EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

LESSON PROPER FOR WEEK 7

Hypothesis:

 It represents the end of the long process of thinking about a research idea; it is the same thing
as a thesis; statement that predicts the relationship between at least two variables; statement
is designed to fit the type of research design; every experiment has at least one

 It is a tentative explanation of behavior or how behavior might be related; main idea, of an

experiment; statement about predicted relationships between at least 2 variables.

 Nonexperimental Hypothesis:

o A statement of your predictions of how events, traits, or behavior might be related; NOT a
statement about cause and effect

o Correlation: prediction about relationship between variables; Statement of predictions of

how events, traits or behaviors might be related - not a Statement about cause & effect;
Sometimes may not include one

 Experimental Hypothesis:

o Tentative explanation of an event or behavior; explains the effects of specified antecedent

conditions on a measured behavior

o H1 = Statement about effect of an event (antecedent condition) on behavior; Tentative

explanation of behavior; Must be: Synthetic (vs. analytic), Testable, Falsifiable,
Parsimonious, Fruitful

*HYPOTHESES MUST BE SYNTHETIC, TESTABLE, FALSIFIABLE, PARSIMONIOUS, AND

(HOPEFULLY) FRUITFUL*

 Synthetic statements:
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o Can either be true or false; experimental hypotheses must be a synthetic statement; If -
then form; ex: “hungry students read slowly” ß could be proven true or false

o Statements that can either be true or false; asserts something about the world
Ex. Observation: Students in study groups get better marks than those who don't. Way to
make it ____: If students take part in study groups, then they get better marks than if
they don't.

 Nonsynthetic statements should be avoided

o Analytic statement: one that is always true;

Ex. “I am or am not pregnant.”

o Analytical (Opposite of Synthetic) – a statement that is always true; should be avoided at

all cost

Ex. Bachelors are unmarried.

Contradictory statement:

 Statements with elements that oppose each other; they are always false

Ex. “I do or do not have a brother.”

 neither need to be tested because the outcome is already known

 Testable statements:

o Means for manipulating antecedent conditions and measuring the resulting behavior must
exist;

ex. If dogs’ muscles twitch when they sleep, then they are dreaming.

o The means for manipulating antecedent conditions and measuring the resulting behavior
must exist; "Can we really do the necessary experimental manipulation?"

 Falsifiable statements:

o “Disprovable” by research findings; need to be worded so that failures to find the predicted
effect must be considered evidence that the hypothesis is false Ex. Reading the whole
textbook carefully and being able to design a good experiment

o Must be disprovable by the research findings; "Is it possible for the data to show the
hypothesis to be wrong?

 Parsimonious statements:

o Simplest explanation is preferred; all research hypotheses should be parsimonious

o Should be as simple as possible

 Fruitful:
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o When a hypothesis leads to new studies; ideally hypotheses are fruitful; hard to know in
advance if a hypothesis will be fruitful; ex: when a kid cries, expose him to harmless animal
and kid will cry whenever he sees harmless animal à led to other classical conditioning
experiments

o Should lead to new hypotheses; Depends on the findings; Often hard to assess initially

 Inductive model:

o Used when formulating a hypothesis; process of reasoning from specific cases to more
general principles; basic tool of theory building

Ex. See people in athletic clothes cut in line for food and no one challenges them so being an athlete allows
privileges that non-athletes don’t have

o The process of reasoning from specific cases to more general principle s; Specific observations
--> testable conclusion; You notice x and conclude y and then test it

Ex. Student who get good marks seem to talk to other students about study groups.

 Theory:

o Set of general principles used to explain and predict behavior;

o Through induction, theories are built by taking bits of empirical data and making general
explanations about those facts.

 Deductive model:

o Converse of the induction model; process of reasoning from general principles to make
predictions about specific instances; possible to deduce predictions about what should
happen in new situations

Ex: Equity theory used to predict behavior

o Take general principles/theories/rules and generate specific hypotheses; Most useful got
testing principles of a theory

Ex. Cognitive psychology principle of memory: Spaced rehearsal better than massed rehearsal; How could
we address this in higher education? If_____, then ______.

 Both induction and deduction are used to formulate hypotheses; induction devises general principles
used to organize/explain/predict behavior until better principles are found and then deduction tests
those implications

 Building on research and nonexperimental studies can help form a hypothesis;

Ex. Cigarettes causing lung cancer done on rats not people; looking at past research can also help you see
what problems may arise.

 The most useful way of finding a hypothesis by working from research that has already been done

 Serendipity:

o Knack of finding things that are not being sought out

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Ex. Pavlov’s dog (his original research was dog’s stomach secretions but instead he did a classical
conditioning experimental)

o The knack of finding things that are not being sought

Ex. Ivan Pavlov - noticed the dog would start salivating when it saw his assistant bringing his food

o Also a matter of knowing enough to use an opportunity (are observations interpretable, do

they explain something previously unexplained, do they suggest a new way of looking at a
problem, etc.

 Intuition:

o Knowing without reasoning; guides what we choose to study; review experimental literature
to avoid pointless experiments Ex. Dogs cannot see color, prior work says they don’t, so don’t
do an experiment to check if they can

o Most accurate if it comes from experts; intuitive knowledge cannot be interpreted as right
until tested and should not destroy objectivity

o Knowing without reason

Help in generating a hypothesis:

o pick a psychology journal and read through an issue to help pick a topic of interest

o try observation; watch people’s behavior in public places

 Turn attention to a real-world problem and try to figure out what causes it; benefit of this is
that once the cause is determined, a solution often suggests itself.

