6.romanticism and Existentialism

7
Romanticism and Existentialism
S tarting with the Renaissance humanists (see Chapter 4), the authority of
the church began to be questioned and a period of more objective inquiry
concerning the world and humans ensued. The work of such individuals as
Copernicus, Kepler, Galileo, Hobbes, Newton, Bacon, and Descartes ushered in the
period in philosophy referred to as the Enlightenment. The term enlightenment
was used to contrast the period with the “darkness” of irrationality and supersti-
tion that was thought to characterize the previous age. Increasing skepticism
concerning religious dogma and the Enlightenment were closely related: “Seri-
ous concerns about the historical accuracy of the Bible began to appear during
the Enlightenment, when supernatural doctrines of divine revelation that
guaranteed the truth of Scripture became matters of scholarly debate” (Ehrman,
2003, p. 168). For Enlightenment thinkers, who tended to be either deists or
outright atheists, “beliefs are to be accepted only on the basis of reason, not on
the authority of priests, sacred texts, or tradition” (Inwood, 1995, p. 236). Fur-
thermore, knowledge was power. Knowledge meant understanding the abstract
principles governing the universe, and power came from applying that knowl-
edge to improve society. During the Enlightenment it was widely believed that
societal perfection was achievable through the application of objective (for
example, scientific) knowledge and, therefore, the period was characterized by
considerable optimism.
Clearly, for the Enlightenment thinkers, the most important human attribute
was rationality. Individual differences among humans were viewed as less impor-
tant than their shared rationality:
The Enlightenment devalues prejudices and customs, which owe their
development to historical peculiarities rather than to the exercise
195
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196 CHAPTER 7
of reason. What matters to the Chapter 2) and Skeptics (see Chapter 3). Two of
Enlightenment is not whether one is the most influential criticisms of Enlightenment
French or German, but that one is an philosophy were romanticism and existentialism,
individual man, united in brotherhood
and those philosophies are the focus of this chapter.
with all other men by the rationality one
shares with them. (Inwood, 1995, p. 236)
Also, Enlightenment thinkers devalued the ROMANTICISM

irrational aspects of human nature, such as the emo-
tions. It is no wonder that the Enlightenment is Some philosophers began to argue that humans
often referred to as the Age of Reason. consist of more than an intellect and ideas derived
It is not clear exactly when the Enlightenment from experience. Humans, they said, also possess a
wide variety of irrational feelings (emotions), intui-
began; it is even less clear when it ended, if it ever
tions, and instincts. Those philosophers emphasiz-
did. In any case, Enlightenment ideals were embraced ing the importance of these irrational components
by the British empiricists (especially by Hobbes, of human nature were called romantics. They
Locke, and J. S. Mill), the French sensationalists, and believed that rational thought had often led humans
the positivists (see Chapter 5). Enlightenment episte- astray in their search for valid information and that
mology glorified sensory experiences and rationality, empiricism reduced people to unfeeling machines.
According to the romantics, the best way to find
the two primary components of science. In fact, as was
out what humans are really like is to study the
noted in Chapter 5, the British and French empiricists total person, not just his or her rational powers or
attempted to apply Newtonian science to an under- empirically determined ideas. For the romantic, “a
standing of human nature. That is, they attempted to return to the lived world and to childlike openness
explain human nature objectively in terms of a few was needed” (Schneider, 1998, p. 278). As men-
basic principles. tioned in Chapter 5, aspects of romanticism were
found in ancient Cynicism and in Renaissance
Although the philosophies of Hume (see
humanism.
Chapter 5) and Kant (see Chapter 6) shared many Of course, the empiricists and sensationalists
of the ideals of the Enlightenment, their philoso- did not totally neglect human emotionality. Their
phies did much to show the limitations of human coverage of the topic, however, was either minimal
rationality. For example, Hume and Kant demon- or secondary to other concerns. The empiricists and
strated that physical reality could never be experi- sensationalists generally believed that all human
emotions were derived from the feelings of pleasure
enced directly and therefore could never be known.
and pain. They also generally believed that emo-
Other philosophers began to view the search for the tions become associated with various sensations
universal, abstract principles governing human and ideas by the same mechanical laws of associa-
behavior as not only cold and impersonal, but also tion that bind ideas together. Neither did the
misleading. Human behavior, they said, is not gov- rationalists neglect the topic of human emotions.
erned by universal, abstract principles but by per- Spinoza, for example, shared the belief that most,
if not all, human emotions are derived from the
sonal experience and individual perspectives. By
feelings of pleasure or pain. In addition, Spinoza,
denying universal truths and insisting instead on like many other rationalists, believed that emotional
many individual truths, these philosophers had experience is often destructive if not controlled by
much in common with the ancient Sophists (see rational processes. The romantics sought to elevate
ROMANTICISM AND EXISTENTIALISM 197
fact, Rousseau’s father abandoned him when he

was 10 years old, and he was brought up by
relatives. Suffering from poor health all his life,
Rousseau left school at the age of 12 and moved
from place to place and from job to job. Once, he
was so hungry that he converted to Catholicism in
order to receive free food and lodging in a Catholic
church. He said of this act, “I could not dissemble
from myself that the holy deed I was about to do
was at bottom the act of a bandit” (Russell, 1945,
p. 685).
