by stroking with a magnet,
hammering them in a magnetic field, or
putting them inside a coil with a D.C.
through it. A piece of steel becomes
permanently magnetized when placed
near a magnet, but its magnetism is
usually weak.
* They can be demagnetized by
hammering them, heating them or
putting them inside a coil with an A.C.
through it.
 Magnetic materials that can be
permanently magnetised are
magnetically hard (e.g. steel).
 Magnetic materials that are only
temporarily magnetised are magnetically
soft (e.g. soft iron).
Dr. Islam Abbas
01003177143
 PHYSICS
Electricity & Magnetism 2 O-LEVEL

Soft iron VS Steel is measured in coulombs (C).

• Gets magnetized • Slow to be  There are positive and negative charges;
faster but loses its magnetized but Unlike charges attract and like charges
magnetism as retains magnetism repel.
soon as magnet for a long time.  The attraction is stronger than repulsion
is removed. • Low susceptibility because the attracting charges are closer
• High but high retentively than repelling ones.
susceptibility • Use: making ● Conductors allow electrons to flow
but low retentively permanet magnets through them (e.g. iron, copper,
• Use: aluminum..) whereas insulators impede
Transformer’core the flow of electrons (e.g. plastic,
paper……).
Permanent Magnet VS Electromagnet Charging an insulator :
• Design: hard • Design: Uses a (a) Rubbing method : When two
magnetic solenoid to insulators are rubbed together,
material create magnetic electrons move from one to the other
• Use: for field and they become charged.
applications • Use: For
where magnetism applications
is needed over where magnetic
long periods – field
fridge doors needs to be turned
on &off-scrap
metal moving (b) Induction method: When a charged
4.2) Electrical quantities body touches an uncharged object, the
 Matter is neutral since it contains equal two bodies will share the charge. Both
numbers of positive charges and negative will carry a part of the same charge.
electrons.
 If a body gains electron it becomes
negatively charged, if it loses some
electrons it becomes positively charged.
 Electric charge is the physical property of
matter that causes it to experience a force
when placed in an electromagnetic field; it

Dr. Islam Abbas

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Electricity & Magnetism
 The presence of an electrostatic charge
can be detected using a leaf electroscope
* If a charged object is placed near the
cap, charges are induced.
* The metal cap gets one type of charge
(positive or negative) and the metal
stem and gold leaf get the other type of
charge so they repel each other.
Electric field: It is the region in which
electric charge experiences a force.
• The direction of an electric field at a
point is the
direction of the force on a positive charge
at that point.
 The field lines around a charged
conducting sphere are as if the charge
was concentrated at the centre of the
sphere.
○ The field lines between two charged
plates go in straight lines from the
positive plate to the negative plate and
are equally spaced apart.
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PHYSICS
3 O-LEVEL
* Current
 It is the flow of charges in a conductor;
SI unit is the Ampere (A).
 Ammeter : is the device used to
measure electric current, it is
connected in series with circuit.
 Current is a rate of flow of charge.
𝑸
I =
𝒕
Q = ne
n = number of electrons
e = charge of an electron (1.6 × 10-19 C)
 There are two directions of current
* Potential difference (P.D)
 Potential difference, is also known as
voltage.
 Voltage is the amount of energy the cell
gives the electrons it pushes out.
 Voltage is measured in volts (V) and is
measured by a voltmeter (connected in
parallel).
 If a cell has 1 Volt, it delivers 1 Joule of
energy to each coulomb of charge (J/C).
𝑬
V=
𝑸
Dr. Islam Abbas
01003177143
 PHYSICS
Electricity & Magnetism 4 O-LEVEL

* For semi-metal conductors:

Higher temperature = less resistance.
𝑳 𝑳
R= ρ = ρ 𝟐
𝑨 𝝅𝒓
Experiment to determine the resistance
of unknown resistance: - (Ohm`s law)
* Electromotive force (EMF)
 Vary the potential difference across
 The maximum voltage a cell can
unknown resistor by changing resistance
produce is called the electromotive force
of variable resistor.
(EMF), measured in volts.
 Measure the p.d across unknown resistor
 When a current is being supplied, the
by using voltmeter as well as measuring
voltage is lower because of the energy
current intensity by ammeter.
wastage inside the cell.
 Repeat by changing the length of
 A cell produces its maximum PD when
resistor the measure p.d and electric
not in a circuit and not supplying
current.
current.
 Plot graph between p.d on x-axis
* Resistance
current
 It is the opposition that faces electric
current when it moves in a wire.
 The greater the resistance, the harder it
is for current to flow Through.
𝑽
Resistance (R) =
𝑰
Its unit is ohm (Ω).
Factors affecting the resistance :-
1- Length of wire:
(Increasing length, increasing resistance).
2- Diameter of wire:
(Increasing diameter, decreasing resistance)
3- Material:
(Better conductor = less resistance)
4- Temperature:
* For metal conductors:
Higher temperature = more resistance

Dr. Islam Abbas

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 PHYSICS
Electricity & Magnetism 5 O-LEVEL

* Electrical working
● Energy is transferred from chemical
energy in the battery to electrical energy
used by circuit components and then to
the surroundings.
 This electric energy is converted to heat
energy in the conductor which raises its
temperature, or can be converted to
motion or light or sound ……….
● The power of a component is given by
P=IV =V2/R =I2R
 The electric energy is given by: Semiconductor diode
 A device that has an extremely high
E = IVt
resistance in one direction and a low
4.3) Electric circuits
resistance in the other, therefore it
* Circuit diagram
effectively only allows current to flow
in one direction.
 Forward bias is when the diode is
pointing in the direction of the
conventional current and reverse bias
is the opposite.
 It can be used in a rectifier; turns AC
current into DC current .