 Be realistic about time frames.

Research Literature:

 Psychological journals: periodicals that publish individual research reports and integrative research
reviews (up-to-date summaries of what is known about a specific topic)

o can help you find good ideas for how to develop your hypothesis

 Meta-analysis: good source of information; found in journals or edited volumes; statistical reviewing
procedure that uses data from many similar studies to summarize research findings about
individual topics

o Statistical reviewing procedure that uses data from many similar studies to summarize
research findings about individual topics; Added benefit of quantifying past findings
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 Introduction: selective review of relevant, recent research’ only articles that are directly related
to the research hypothesis are included; provide empirical b ackground to guide reader about
hypothesis

o Beginning section of a research report that guides the reader toward your research
hypothesis; Consists of a selective review of relevant, recent research. Only if your topic
has a long history would you include early articles.

 Discussion: implications of findings; what the results mean

o Concluding section of research report, used to integrate the experimental findings into the
existing body of knowledge, increases generalizability of known effects, or contradicts past
findings.

 Ex post facto Hypothesis Example

o Repressors will report fewer treatment-related side effects than will nonrepressors.

 Correlational and Quasi-experimental Hypothesis

o Generally include hypotheses about predicted relationships between variables

 Correlational Hypothesis Example

o The amount of TV viewing will be directly related to vocabulary size. The amount of alcohol
consumed the night before a morning exam will have a strong negative relation with exam
mark.

 Experimental Study Hypothesis

o H1 = Statement about effect of an event (antecedent condition) on behavior; Tentative

explanation of behavior; Must be: Synthetic (vs. analytic), Testable, Falsifiable,
Parsimonious, Fruitful

 Ways to arrive at a suitable experimental hypothesis

o Induction, deduction, building on prior research, serendipity, and intuition

 Non-Experimental Study Hypothesis

o Correlation: prediction about relationship between variables; Statement of predictions of

how events, traits or behaviors might be related - not a statement about cause & effect;
Sometimes may not include one

 Non-equivalent Groups Hypothesis Example

o Incandescent lighting (in Company A) will produce better performance than florescent
lighting (in Company B)
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 Longitudinal Hypothesis Example

o Firstborn children will show imitative behaviors after the birth of a sibling

 Non-equivalent Groups Hypothesis Example

o Incandescent lighting (in Company A) will produce better performance than florescent
lighting (in Company B)

Hatala Experimental Psychology - Chapter 6 - Myers & Hansen

EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
LESSON PROPER FOR WEEK 8
Experiments are preferred to other research methods because if properly conducted, they allow us to
draw causal inferences about behavior

-when well conducted, it is high in internal validity

Two treatment conditions are required so that we can make statements about the impact of different
sets of antecedents; if only one is used, there would be no way to evaluate what happens to behaviors as
the conditions change

Variables in an Experiment (Independent and Dependent Variables)

Variable is anything you can change or control in an experiment. Common examples of variables include
temperature, duration of the experiment, composition of a material, amount of light, etc.

Independent Variable: the dimension that the experimenter intentionally manipulates; antecedent that is
chosen to vary; often are aspects of the physical environment

 must be given at least two possible values in every experiment

 levels of the IV: researcher varies the levels of the IV by creating different treatment
conditions

 One factor that you are changing. It is one factor because usually in an experiment you try to
change one thing at a time. This makes measurements and interpretation of the data much
easier. If you are trying to determine whether heating water allows you to dissolve more sugar in
the water then your independent variable is the temperature of the water. This is the v ariable
you are purposely controlling.

Ex Post Facto study: researcher can explore the way behavior changes as a function of changes in
variables outside the researcher’s control; typically are subject variables/characteristics of the subjects
themselves that cannot be manipulated

In a true experiment, we test the effects of a manipulated independent variable—not the effects of
different kinds of subjects; we have to make certain that our treatment groups do not consist of people
who are different on a preexisting characteristic

Dependent variable: measure the DV to determine whether the IV had an effect; is the particular
behavior we expect to change because of our experimental intervention; variable is dependent if the
values are assumed to depend on the values of the IV: As the IV changes value, the DV value will change

Schachter: shock therapy treatment experiment and anxiety

Hess: tested that large pupils make people more attractive

http://psychapprentice.weebly.com/psychology-lexicon/independent-variable
EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

https://www.clipartkey.com/view/TRJibw_clip-art-science-experiment-outline-dependent-

http://clipart-library.com/scientific-variables-cliparts.htmlvariable-drawing/

Operational definition
Operational Definition: specifies the precise meaning of a variable within an experiment: it defines a
variable in terms of observable operations, procedures, and measurements; it clearly describes the
operations involved in manipulated or measuring the variables in an experiment

Experimental Operational Definitions: explains the precise meaning of the independent variables; describe
exactly what was done to create the various treatment conditions of the experiment

Measured operational definitions: describe exactly what procedures we follow to assess the impact of
different treatment conditions; include exact descriptions of the specific behaviors or responses recorded
and explain how those responses are scored

Hypothetical constructs (concepts): unseen processes postulated to explain behavior

Many variables can be measured in more than one way

Evaluating operational definition

Level of measurement: the kind of scale used to measure a variable

1. Nominal scale- assign items to two or more distinct categories that can be named using a shared
feature, but does not measured their magnitude.

Example: You can sort canines into friendly and shy categories.