As a young adolescent, Rousseau was filled
© Bettmann/Corbis
with sexual desire but didn’t know what to do

about it: “My heated blood incessantly filled my
brain with girls and women; but, ignorant of the
relations of sex, I made use of them in my imagina-
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
tion in accordance with my distorted notions”
(1781/1996, p. 84). For example, young Rousseau
human emotions, intuitions, and instincts from sought sexual satisfaction through exhibitionism: “I
the inferior philosophical position they had occu- haunted dark alleys and hidden retreats, where I
pied to one of being the primary guides for human might be able to expose myself to women in the
conduct. condition in which I should liked to have been in
The rational, empirical, and positivistic philoso- their company” (1781/1996, p. 84). On one such
phers (that is, the philosophers of the Enlightenment) occasion, Rousseau was caught, but lied his way
had attempted to create political and moral systems out of trouble. He told the man who caught him
based on their philosophies. According to the roman- that he was of good birth but suffered a brain afflic-
tics, these efforts had failed because they viewed tion for which his family was about to confine him.
humans mainly as either victims of experience or He had run away, Rousseau continued, in an effort
vehicles by which some grandiose, rational principle to escape this confinement. So, he told the man, his
was manifested (such as in Hegel). During the roman- actions were of a desperate young man and should
tic movement, in the late 18th to mid-19th century, not be judged too harshly. Much to his amazement,
the good life was defined as one lived honestly Rousseau was released after only a brief reprimand.
in accordance with one’s inner nature. The great When Rousseau was 15, he met Madame de
philosophical systems were no longer to be trusted; Warens, a Swiss baroness who was 28 and had con-
in general, science was also seen as antithetical— verted to Catholicism. Madame de Warens was
or at best irrelevant—to understanding humans. well educated in religion, literature, and philoso-
Rousseau is usually thought of as the father of phy, and for 10 years she was Rousseau’s lover and
romanticism, and it is to his philosophy that we tutor. Following his relationship with Madame de
turn next. Warens, Rousseau spent several years as a vagabond,
making money any way he could—sometimes
illegally or by deception. In 1745 Rousseau
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
began a relationship with Thérèse Le Vasseur, a
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778) was born maid in his hotel in Paris. He lived with her (and
in Geneva, the son of a watchmaker, and raised a her mother) the rest of his life, and they had five
Calvinist. His mother died soon after giving birth to children, all of whom were sent to a foundling
him—for which his father never forgave him. In home (an orphanage). Rousseau had been a
198 CHAPTER 7
womanizer and remained one during his relation- his idealization of untouched human nature,
ship with Thérèse. Understanding why he chose Rousseau had much in common with the ancient
this person to share his life is difficult. She was Cynics (see Chapter 3). In fact, his contemporaries
uneducated and relatively unattractive. When called him “a new Diogenes” (Niehues-Pröbsting,
they first met, she could neither read nor write 1996). Rousseau distrusted reason, organized
and did not know the names of the months. religion, science, and societal laws as guides for
Rousseau eventually did teach her to write but human conduct. His philosophy became a defense
not to read. Later in their relationship, Thérèse for Protestantism because it supported the notion
took to drinking and running after stable boys. that God’s existence could be defended on the
Russell (1945) speculates that Rousseau maintained basis of individual feeling and did not depend on
his relationship with Thérèse because she made the dictates of the church.
him feel intellectually and financially superior. In Chapter 17, we will see that Rousseau’s trust
Arriving in Paris at the age of 30, Rousseau of inner feelings as guides for action was shared by
joined a group of influential Parisian intellectuals, the humanist psychologist Carl Rogers.
although he himself had had no formal education.