Dr. Islam Abbas

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 PHYSICS
Electricity & Magnetism 6 O-LEVEL

●The potential difference is the same

VT = v1=v2=v3
●The total resistance of two resistors in
parallel is less than the resistance of
either resistor
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + …..
𝑹𝑻 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
Series and Parallel Circuits
If there are two resistor only then:
Series: 𝑹𝟏 𝑿 𝑹𝟐
RT =
 Components are connected end to end 𝑹𝟏+𝑹𝟐
 Connecting lamps in parallel is
in one loop.
advantageous because if one breaks,
 The same current flows through every
current can still pass through the rest.
component
IT=I1=I2=I3
 The potential difference is shared across
each component
VT = v1+v2+v3+….
 The total resistance is the sum of the Action and use of circuit components
resistances of each component A potential divider :
RT = R1 + R2+ … Divides the voltage into smaller parts.
To find the voltage (at VOUT) we use :
𝑹
Vout = VIN x (𝑹𝑻)

●Parallel •A variable potential divider

●Components are connected to the (potentiometer) is the same as the one
power supply in separate branches above but using a variable resistor; it acts
 The current is shared between each like a potential divider, but you can
branch. change output voltage.

IT=I1+I2+I3

Dr. Islam Abbas

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 PHYSICS
Electricity & Magnetism 7 O-LEVEL

• Input Transducers: *Noise is amplified * The noise is

Thermistor: input sensor and a too when the normally
transducer. signal is amplified, a lower amplitude
It is a temperature dependent resistor. so the quality is than the high/low
At higher temperature there is less reduced. states used,
resistance. so it can be ignored.

Logic gates
Logic gates are processors that are
Light dependent resistor (LDR): circuits containing transistors and other
Input sensor and a transducer. When components. Their function is shown by
light intensity increases, resistance the truth table below (3 columns from
decreases. the right)

Digital electronics

Analogue signals Digital signals

*It varies * They are a series

continuously in of pulses with two
amplitude, states, a high state
frequency or both. and a low state.
*All signals get * Carry more
weaker as they information per
travel longer second and
distances and maintain their
need to be quality better over
amplified so they longer distances
can be returned to
the original.

Dr. Islam Abbas

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Electricity & Magnetism
* Dangers of electricity
Hazards:
● Damaged insulation : contact with the
wire due to gaps in the insulation can
cause an electric shock or pose a fire
hazard by creating a short circuit.
● Overheating of Cables : high currents
passing through thin wire conductors
cause the wires to heat up to very high
temperatures which could melt the
insulation and cause a fire.
● Damp Conditions : water can conduct a
current so wet electrical equipment cause
an electric shock.
- There are three main wires running
parallel in home in every electrical circuit.
The earth wires :
● Connect to the metal body of appliance
so that if the body connected to live wire,
the current will flow through the earth
wire since it has very low resistance
which breaks the fuse and disconnects the
appliance and prevent electric shock.
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PHYSICS
8 O-LEVEL
Fuses:
● A fuse is a thin piece of wire which
overheats and melts if the current is too
high, protecting the circuit.
● Fuses have a current rating which
should be slightly higher than the current
used by the device in the circuit. The
most common are 3A, 5A and 13A.
* Electromagnetic effects
Electromagnetic Induction:
If a wire is passed across a changing
magnetic field, a small EMF is induced
and can be detected by a galvanometer.
• The direction of an induced EMF
opposes the change causing it (Lenz’s
rule).
Dr. Islam Abbas
01003177143

Electricity & Magnetism
An experiment to show electromagnetic
induction:
• Connect a coil of a large number of
turns to a center- zero galvanometer.
)1( Move a bar magnet quickly into coil.
The pointer of the galvanometer will
momentarily deflect in on direction
which means that a current has been
induced.
)2( Keep the magnet still inside the coil,
the galvanometer will read zero as the
movement stops.
(3) Now, move the magnet out of the
coil, you will observe that the deflection
of the galvanometer is reversed.
• The direction of the current is given by
the right-hand grip rule:
The fingers point in the conventional
current direction and the thumb gives
the North Pole.
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PHYSICS
9 O-LEVEL
* Applications
1- AC generator
● In a direct current, the current only
flows in one direction whereas in an
alternating current, the current
continuously changes direction.
● An AC generator consists of a coil of
insulated copper wire between two
permanent magnets. The slip rings are
fixed to the coil and rotate with it. The
brushes are 2 contacts which rub against
the slip rings and keep the coil connected
to the outside part of the circuit, usually
made of carbon.
● As the coil rotates, the magnetic field
through the coil changes, which induces
an e.m.f. in the coil.
● The magnitude of the e.m.f. is
maximum when the coil is horizontal as
the field lines are cut the fastest, and
zero when vertical (no field) lines are
being cut.
- Fleming’s right-hand rule Current
direction
● The induced EMF can be increased by:
* Moving the coil faster.
* Using a stronger magnet.
* Increasing length of wire in magnetic
field (increasing number or turns of the
coil).
Dr. Islam Abbas
01003177143