2. Ordinal scale- measures the magnitude of the dependent variable using ranks but does not assign
precise values. This scale allow us to make statements about relative speed, but not precise speed, like a
runner’s place in marathon.

3. Interval Scale- measures the magnitude of the dependent variable using equal intervals between
values with no absolute zero point.

Example: Degrees Celsius or Fahrenheit and Sarnoff and Zimbardo’s scale

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4. Ratio scale- measures the magnitude of the dependent variable using equal intervals between
values and absolute zero. This allow us to state that 2 meters are twice as long as 1 meter.

Example: Distance in meter or time in seconds.

Reliability: refers to the consistency of experimental operational definitions and measured operational
definitions.

Example: A reliable bathroom scale should display the same weight if you measure yourself 3
times in the same minute.

 Interrater reliability: the agreement between measurements

Interrater reliability: the degree of agreement among different observers or raters; if

researchers agree on the results

 Interitem reliability: the extent to which different parts of a questionnaire, test, or other
instruments designed to assess the same variable attain consistent results

Interitem reliability: the degree to which different items measuring the same variable
attain consistent results; weighing something with two different units of measure

 Test-retest reliability: consistency between an individual’s scores on the same test taken at two or
more different times; taking a test after already taking it and re-studying

Validity: refers to the principle of actually studying the variables that we intend to study.

It also means the operational definition accurately manipulates the independent variable o r
measures the dependent variable.

 Face validity: self-evident way of measuring.

Example: Using ruler to measure pupil size

 Content validity: does the content of our measure fairly reflect the content of the thing we are
measuring?

Content validity: the degree to which the content of a measure reflects the content of what is
being measured; questions students have about an exam.

 Predictive validity: do our procedures yield info that enables us to predict future
performance/behavior

Predictive validity: the degree to which a measuring instrument yields information allowing
prediction of actual behavior or performance; Schachter’s experiment

 Concurrent validity: compares scores on the measuring instrument with an outside criterion

Concurrent validity: the degree to which scores on the measuring instrument correlate with
another known standard for measuring the variable being studied; compare anxiety test scores

 Construct validity: most important aspect; deals with the transition from theory to research
application

Construct validity: the degree to which an operational definition accurately represents

the construct it is intended to manipulate or measure; IQ and intelligence tests

 Internal validity: the degree to which a researcher is able to state a causal relationship between
antecedent conditions

Extraneous variables: things changing throughout the experiment

Confounding: when the value of an extraneous variable changes systematically across different conditions
of the experiment.
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Example: A study comparing the effects of medication and prayer on blood pressure would be
confounded if one group exercised more

History threat: occurs when an event outside the experiments threatens internal validity by changing the
dependent variable.

Example: Subject groups A were weighed before lunch while those in group B were weighted
after lunch

Maturation threat: is produced when physical or psychological changes in the subject threaten internal
validity by changing DV.

Example: Boredom may increase subject errors on a proofing task (DV).

Testing threat: occurs when prior exposure to a measurement procedure affects performance on this
measure during the experiment.

Example: Experimental subjects used a blood pressure cuff daily, while control subjects only
used one during a pretest measurement.

Instrumentation treat: when some feature of the measuring instrument itself changes during the
experiment.

Example: If reaction time measurements became less accurate during the experimental
than the control conditions.

Statistical regression threat : “regression toward the mean”; occurs whenever subjects are assigned to
conditions on the basis of extreme scores, the measurement procedure is not completely reliable, and
subjects are retested using the same procedure to measure change on the dependent variable.

Selection threat: occurs when individual differences are not balanced across treatment conditions by the
assignment procedure.

Example: Despite random assignment, subjects in the experimental group were more
extroverted than those in control group.

Subject morality threat: occurs when subjects drop out experimental conditions at different rates.

Example: even if subjects in each group started out with comparable anxiety scores, drop
out could produce differences on this variable.

Selection interactions: occur when a selection threat combines with at least one other threat (history,
maturation, statistical regression, subject morality or testing).

Planning the Method Section

Method section of an APA research report describes the participants, apparatus or Materials and
Procedure of the experiment.

 This section provides the reader with sufficient detail (who, what, when, and how) to exactly
replicate your study.

 The method section describes the method in enough detail that another researcher could replicate
the study. At a minimum, it consists of a participant’s subsection and a design and procedure
subsection.

 The results section describes the results in an organized fashion. Each primary result is presented
in terms of statistical results but also explained in words.

 An Apparatus section of an APA research report is appropriate when the equipment used in a
study was unique or specialized, or when we need to explain the capabilities of more common
equipment so that the reader can better evaluate or replicate the experiment.
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LESSON PROPER FOR WEEK 9
Extraneous Variables- Variables that can threaten an experiment internal validity

1. Physical

2. Social

3. Personality

4. Context

A. Physical Variables:

Aspects of the testing conditions that need to be controlled; ex: day of the week, testing room, noise, etc.

Experimental group and control group were tested on two separate occasions with grossly different
physical conditions

Can be avoided by:

1. Elimination

2. Constancy of condition

3. Balancing

Ways to control Physical variables:

1. Elimination: take out the condition (i.e. sound proof a noisy room)

• Removal for extraneous physical variables from the operating differently across different
treatment conditions.

• Simply, eliminating variables that can confound the experiment

• Noise? ( Use a soundproof room., hang a “Don’t Disturb” sign)

2. Constancy of Conditions: done when you can’t eliminate; keep all aspects of the treatment conditions
as similar as possible (i.e. can’t take paint off walls put all subjects in same room); physical variables
¬¬¬and mechanical procedures (written instructions to ensure consistency) are usually constant with little
effort

• Example: test all subject in the same room or at the same time of the day.