Rousseau was an intensely private person and did The Noble Savage. Looking at natural impulses
not like the social life of the city. In 1756 he left to understand humans was not new with Rousseau;
Paris for the quiet of the country, but the 1762 pub- we saw in Chapter 5 that Hobbes did the same
lication of his two most famous works, The Social thing. The major difference between Hobbes and
Contract and Emile, ended Rousseau’s tranquil country Rousseau is in the conclusions they reached about
life. Within a month of the publication of these human nature. For Hobbes, human nature was ani-
books, the city of Paris condemned them, and malistic and selfish and needed to be controlled by
Rousseau’s hometown of Geneva issued a warrant government. This view of human nature was also
for his arrest. He was forced to spend the next four accepted by many theologians and philosophers,
years as a refugee. Finally, in 1765 David Hume who said that reason had to be almost constantly
offered Rousseau safe haven in England. Eventually, employed to control brutish human impulses.
opposition to Rousseau’s ideas faded and Rousseau Rousseau completely disagreed, saying instead that
returned to Paris, where he remained until his humans were born basically good. He reversed the
death. He died in poverty, and suicide was suspected doctrine of original sin by insisting that humans are
(Russell, 1945). born good but are made bad by societal institutions.
Rousseau claimed that if a noble savage could
Feelings Versus Reason. Rousseau began The be found (a human not contaminated by society),
Social Contract with this statement: “Man is born we would have a human whose behavior was gov-
free and yet we see him everywhere in chains” erned by feelings but who would not be selfish.
(1762/1947, p. 5). His point was that all govern- Rousseau believed that humans were, by nature,
ments in Europe at the time were based on a faulty social animals who wished to live in harmony
assumption about human nature—the assumption with other humans. If humans were permitted to
that humans need to be governed. The only justifi- develop freely, they would become happy, fulfilled,
able government, according to Rousseau, was one free, and socially minded. They would do what is
that allowed humans to reach their full potential best for themselves and for others if simply given
and to fully express their free will. The best guide the freedom to do so.
for human conduct is a person’s honest feelings and
inclinations: “Let us lay it down as an incontrovert- The General Will. Even though the concep-
ible rule that the first impulses of [human] nature tions of human nature accepted by Hobbes and
are always right; there is no original sin in the Rousseau were essentially opposite, the type of gov-
human heart” (Rousseau, 1762/1974, p. 56). In ernment that the two proposed was quite similar.
Rousseau conceded that to live in civilized socie- God makes all things good; man meddles
ties, humans had to give up some of their primitive with them and they become evil. He
independence. The question that he pondered forces one soil to yield the products of
in his Social Contract is how humans could be another, one tree to bear another’s fruit.
governed and still remain as free as possible. It is He confuses and confounds time, place,
in answer to this question that Rousseau intro- and natural conditions. He mutilates his
duced his notion of the general will. According dog, his horse, and his slave. He destroys
to Rousseau, the general will describes what is and defaces all things; he loves all that is
best within a community, and it is to be “sharply deformed and monstrous; he will have
distinguished” from an individual’s will or even a nothing as nature made it, not even man
unanimous agreement among individuals: himself, who must learn his paces like a
saddlehorse, and be shaped to his master’s
This general will is to be kept sharply dis-
taste like the trees in his garden. (p. 5)
tinguished from what the members of a
society may, by majority vote or even by According to Rousseau, education should take
unanimous agreement, decide is their advantage of natural impulses rather than distort
good. Such a decision, which Rousseau them. Education should not consist of pouring
distinguished from the general will by information into children in a highly structured
calling it “the will of all,” may be wrong. school. Rather, education should create a situation
The general will, by definition, cannot be in which a child’s natural abilities and interests can
wrong because it is the very standard of be nurtured. For Rousseau, the child naturally has a
right. (Frankel, 1947, p. xxiv) rich array of positive instincts, and the best educa-
tion is one that allows these impulses to become
Each individual has both a tendency to be self-
actualized.
ish (private will) and a tendency to act in ways
In Emile (1762/1974), a treatise on education
beneficial to the community (general will). To
in the form of a novel, Rousseau described what he
live in harmony with others, each person is obliged
considered the optimal setting for education. A
to act in accordance with his or her general will and
child and his tutor leave civilization and return to
inhibit his or her private will.
nature; in this setting, the child is free to follow his
The “social contract,” then, can be summarized
own talents and curiosities. The tutor responds to
as follows: “Each of us places in common his person
the child’s questions rather than trying to impose his
and all of his power under the supreme direction of
views on the child. As the child matures, his abilities
the general will; and as one body we all receive
and interests change, and thus what constitutes a
each member as an indivisible part of the whole”
meaningful educational experience changes. It is
(Rousseau, 1762/1947, p. 15). In Rousseau’s
always the child’s natural abilities and interests,
“utopia,” if a person’s private will is contrary to
however, that guide the educational process.