Electricity & Magnetism
• The current and EMF direction can be
reversed by:
* Moving the coil in the opposite direction
* Changing the poles.
- Each side of the coil travels upwards
then downwards then upwards etc. so
the current flows backwards then
forwards then backwards etc. so it is an
alternating current.
2- Transformer
● A transformer consists of 2- coils
wrapped around a iron core and used to
transform voltages.
● An alternating current in the primary
coil creates a changing magnetic field;
this changing magnetic field links with
the secondary coil and induces an
alternating e.m.f. in it.
● A step up transformer has more turns
on the secondary which means the
voltage of the secondary is greater than
that of the primary.
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PHYSICS
10 O-LEVEL
● A step down transformer has fewer
turns on the secondary which means the
voltage of the secondary is less than that
of the primary.
𝑽𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝑵𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒎𝒂𝒓𝒚
=
𝑽𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝑵𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒚
●For a 100% efficient transformer,
because the power used is constant,
IPVP= ISVS
●Transformers are used to step up the
voltage in power lines which reduces
power loss.
- Because a higher voltage means a
smaller current and the loss of power due
to P=I2R will be lower.
* The magnetic effect of a current
When an electric current in a wire
produces a magnetic field around it,
which causes the deflection of the
magnetic needle of a compass.
Dr. Islam Abbas
01003177143
 PHYSICS
Electricity & Magnetism 11 O-LEVEL

* The right hand grip rule determines the • By reversing current, direction of force
direction of the magnetic field produced is reversed
by a current carrying wire. • By reversing the field, direction of force
● The magnetic field created by a is reversed
solenoid is like the field produced by a • If both are reversed nothing happen.
bar magnet. * The strength of this force can be
●Increasing the current through the wire increased by:
increases the strength of the magnetic a. increasing the length of conductor .
field. b. Using strong magnet
●Reversing the direction of the current c. Increasing the current in the
through the wire reverses the direction of conductor.
the magnetic field.
●The direction of a magnetic field line at
a point is the direction of the force on
the N pole of a magnet at that point
• Magnetic effect of current is used in a
relay and a circuit breaker.
* Force on a Current-Carrying Conductor
* The direction of the force, current or
magnetic field is given by Fleming’s left-
hand rule.
* A force is also exerted on charged
particles moving in a magnetic field
(because moving charged particles are
• If a current carrying conductor is in a
current).
magnetic field, the conductor experience
* If a beam of charged particles moves
motion due to a force is called motor
through a magnetic field, it will be
force.
deflected, showing that
* This force is a result of interaction of
there is a force.
following two magnetic fields:
a. The magnetic field due to magnet .
b. Magnetic field of the current carrying
conductor

Dr. Islam Abbas

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 PHYSICS
Electricity & Magnetism 12 O-LEVEL

* Applications Reed switch

1- Electromagnet:

An electromagnet is made of a solenoid

wound around a core made of soft iron.
It is magnetized only during the flow of
current, when the current is switched off 3- Circuit breakers:
it loses its magnetization, its magnetism
is only temporary.
Uses: electric bells, magnetic relays,
telephone.
2- Relays
* Relay is an electrical device in which
large current circuit can be operated by
a low current DC circuit. ● Circuit breakers consist of an automatic
*It is a switch operated by an electromagnet switch which breaks the
electromagnet circuit if the current rises over a certain
value.
● This is better than a fuse as it can be
reset and used again, and they operate
faster.

Dr. Islam Abbas

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 PHYSICS
Electricity & Magnetism 13 O-LEVEL

4- D.C. motor Turning effect increased by:

• Increasing the current.
• Using a stronger magnet.
• Increasing the strength of the magnetic
field.
• Increasing the number of turns on the
coil.
Reversing rotation can be done:
When coil not When coil • Reversing the battery.
energized, energized, • Reversing the poles.
switch is closed, switch is closed,
completing completing
circuit circuit

When a current-carrying coil is in a

magnetic field, it makes a turning effect.
•A DC motor runs on a direct current.
•The coil is made of insulated copper
wire and is free to rotate between the
poles of the magnet.
•The commutator (split-ring) is fixed to
the coil and rotates with it.
•When the coil overshoots the vertical,
the commutator changes direction of the
current through it, so the forces change
direction and keep the coil turning.
•The brushes are two contacts which rub
against the commutator and keep the
coil connected to battery, usually made of
carbon.
•Max. turning effect is when the coil is
horizontal.
•There is no force when the coil is
vertical but it always overshoots this
position.

Dr. Islam Abbas

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