• If you cannot eliminate extraneous variable, try to keep all aspects of the treatment conditions as
nearly similar as possible.Example, Color of the wall, comfort level, lighting, instructions, time, ventilation,
etc.

3. Balancing: when elimination or constancy can’t be used; distributing the effects of an extraneous
variable across the different treatment conditions of the experiment (i.e. random assigning). a technique
used to control the impact of extraneous variables by distributing their effects equally across treatment
conditions

• Example: running half of the subjects in each condition in the morning and half in the evening.

When neither elimination nor constancy can be used.

• Subjects not available at the same time.

• Limited use of rooms.

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Confounded

Experimental Group Control Group

Room 801; 9am, Jan 15, 2021 Room 804, 3pm; Jan 17

Participants: Participants:

E1, E2, E3, E4, E5, E6, E7, E8, E9, E10, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6, C7, C8, C9, C10, C11, C12, C13, C14,
E11, E12, E13, E14, E15, E16 C15, C16

Balancing

· Distributing the effects of an extraneous variables across the different treatment conditions.

· Balanced (assign subjects randomly)

Experimental Group Control Group

Room 801; 9am, Jan 15, 2021 Room 804, 3pm; Jan 17

Participants: Participants:

E1, E4, E6, E7, E9, E10, E11, E13 C1, C2, C4, C6, C12, C13, C14, C16

C3, C5, C7, C8, C9, C10, C11, C15, E2, E3, E5, E8, E12, E14, E15, E16

In which order should you used these techniques?

1. Eliminate extraneous variables whenever possible.

2. Keep condition constant where elimination is not possible.

3. Balance the effects of extraneous variables when constancy of conditions is not possible.

B. Social variables:

 Qualities of the relationships between subjects and experimenters that can influence results

 These include demand characteristics and experimental bias.

 Demand characteristics: aspects of the experimental situation that demand that people behave in
a particular way; ex: strangers in elevators don’t make eye contact; experimenters want subjects
to be as naïve as possible

 Another example: students cue professors to wrap up their lectures by packing their binders,
books, and water bottles, and by looking at the door.

 Demand characteristics can confound an experiment if they vary across experimental conditions.

 Subjects may act to confirm what they think is the experimental hypothesis.

 Aspects of the experimental situation that demand the people behave in a particular way.

 Our behavior is shaped by what we think is expected in a given situation.

 Research subjects want to be good subjects

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 They might try to guess the hypothesis; may set out to prove or disprove it.

Can be controlled by:

1. Single-blind experiment

2. Cover story

Controlling demand characteristics

 Single-Blind Experiments:

1. Subjects do not know which treatment they are getting; placebo effect: thinking there is an effect
when there is not. Example, in a single –blind drug study, the experimental and control groups
might receive capsules that look and taste identical.

2. When subjects are not told their treatment condition, this eliminates cues that might alter their
behavior

3. An experiment in which subjects do not know which treatment they are getting.

4. Some information about the experiment may be revealed

5. Even so, there is still a possibility, though slim, that the subjects will figure out the hypothesis

6. The placebo effect is when a subject receives an inert treatment and improves because of
positives expediencies.

 Cover stories:

1. A plausible but false explanation for the procedures used in the study; not always used because
they deviate from fully informed consent.

2. They should be used sparingly, since they are a form of deception.

3. Deception is a departure from informed consent

4. Whenever possible, do not use one

5. Debriefing is required

 Experimenter Bias:

1. The experimenter does something that creates confounding in the experiment. Example, an
experimenter might provide more attention to subject in one condition than another.

2. An experimenter may unknowingly give subjects cues that tell them how he would like then to
respond.

3. Gestures, tone of voice, behavior of the experimenter can vary systematically across treatment
conditions; errors in recoding data

4. What can be done: Follow written direction, time the experiment, be consistent, and minimize
personal contact.

5. Can be controlled by: Double-blind Experiment

 Rosenthal effect

1. Pygmalion effect”’; experimenters treating subjects differently depending on what they expect
from their subjects.

2. This is also called the Pygmalion effect and self- fulfilling prophesy. Example, teachers might give
more attention and feedback to high aptitude students than to low aptitude students.
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3. The Rosenthal effect can confound an experiment, producing results consistent with the
experimenter’s expectations.

 Double-Blind experiments:

1. Used to eliminate experimenter effects; subjects and experimenters do not know which treatment
is being given.

2. Double blind control both demand characteristic’s and experimenter bias, since both the
experimenter and subjects are blinded.

3. The subjects do not know which treatment they are receiving, and the experimenter does not know
either. Use of an independent rater

C. Personality Variables:

 personal characteristics the experimenter brings to the experimental setting (nice, friendly
experimenter vs. cold, rude experimenter)

 Important to maintain consistency across subjects and treatments

 Be pleasant, but remember that you can affect the outcome of your experiment

 Maintain consistency in your interactions

 The more you vary behavior, the more you are likely to produce variability in the responses of your
subjects.

 Minimize contact

 Adhere strictly to the experimental procedures

How might the experimenter’s personality affect experimental results?

 Research on experimenter personality shows that when experimenters are warm and friendly,
subjects learn more, talk more, earn better test scores and are eager to please.

 Hostile or authoritarian experimenters obtain inferior subject performance.

How can experimenters control personality variables?

 Employ multiple experiments to run an equal numbers of subjects in each of the experimental
conditions (balancing).