the general will, he or she can be forced to
Rousseau (1762/1974) described how education
follow the general will. Also, there are no elections
should be responsive to each particular student’s
and no private property: “The state, in relation to its
interests and abilities:
members, is master of all their wealth” (Rousseau,
1762/1947, p. 20). The governments that Rousseau Every mind has its own form, in accordance
encouraged were anything but democratic. with which it must be controlled; and the
success of the pains taken depends largely
Education. Rousseau began Emile (1762/1974) on the fact that he is controlled in this way
the same way that he began The Social Contract, and no other. Oh, wise man, take time to
that is, by condemning society for interfering with observe nature; watch your scholar well
nature and with natural human impulses: before you say a word to him; first leave the
200 CHAPTER 7
germ of his character free to show itself, do time. As Faust begins, old Dr. Faust is filled with
not constrain him in anything, the better to despair and is contemplating suicide. Satan appears
see him as he really is…. The wise physician and makes a deal with him: Satan could take Faust’s
does not hastily give prescriptions at first soul if Faust had an experience he wished would
sight, but he studies the constitution of the continue eternally. With that bargain sealed, Satan
sick man before he prescribes anything; the transforms Faust from an old man into a wise and
treatment is begun later, but the patient is handsome youth. The young Faust then begins his
cured, while the hasty doctor kills him. search for a source of happiness so great that he
(p. 58) would choose to experience it forever. Faust finally
bids time to stand still when he encounters people
As previously noted, in modern times the
allowed to express their individual freedom. He
humanistic psychologist Carl Rogers (see Chapter
views human liberty as the ultimate source of
17) expressed a philosophy of education very similar
happiness.
to that of Rousseau.
Although most of the romantics were antisci-
ence, Goethe was not. He made important discov-
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
eries in anatomy and botany, and he wrote Science of
The poet, dramatist, scientist, and philosopher Colors (1810), in which he attempted to refute
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749–1832) Newton’s theory of color vision and proposed his
was one of the most revered individuals in the intel- own theory in its place. Although Goethe’s theory
lectual life of Germany in the late 18th and early proved to be incorrect, his methodology had a
19th centuries. Goethe is usually thought of as the major impact on later psychology. Goethe demon-
initiator of the Sturm und Drang (storm and stress) strated that sensory experiences could be objec-
period in literature; in his literary works and philos- tively studied by introspection. Furthermore, he
ophy, he viewed humans as being torn by the stres- insisted that intact, meaningful psychological expe-
ses and conflicts of life. He believed life consisted of rience should be the object of study rather than
opposing forces such as love and hate, life and meaningless, isolated sensations. This insistence
death, and good and evil. The goal of life should that whole, meaningful experiences be studied
be to embrace these forces rather than to deny came to be called phenomenology. An example
them. One should live life with a passion and aspire is the color-contrast effect known as Goethe’s sha-
continuously for personal growth. Even the darker dows. Goethe observed that when a colored light is
aspects of human nature could provide stimulation shown on an object, the shadow produced appears
for personal expansion. The idea of being trans- to be complementary to the colored light (Gregory,
formed from one type of being (unfulfilled) into 1987). This phenomenon was to be instrumental in
another type (fulfilled) was common within the the development of Edwin Land’s theory of color
romantic movement. We will see later that vision (see Land, 1964, 1977). Many years before
Nietzsche was strongly influenced by Goethe’s phi- Darwin, Goethe also proposed a theory of evolu-
losophy of life. tion according to which one species of living thing
In 1774, Goethe wrote The Sorrows of Young could gradually be transformed into another.
Werther, a novella about a young man with love Goethe even employed a form of what is now
problems. These problems were so vividly por- called behavior therapy to alleviate a number of
trayed that several suicides were attributed to his own personal problems and those of a depressed
them (Hulse, 1989). In 1808 Goethe published theology student who came to Goethe for help
Part I of his dramatic poem Faust; Part II was pub- (Bringmann, Voss, & Balance, 1997). Rather than
lished posthumously in 1833 (Kaufmann, 1961, denying the importance of science, Goethe saw sci-
offers both parts under one cover). Faust is widely ence as limited; he believed that many important
considered one of the greatest literary works of all human attributes were beyond the grasp of the
and had no methods at hand of extricating

myself from it. Faust struck a cord in me
and pierced me through in a way that I
could not but regard as personal. Most of
all, it awakened in me the problems of
opposites, of good and evil, of mind and
matter, of light and darkness. (Jung, 1963,
p. 235)
Goethe’s writings also influenced Freud. Both
Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine
Jung’s and Freud’s theories emphasize the conflicting
forces operating in one’s life, and both theories focus
on conflict, frustration, and perpetual struggle
between animal impulses and civilized behavior.
Also, both Freud and Jung maintained that animalistic
urges were not to be totally eliminated but instead
harnessed and used to enhance personal growth. All
these ideas appeared in Goethe’s writings.