 Treat “experimenter” as an independent variable in statistical analysis. If an interaction is found,

then the experiment was confused.

 When there is a single experimenter, minimize face to face contact and closely follow the script.

 Videotape session to confirm consistent performance.

How do volunteers differ from non-volunteers?

 Volunteers are more sociable, score higher in social desirability, hold more liberal social and political
attitudes, are less authoritarian, and score higher on intelligence test than non-volunteers.

D. Context Variables:

 Variables that come about from procedures created by the environment, or context, of the
research setting.

 Context Variable are extraneous variable stemming from procedures created by the environment,
or context, of the research setting.
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Ex: subject recruitment, selection, assignment procedures, etc.

 Name of experiments are kept neutral so no bias

 note which experiment conditions cause drop outs

When might subjects select the experiments?

 When we allow subjects to sign up for experiments whose titles differ in their appeal:

1. “the memory test experiment”

2. “The heavy metal music experiment”

 However, this could result in a biased sample threatening external validity.

 Am I free?

 What kind of experiment is it?

 Titles of experiments can bias the sample

 Try to keep the titles as neutral as possible

Why shouldn’t you run your friends in your experiments?

 Selecting your friends might bias your sample, threatening external validity.

 Both you and your friends might act differently in your experiment than strangers.

When Experimenter Selects the Subjects?

 If subjects are not selected randomly, your sample will be biased

 Best to use people you do not know

 Set procedure for randomly selecting people you approach

 Keep demeanor consistent

 Design random assignment procedure

EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
LESSON PROPER FOR WEEK 10
Experimental Design: general structure of experiment; design is made up of number of treatments

Determining the Design:

1. Number of IVs

2. Number of treatment conditions needed to make a fair test

3. Whether the same or different subjects are used in each of the treatment condition

Selecting and Recruiting Subjects

What is the purpose of experimental design?

 The design of an experiment details an experimenters plan for testing a hypothesis.

 The design is the experiments structure or floor plan- not the experiments specific content.

 We can use the same design to investigate different hypotheses.

What determines an experimental design?

 The experimental design is largely determined by the experimental hypotheses

 A researcher mainly selects an experimental design on the basis of three factor:

1. The number of independent variables in the hypothesis

2. The number of treatment conditions needed to fairly test the hypothesis.

3. Whether the same subjects are used in each of the treatment condition.

What constitute a between subject design?

 Between-Subject Designs: Different subjects take part in each condition of the experiment; draw
conclusions by making comparisons between the behaviors of different group subjects; more than 1
or 2 subjects necessary.

 In between subject design, a subject participates in only one condition of the experiment.

Structure of Between-Subjects Designs

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 A separate group of participants is assigned to each of the different conditions by using random
selection.

 Groups are presumed to be equal at start so that we can conclude any difference in DV is due to
effect of IV.

 In order to assure equivalent groups, the groups must be created equally, treated equally, and
composed of equivalent individuals.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Between-Subjects Designs

 Pro: Each participant is exposed to only one treatment condition. Therefore, score is free from the
following influences: (1) practice/experience, (2) fatigue/boredom, and (3) contrast effects. Also,
usable for wide variety of research questions.

 Cons: (1) Need relatively large N and (2) each score is obtained from a different person--all
possessing different characteristics.

 Individual Differences--e.g., gender, age, personality, background

 Caution: Individual differences can become confounding variables and can produce high variability in
the scores.

What determine whether we can generalize our findings?

 The representatives of our sample determines whether we can generalize our results to the
entire population from which the sample was drawn.

 Random sampling increase an experiments external validity.

What is the minimum number of subjects for each group?

 You should have 10-20 subjects in each treatment condition to detect a strong treatment effect.

 Fewer subject in each condition risks not detecting the effect of the IV and DV.

What is effect size and why is it important

 Effect size: an estimate of the size of the treatment effect; fewer subjects necessary to detect
a treatment effect; advisable to have at least 15-20 subjects; small number make effect hard to
detect

 The larger the effect size, the stronger the relationship between the independent and dependent
variables, and the fewer subjects needed to detect a treatment effect.

 Effect size determines the number of subjects required to detect a treatment effect.

 Researchers determine the number of subjects required for an expected effect size using power
charts or programs that incorporate these charts.
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One Independent Variable: Two Group Design

 A two group design involves the creation of two separate groups of subjects.

 Two versions of the two group design are two independent groups design and two matched groups
design.

 Two Group design: when only two treatment conditions are needed, the experimenter may choose to
form two separate groups of subjects.

Two independent group design

A design where there is one IV with two levels and subjects are randomly assigned to one of the two
conditions. The design includes the experimental group, Control Group design and Two- Experimental
Groups design. Two independent groups design: randomly picked subjects are placed in each of the two
treatment conditions through random assignment (if no way to randomly assign subjects, there will be less
external validity in conclusions/how well findings can be applied to other situations).

 Random assignment: every subject has an equal chance of being placed in any of the treatment
conditions; this method controls for subject variables; NOT THE SAME AS RANDOM SELECTION
(is possible to select a random sample from the population but then assign the subjects to groups
in a biased way).

o Involves assigning subjects to conditions so that each subject has an equal chance of
participating in each condition.

o We use random assignment to equally distribute subject’s variables between the treatment
groups to prevent them from confounding an experiment.

 Experimental condition: apply a particular value of the IV to the subjects and measure the DV;
subjects in this condition are called “experimental group”. It presents a value of the independent
variable.

 Control Condition: used to determine the value of the DV without a manipulation of the IV;
subjects in condition are called “control group”; same as experimental without the manipulation; aka
“no-treatment” condition; closer the control group is to placebo group less chances of accidental
confounding and more internal validity. It presents a zero level of independent variable.

 Two Experimental Groups Design: used to look at behavioral differences that occur when subjects
are exposed to different values or levels of the IV; used once it has been established that an IV
produces some effect not ordinarily present; no control group (ex. People hearing good or bad news
study) and way of verifying a conclusion without a control group: the conclusions that may be drawn
from an experiment are restricted by the scope and representatives of the treatment conditions.

o The experimental group receives a level of the IV and the control group receives the same
procedures, but receives no treatment.

o In a two experimental groups design, we assign subjects to one of two levels of the
independent variable.

o This design is appropriate if there is one independent variable with two levels and if we can
assume that randomization will control extraneous variables.

o Random assignment works poorly with 5-10 subjects per condition.

o Since people often differ on many subject variables that could potentially confound your
experiment may not control all of them.
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Two matched groups design

Two Matched Groups: two groups of subjects but the researcher assigns them to groups by matching or
equating them on a characteristic that will probably affect the DV; used when randomization doesn’t
guarantee that the treatment groups will be comparable on all the relevant extraneous subject variables.

In a two matched group design, we:

1. Match participants on a subject variable correlated with the DV, and

2. Randomly assign them to one of two treatment conditions.

The purpose of matching

1. Matching is used to create a groups that are equivalent on potentially confounding subject
variables.

2. Matching is especially useful when there is a very small number of subjects because there is a
greater chance that randomization will produce groups that are dissimilar

3. Successful matching prevents selection threat from undermining internal validity.

4. by matching on a variable that is likely to have a strong effect on the DV, we can eliminate one
possible source of confounding & can make effect on IV easier to see*

What must we measure to form match group?

We need to measure an extraneous variable, strongly correlated with the dependent variable that could
confound our results if not controlled.

3 ways to match subjects across the two groups after experiment:

1. Precision matching: insist that the members of the matched pairs have identical scores

 From pairs of identical IQ score (120 with 120).

 Randomly assign members of each pair to one of two treatment conditions.

2. Range matching: more common; requires that the members of a pair fall within a previously
specified range of scores; advised to sample as many subjects as possible when using range matching

 Form pairs of the scores that fall within a specified range like 5 points (115 with 120, 135 with
140).

 Randomly assign members of each pair to one of two treatment conditions.

3. Rank-ordered matching: subjects are ranked by their scores on the matching variable; all subjects
are typically used unless you have an uneven number of scores from throwing one out; down side is there
may be unacceptably large differences between members of pairs

 Rank all IQ scores from highest to lowest.

 Form pairs of scores that fall in adjacent ranks (1 st score with 2nd score, 3rd score with 4th).

 Randomly assign members of each pair to one of two treatment groups.

When should you use a two matched groups design?

 You should use a two matched groups design when there are two levels of an independent variable
and there is an extraneous variable we can measure that could affect the defendant variable.

Multiple Groups
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 Multiple groups design: there are more than two groups of subjects and each group is run through
a different treatment condition; used when the amount or degree of the IV is important (i.e. drug
dosage)

 Multiple independent groups design: most commonly used multiple groups design; the subjects are
assigned to the different treatment conditions at random

 Block randomization: is a process for randomly assigning equal numbers of subject to condition. The
experimenter creates random sequences of each experimental condition and subjects are randomly
assigned to fill each treatment block.

How should a researcher choose the number of treatments?

 The hypothesis, prior research, pilot study results, and practical limits can all help determine the
number of treatments.

 A researcher needs to answer the question: “which will gain by adding these extra conditions to the
experiments?”

Practical limitations include:

 Available subject

 Time

 Expense

What is a pilot study and how can it aid an experiment?

 Pilot study: pretest selected levels of an IV before doing the actual thing; keeps practical limits in
mind.

 A pilot study can help the experimenter refine the procedure or determine whether the experiment
is promising.

 A pilot study can reveal whether:

1. You have allocated sufficient time

2. Your instructions are clear

3. Your deception worked

4. You need additional treatment conditions

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LESSON PROPER FOR WEEK 11
Factor

 A factor is an independent variable.

 In an experiment, the factor (also called an independent variable) is an explanatory variable

manipulated by the experimenter.

 Each factor has two or more levels (i.e., different values of the factor). Combinations of factor
levels are called treatments. The table below shows independent variables, factors, levels, and
treatments for a hypothetical experiment.

Vitamin C

0 mg 250 mg 500 mg

Vitamin0 mg Treatment Treatment Treatment

E 1 2 3

400 mgTreatment Treatment Treatment

4 5 6

In this hypothetical experiment, the researcher is studying the possible effects of Vitamin C and Vitamin
E on health. There are two factors - dosage of Vitamin C and dosage of Vitamin E. The Vitamin C factor
has three levels - 0 mg per day, 250 mg per day, and 500 mg per day. The Vitamin E factor has 2 levels
- 0 mg per day and 400 mg per day. The experiment has six treatments. Treatment 1 is 0 mg of E and 0
mg of C, Treatment 2 is 0 mg of E and 250 mg of C, and so on

Factorial design

 A factorial design contains more than one independent variable.

 The effect of psychotherapy (IV1) and antidepressant drugs (IV2) on depression (DV).