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
Arthur Schopenhauer
scientific method. Goethe died on March 22, 1832,
The important German philosopher Arthur
at the age of 82.
Schopenhauer (1788–1860) was born in Danzig
(now Gdansk, Poland). His father was a banker and
Goethe’s Influence. D. N. Robinson (1982)
his mother a famous novelist. After his father died in
nicely summarizes Goethe’s influence as follows:
1805 (probably by suicide), his mother, Johanna,
To him … goes much of the credit for established an artistic and intellectual salon that was
awakening scholars to the problem of frequented by many of the luminaries of the day,
esthetics and for infusing German philo- including Goethe. Arthur benefited considerably
sophical writing with a conscientious from his relationships with these individuals.
regard for what is creative and dynamic in However, his relationship with his mother became
the human psyche. In the Goethean pres- increasingly stormy, and in 1814 she threw him
ence, every important philosophical pro- out of the house and never saw him again
duction in the Germany of the nineteenth (Janaway, 1994). Schopenhauer was educated at
century would reserve a special place for the Universities of Göttingen and Berlin, becoming
art. Indeed, Romanticism itself is to be a teacher at the latter. While at Berlin, Schopenhauer
understood as the unique melding of tested his ability to attract students by scheduling
esthetics and metaphysics. (p. 97) his lectures at the same time as Hegel’s; however,
he was so unsuccessful at drawing away Hegel’s
Because of his significant influence on the
students that he gave up lecturing. Schopenhauer
entire German culture, Goethe has had many influ-
claims that he was most influenced by Kant and by
ences on the development of psychology. One
ancient philosophies from India and Persia, which
famous psychologist whom Goethe’s writings influ-
he read nightly. The reading of ancient eastern
enced directly was Carl Jung, a colleague of Freud.
philosophies was trendy in the early 1800s among
In my youth (around 1890) I was uncon- European intellectuals, and his study displayed a
sciously caught up by this spirit of the age, bust of Kant and a bronze statue of Buddha.
202 CHAPTER 7
satisfaction. For Schopenhauer, the powerful drive

toward self-preservation—not the intellect and not
morality—accounts for most human behavior.
Most human behavior, then, is irrational. To satisfy
our will to survive, we must eat, sleep, eliminate,
drink, and engage in sexual activity. The pain caused
by an unsatisfied need causes us to act to satisfy
the need. When the need is satisfied, we experi-
ence momentary satisfaction (pleasure), which lasts
only until another need arises, and on it goes.
Schopenhauer’s pessimism toward the human condi-
tion is clearly shown in the following quotation:
© Bettmann/Corbis
All willing springs from lack, from defi-

ciency, and thus from suffering. Fulfillment
brings this to an end; yet for one wish that
Arthur Schopenhauer is fulfilled there remain at least ten that are
denied…. No attained object of willing
Schopenhauer never married, but he had a can give a satisfaction that lasts and no
healthy sexual appetite. Most of his relationships longer declines; but it is always like the
were casual and involved prostitutes and servant alms thrown to a beggar, which reprieves
girls, one of whom bore him a child (Magee, him today so that his misery may be pro-
1997). However, his affair with Caroline Richter, longed till tomorrow. Therefore, so long
a chorus girl at the National Theatre of Berlin, as our consciousness is filled by our will, so
lasted for 10 years. Their friendship continued for long as we are given up to the throng of
the remainder of Schopenhauer’s life, and she was a desires with its constant hopes and fears, so
beneficiary in his will. long as we are the subject of willing, we
never obtain lasting happiness or peace.
Will to Survive. Schopenhauer published the two (1818/1966, Vol. 1, p. 196)
volumes of his most famous work, The World as Momentary pleasure is experienced when a
Will and Representation, in 1818, when he was need is satisfied, but when all needs are satisfied,
about 30. Schopenhauer believed that in this we experience boredom. With Schopenhauer’s
work he had unveiled the mysteries of the world, characteristic pessimism, he said that we work six
but nearly 17 years after its publication the book days a week to satisfy our needs and then we spend
had still sold very few copies (Magee, 1997). Even- Sunday being bored (Viktor Frankl, Chapter 17,
tually, however, the book would come to be con- called this boredom Sunday neurosis).
sidered a masterpiece of Western philosophy.