 A two-factor experiment is the simplest factorial design

 A factorial design is more efficient since it combines several one-factor experiments and allows us
to study interactions.

 A factorial design can achieve greater external validity since it can better recreate the complexity
of the multivariate environment.

In a factorial design, each level of one independent variable (which can also be called a factor) is combined
with each level of the others to produce all possible combinations. Each combination, then, becomes a
condition in the experiment. Imagine, for example, an experiment on the effect of cell phone use (yes vs.
no) and time of day (day vs. night) on driving ability. This is shown in the factorial design table in Figure
8.2 “Factorial Design Table Representing a 2 × 2 Factorial Design”. The columns of the table represent
cell phone use, and the rows represent time of day. The four cells of the table represent the four possible
combinations or conditions: using a cell phone during the day, not using a cell phone during the day, using a
cell phone at night, and not using a cell phone at night. This particular design is a 2 × 2 (read “two-by-
two”) factorial design because it combines two variables, each of which has two levels. If one of the
independent variables had a third level (e.g., using a handheld cell phone, using a hands-free cell phone, and
not using a cell phone), then it would be a 3 × 2 factorial design, and there would be six distinct conditions.
Notice that the number of possible conditions is the product of the numbers of levels. A 2 × 2 factorial
design has four conditions, a 3 × 2 factorial design has six conditions, and a 4 × 5 factorial design would
have 20 conditions, and so on.
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Figure 8.2 Factorial Design Table Representing a 2 × 2 Factorial Design

In principle, factorial designs can include any number of independent variables with any number of levels.
For example, an experiment could include the type of psychotherapy (cognitive vs. behavioral), the length
of the psychotherapy (2 weeks vs. 2 months), and the sex of the psychotherapist (female vs. male).
This would be a 2 × 2 × 2 factorial design and would have eight conditions. Figure 8.3 “Factorial Design
Table Representing a 2 × 2 × 2 Factorial Design” shows one way to represent this design. In practice, it
is unusual for there to be more than three independent variables with more than two or three levels each
because the number of conditions can quickly become unmanageable. For example, adding a fourth
independent variable with three levels (e.g., therapist experience: low vs. medium vs. high) to the current
example would make it a 2 × 2 × 2 × 3 factorial design with 24 distinct conditions. In the rest of this
section, we will focus on designs with two independent variables. The general principles discussed here
extend in a straightforward way to more complex factorial designs.

Figure 8.3 Factorial Design Table Representing a 2 × 2 × 2 Factorial Design

Non manipulated Independent Variables

In many factorial designs, one of the independent variables is a non manipulated independent variable. The
researcher measures it but does not manipulate it. The study by Schnall and colleagues is a good example.
One independent variable was disgust, which the researchers manipulated by testing participants in a
clean room or a messy room. The non manipulated independent variable was whether participants were
high or low in hypochondriasis (excessive concern with ordinary bodily symptoms). The result of this study
was that the participants high in hypochondriasis were better than those low in hypochondriasis at
recalling the health-related words, but they were no better at recalling the non-health-related words.

Such studies are extremely common, and there are several points worth making about them. First, non
manipulated independent variables are usually participant variables (private body consciousness,
hypochondriasis, self-esteem, and so on), and as such they are by definition between-subjects factors.

Graphing the Results of Factorial Experiments

The results of factorial experiments with two independent variables can be graphed by representing one
independent variable on the x-axis and representing the other by using different kinds of bars or lines.
(The y-axis is always reserved for the dependent variable.) Figure 8.4 “Two Ways to Plot the Results of
a Factorial Experiment with Two Independent Variables” shows results for two hypothetical factorial
experiments. The top panel shows the results of a 2 × 2 design. Time of day (day vs. night) is
represented by different locations on the x-axis, and cell phone use (no vs. yes) is represented by different-
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colored bars. (It would also be possible to represent cell phone use on the x-axis and time of day as
different-colored bars. The choice comes down to which way seems to communicate the results most
clearly.) The bottom panel of Figure 8.4 “Two Ways to Plot the Results of a Factorial Experiment with
Two Independent Variables” shows the results of a 4 × 2 design in which one of the variables is
quantitative. This variable, psychotherapy length, is represented along the x-axis, and the other variable
(psychotherapy type) is represented by differently formatted lines. This is a line graph rather than a bar
graph because the variable on the x-axis is quantitative with a small number of distinct levels.

Figure 8.4 Two Ways to Plot the Results of a Factorial Experiment with Two Independent Variables

Main Effects and Interactions

In factorial designs, there are two kinds of results that are of interest: main effects and interaction
effects (which are also called just “interactions”). A main effect is the statistical relationship between
one independent variable and a dependent variable—averaging across the levels of the other independent
variable. Thus there is one main effect to consider for each independent variable in the study. The top
panel of Figure 8.4 “Two Ways to Plot the Results of a Factorial Experiment with Two Independent
Variables” shows a main effect of cell phone use because driving performance was better, on average,
when participants were not using cell phones than when they were. The blue bars are, on average, higher
than the red bars. It also shows a main effect of time of day because driving performance was better
during the day than during the night—both when participants were using cell phones and when they were
not. Main effects are independent of each other in the sense that whether or not there is a main effect
of one independent variable says nothing about whether or not there is a main effect of the other. The
bottom panel of Figure 8.4 “Two Ways to Plot the Results of a Factorial Experiment with Two
Independent Variables”, for example, shows a clear main effect of psychotherapy length. The longer the
psychotherapy, the better it worked. But it also shows no overall advantage of one type of
psychotherapy over the other.