Schopenhauer took Kant’s philosophy as a basis
Intelligent Beings Suffer the Most. Suffering
for his own. Most importantly, he accepted Kant’s
varies with awareness. Plants suffer no pain because
distinction between the noumenal world (things in
they lack awareness. The lowest species of animals
themselves) and the phenomenal world (conscious
and insects suffer some, and higher animals still
experience). Schopenhauer equated the noumenal
more. Humans, of course, suffer the most, espe-
world with “will,” which he described as a blind,
cially the most intelligent humans:
aimless force which cannot be known. In humans,
this force manifests itself in the will to survive, Therefore, in proportion as knowledge
which causes an unending cycle of needs and need attains to distinctness, consciousness is
enhanced, pain also increases, and conse- every time we warm ourselves, and so on.
quently reaches its highest degree in man; Ultimately death must triumph, for by
and all the more, the more distinctly he birth it has already become our lot, and it
knows, and the more intelligent he is. The plays with its prey only for a while before
person in whom genius is to be found swallowing it up. However, we continue
suffers most of all. (1818/1966, Vol. 1, our life with great interest and much
p. 310) solicitude as long as possible, just as we
blow out a soap-bubble as long and as
Schopenhauer quoted from the book of
large as possible, although with the perfect
Ecclesiastes in the Bible to support his contention
certainty that it will burst. (1818/1966,
that intelligent people suffer more than unintel-
Vol. 1, p. 311)
ligent people: “In much wisdom there is much
grief; and he that increaseth knowledge increa- According to Schopenhauer (1818/1966, Vol.
seth sorrow” (1851/1995a, p. 41). Schopenhauer 1, pp. 312–313), most people do not cling to life
believed that the suffering caused by wisdom had because it is pleasant. Rather, they cling to life
a nobility associated with it but that the life of a fool because they fear death.
was simply without higher meaning. There is little
Sublimation and Denial. Even though these
doubt which sort of life Schopenhauer believed was
powerful, irrational forces are a natural part of
most desirable.
human existence, humans can and should attempt
According to Schopenhauer, highly intelligent
to rise above them. With great effort, humans are
people seek solitude, and vulgar (common) people
capable of approaching nirvana, a state characterized
are gregarious: “The more a man has in himself, the
by freedom from irrational strivings. Schopenhauer
less others can be to him” (1851/1995b, p. 27). For
anticipated Freud’s concept of sublimation when he
the intellectually gifted, solitude has two advan-
said that some relief or escape from the irrational
tages. First, it allows him or her to be alone with
forces within us can be attained by immersing our-
his or her own thoughts. Second, it prevents need-
selves in activities that are not need-related and
ing to deal with intellectually inferior people, and
therefore cannot be frustrated or satiated, activities
they, according to Schopenhauer, constitute the
such as poetry, theatre, art, music, Platonic philoso-
vast majority. “Almost all our sufferings,” said
phy, or unselfish, nonsexual, sympathetic love. Also,
Schopenhauer, “spring from having to do with
one can attempt to counteract these irrational forces,
other people” (1951/1995b, p. 30). On more
especially the sex drive, by living a life of asceticism.
than one occasion, Schopenhauer used the same
As we have seen, Schopenhauer believed that
phrase that Hobbes had used to describe the rela-
humans suffer more than other animals because our
tionship among humans. That is, homo homini lupus
superior intellect allows us to detect the irrational
(man is a wolf to man).
urges within us. This same intellect, however, pro-
According to Schopenhauer (1818/1966),
vides what little relief is possible from the need
another way of viewing life is as the postponement
and need satisfaction cycle—that is, by pursuing
of death. In this life-and-death struggle, however,
intellectual activities, instead of biological ones.
death must always be the ultimate victor:
Or we can attack the will head on, depriving it
The life of our body [is] only a constantly of fulfillment as much as possible. Because, for
prevented dying, an ever-deferred Schopenhauer, will is the cause of everything, to
death…. Every breath we draw wards off deny it is to flirt with nothingness. Coming as
the death that constantly impinges on us. close as possible to nonexistence is as close as one
In this way, we struggle with it every sec- can get to not being totally controlled by one’s will.
ond, and again at longer intervals through The will must be served if life is to continue, but
every meal we eat, every sleep we take, one can be a reluctant servant.
204 CHAPTER 7
Although Schopenhauer was an atheist, dignified, there is in the depths of his nature,
he realized that his philosophy of denial had a mob of low and vulgar desires which
been part of several great religions; for example, constitute him an animal. It will not do to let
Christianity, Hinduism, and Buddhism. In such this mob revolt or even so much a peep forth
religions, saints and mystics have been revered for from its hiding-place. (1851/1995b, p. 43)
living lives impervious to food, drink, bodily and
Elsewhere, Schopenhauer said, “Consciousness
mental comfort, sex, and worldly goods. In all cases,
is the mere surface of our mind, and of this, as of
the aim of this denial is to grasp the illusory nature
the globe, we do not know the interior, but only
of the phenomenal world and to free the self from
the crust” (1818/1966, Vol. 2, p. 136).