 A main effect is the affection of a single IV on the DV.

 There can be as many main effects as independent variables.

Example of a main effect in a hypothetical study of exercise and depression.

 An experimenter studies the effect of exercise intensity (IV1) and duration (IV2) on depression
(DV).
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 If exercise intensity or duration separately reduced depression, these would constitute main
effects.

How do we determine whether we have main effects in our experiment?

 Perform an appropriate statistical test.

In a 2x3x3 study, how many IVs and treatment conditions are there?

 There are 3 independent variables and 18 treatment conditions.

Example of a 2x3x3 study.

 The independent variables were the perpetrator’s gender (male or female), relationship to the
child (parent, step-parent, or parent’s partner), and severity of the abuse (neurological damage,
broken bones or bruising).

 The dependent variable was the sentence length.

Interaction

 An interaction is the joint effect of 2 or more IVs on the DV.

 When there is an interaction, the effect of one IV is different across levels of the other IV.

 An interaction qualifies a main effect, warning us that there may be limits or exceptions to the
effect of an IV on the DV.

 When there is an interaction, we must consider both IVs, because the effects of one factor will
depend on the levels of the other factor.

The effect of one independent variable can depend on the level of the other in different ways. This is
shown in Figure 8.5 “Bar Graphs Showing Three Types of Interactions”. In the top panel, one
independent variable has an effect at one level of the second independent variable but no effect at the
others. (This is much like the study of Schnall and her colleagues where there was an effect of disgust
for those high in private body consciousness but not for those low in private body consciousness.) In the
middle panel, one independent variable has a stronger effect at one level of the second independent
variable than at the other level. This is like the hypothetical driving example where there was a
stronger effect of using a cell phone at night than during the day. In the bottom panel, one independent
variable again has an effect at both levels of the second independent variable, but the effects are in
opposite directions. Figure 8.5 “Bar Graphs Showing Three Types of Interactions” shows the strongest
form of this kind of interaction, called a crossover interaction. One example of a crossover interaction
comes from a study by Kathy Gilliland on the effect of caffeine on the verbal test scores of introverts and
extroverts (Gilliland, 1980). Introverts perform better than extroverts when they have not ingested
any caffeine. But extroverts perform better than introverts when they have ingested 4 mg of caffeine
per kilogram of body weight. Figure 8.6 “Line Graphs Showing Three Types of Interactions” shows
examples of these same kinds of interactions when one of the independent variables is quantitative and
the results are plotted in a line graph. Note that in a crossover interaction, the two lines literally “cross
over” each other.

Figure 8.5 Bar Graphs Showing Three Types of Interactions

In the top panel, one independent variable has an effect at one level of the second independent variable
but not at the other. In the middle panel, one independent variable has a stronger effect at one level of
EXPERIMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY
the second independent variable than at the other. In the bottom panel, one independent variable has
the opposite effect at one level of the second independent variable than at the other.

Figure 8.6 Line Graphs Showing Three Types of Interactions

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny psychologyresearchmethods/chapter/8-2-multiple-independent-
variables/

In the top panel, one independent variable has an effect at one level of the second independent variable
but not at the other. In the middle panel, one independent variable has a stronger effect at one level of
the second independent variable than at the other. In the bottom panel, one independent variable has
the opposite effect at one level of the second independent variable than at the other.

In many studies, the primary research question is about an interaction. The study by Brown and her
colleagues was inspired by the idea that people with hypochondriasis are especially attentive to any
negative health-related information. This led to the hypothesis that people high in hypochondriasis would
recall negative health-related words more accurately than people low in hypochondriasis but recall non-
health-related words about the same as people low in hypochondriasis. And of course this is exactly what
happened in this study.

Example of an interaction.

 If the antidepressant Paxil produced greater reductions in depression in the Cognitive Behavior
Therapy condition than the Waiting List condition, this would illustrate an interaction between
drug and psychotherapy.
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Higher-order interaction

 A higher-order interaction is an interaction among three or more IVs.

 Interpretation can be difficult when more than three IVs interact in an experiment.

Example of higher-order interaction.

 A previous hypothetical study examined the effect of a perpetrator’s gender (male or female),
relationship to the child (parent, step-parent or parent’s partner), and severity of the abuse
(neurological damage, broken bones or bruising) on sentencing.

 There would be higher-order interaction if the perpetrator’s gender, relationship to the child, and
severity of abuse jointly determined sentence length.

How many interactions are possible in a study with three IVs?

 Assign letters (A, B, C) to the independent variables. Identify all unique two and three treatment
combinations.

 For 3 independent variables, these include AB, AC, BC, and ABC. ABC is the higher -order
interaction.

Factor-labeling method.

 The factor-labeling method lists the two factors in parentheses after the numerical notation. For
example, 2x2 (Type of name x length of name).

 This method lists the two factors and their respective levels after the numerical notation.

 For example, 2x2 (Type of name: given, nickname x Length of name: short, long).

 The factors and level method provides more detailed information about the design than the
factor-labeling method.

Factor-label, also known as dimensional analysis in some circles, describes a technique to convert one
quantity - a length, mass, or anything else for that matter - to another quantity. The technique relies on
the use of equalities, called conversion factors that provide the link between the unit being converted and
the new unit of measure. The units, expressed as fractions, are multiplied together with the conversion
factors arranged in such a way that all units cancel except the target unit.

Why should we keep between-subjects designs simple?

Practical limitations include:

 Number of subjects.

 Time.

 Interpretability of results.