its bondage. Having done this, these saints and
Schopenhauer also spoke of repressing undesir-
mystics come as close to experiencing the nou-
able thoughts into the unconscious and of the resis-
menal world as possible. What Schopenhauer calls
tance encountered when attempting to recognize
the noumenal world (will), they often refer to as
repressed ideas. Freud credited Schopenhauer as
God. Schopenhauer considered his contribution to
being the first to discover these processes, but
these transcendental matters to be a discussion of
Freud claimed that he had discovered the same
them within the context of philosophy and without
processes independently of Schopenhauer. In any
appeal to religious faith or revelation.
case, a great deal of Schopenhauer’s philosophy
In reading Schopenhauer, suicide as an escape
resides in Freud’s psychoanalytic theory. Besides
from human misery comes to mind. Most individuals
the ideas of repression and sublimation, Freud
resist such an adjustment, however, because it is dia-
shared Schopenhauer’s belief that irrational (un-
metrically opposed to the will to survive. This is
conscious) forces were the prime motivators of
why, according to Schopenhauer, that a person suf-
human behavior and that the best we could do
fering from a painful, terminal disease finds it very
was minimize their influence. Both men were there-
difficult to take his or her life, even when this
fore pessimistic in their views of human nature.
might be the rational thing to do. Furthermore,
Schopenhauer believed that a major goal for
humans is to gain insight into their existence. For
Schopenhauer, the essence of human existence was EXISTENTIALISM
the relationship between the noumenal (the power-
ful, aimless will) and the phenomenal (consciousness). The romantics were not the only philosophers who
As we have seen, this relationship causes an unending rebelled against rationalism, empiricism, and sensa-
cycle of need and need satisfaction. However, for tionalism (that is, against Enlightenment philoso-
Schopenhauer the proper adjustment to this tragic phy). Another philosophy also emphasized the
condition is to struggle to rise above it or, at least, importance of meaning in one’s life and one’s abil-
to minimize it. Suicide evades this noble effort and ity to freely choose that meaning. Existentialism
is therefore, according to Schopenhauer, a mistake. stressed the meaning of human existence, freedom
of choice, and the uniqueness of each individual.
The Importance of the Unconscious Mind. Anti-
For the existentialists, the most important aspects
cipating Freud, Schopenhauer observed that all
of humans are their personal, subjective interpreta-
humans have positive (intellectual, rational) and
tions of life and the choices they make in light of
negative (animalistic) impulses:
those interpretations. Like the romanticists, the
In an excellent parable, Proclus, the existentialists viewed personal experience and feel-
Neoplatonist, points out how in every town ing as the most valid guides for one’s behavior.
the mob dwells side by side with those Although it is possible to trace the origins of
who are rich and distinguished; so, too, in existential philosophy at least as far back as Socrates,
every man, be he never [sic] so noble, and who embraced the Delphic dictate “Know thyself”
and said, “An unexamined life is not worth living,” without passion. Merciful God! And so we
one of the first modern existential philosophers was parted. I spent the whole night crying in
Søren Kierkegaard. my bed…. When the bonds were broken
my thoughts were these: either you throw
Søren Kierkegaard yourself into the wildest kind of life—or
else become absolutely religious. (Bretall,
The Danish theologian and philosopher Søren 1946, pp. 17–18)
Kierkegaard (1813–1855) was born on May 5 in
Copenhagen. He was the youngest child of a large Kierkegaard did the latter. It is interesting to
family, but he and his older brother were the only note that Kierkegaard often described a proper rela-
children to survive. His father, who was 56 when tionship with God as a love affair:
Kierkegaard was born, was a prosperous, God- Repeatedly Kierkegaard likened the indi-
fearing merchant. Kierkegaard’s mother was his vidual’s relationship with God to a lover’s
father’s servant before he made her his second wife. experience. It is at once painful and happy,
His father was a stern teacher of religion, and for passionate but unfulfilled, lived in time yet
many years Kierkegaard equated his father with infinite. Once he had separated himself
God. It caused a “great earthquake” when in 1835 from Regin[a] Ols[e]n he was free to enter
Kierkegaard’s father confessed to sexual excesses, and upon his “engagement to God.” (Hubben,
Kierkegaard responded by rebelling against both his 1952, p. 24)
father and religion. He accepted both back into his
heart on his 25th birthday, which caused him to After Kierkegaard broke his engagement with
experience “indescribable joy.” His father died Regina, he went to Berlin, where he thrust himself
shortly afterward, leaving him a substantial fortune. into the study of philosophy and finished his first
In deference to his father’s wishes, Kierkegaard major book, Either/Or (1843).
began a serious study of theology. All his life, Kierkegaard was melancholic and
At the University of Copenhagen, Kierkegaard withdrawn. Many entries in his diary (journals)
studied theology and then literature and philosophy. referred to the fact that even when others saw
He had no financial worries and lived a carefree him as happy, he was actually crying inside.
life. About this time, Kierkegaard decided to ask
Regina Olsen, whom he had known for several
years, to marry him. After a two-year engagement,
Kierkegaard felt there was a “divine protest” because
the wedding was based on something untrue (he
never said what), and in 1841 he wrote a letter to
Regina terminating their engagement:
It was a time of terrible suffering: To have
to be so cruel and at the same time to love
as I did. She fought like a tigress. If I had
not believed that God had lodged a veto
she would have been victorious. (Bretall,
Mary Evans Picture Library
1946, p. 17)
Kierkegaard went to Regina and asked her
forgiveness. He described their farewell:
She said, “promise to think of me.” I did
Søren Kierkegaard
so. “Kiss me,” she said. I did so, but
206 CHAPTER 7
The following entry from 1836 exemplifies the dif- Considering his subsequent influence on phi-
ference between Kierkegaard’s private and public losophy and religion, it is incredible to note that
selves: “I have just returned from a party of which Kierkegaard died at the age of 44 on November 11,
I was the life and soul; wit poured from my lips, 1855.
everyone laughed and admired me—but I went
away … and wanted to shoot myself” (Bretall, Religion as Too Rational and Mechanical. In
1946, p. 7). Some Kierkegaard scholars attribute Kierkegaard’s time, the Lutheran church was the
his melancholia and introversion to his having a official church of Denmark. The state considered
hunchback. However, Hubben (1952) believes it its duty to protect and promote Lutheranism,
that the influence of his deformity was probably which it did by requiring religious training in all
minimal: schools and by elevating the clergy to the status of
civil servants. Kierkegaard felt strongly that such a
[Kierkegaard] was weak and sickly and he
system of state control and protection was against
is likely to have derived from his physical
the basic tenets of Christianity. The intensely indi-
impairment the same spirit of bravado that
vidual nature of the religious experience was, he
distinguished Dostoevsky and Nietzsche.
thought, discouraged by such a system. Kierkegaard
But whatever the truth about the hunch-
ultimately rejected Hegel’s philosophy because it
back may be, it seems safe to remain con-
placed too much emphasis on the logical and
servative toward any of its psychological
the rational and not enough on the irrational,
and religious interpretations. (p. 17)
emotional side of human experience. For the
Kierkegaard’s writings received scant attention same reason, Kierkegaard rejected science as too
in his lifetime. He was ridiculed by other philoso- mechanistic: he thought it prevented us from view-
phers, the public press, and many of his fellow ing humans as choosing beings. The ultimate state
townspeople considered him eccentric. As a stu- of being, for Kierkegaard, was arrived at when the
dent, Kierkegaard initially rejected Christianity individual decided to embrace God and take God’s
and was a devout follower of Hegel. Later, the sit- existence on faith without needing a logical, ratio-
uation reversed; he rejected Hegel and embraced nal, or scientific explanation of why or how the
Christianity. The Christianity that Kierkegaard decision was determined.
accepted, however, was not that of the institution- Kierkegaard was deeply concerned that too
alized church. He was an outspoken critic of the many Christians, rather than having a true relation-
established church for its worldliness and its insis- ship with God, were praying reflexively and accept-
tence on the acceptance of prescribed dogma. He ing religious dogma rationally instead of allowing it
said that the most meaningful relationship with to touch them emotionally. Although Kierkegaard
God was a purely personal one that was arrived at would certainly not have agreed with Nietzsche
through an individual’s free choice, not one whose that God is dead (see the next section), he would
nature and content were dictated by the church. have agreed that for most people a genuine, per-
Some of Kierkegaard’s most influential books sonal, emotional relationship with God does not
include Either/Or (1843), Fear and Trembling exist and, for those people, it seems that God is
(1843), Philosophical Fragments (1844), The Concept dead.
of Dread (1844), Stages on Life’s Way (1845), Con-
cluding Unscientific Postscript (1846), The Present Age Truth Is Subjectivity. According to Kierkegaard,
(1846), Works of Love (1847), The Point of View for truth cannot be taught by logical argument; truth
My Work as an Author (1848), The Sickness Unto must be experienced. In the realm of religion, the
Death (1849), Training in Christianity (1850), The more logical we are in our attempt to understand
Attack Upon “Christendom” (1854–1855), and The God, the less we comprehend him. Believing in
Unchangeableness of God (1855). God is a “leap of faith,” a choosing to believe in
the absence of any factual, objective information. cannot comprehend him; that is a paradox. Fortu-
God, who is unlimited and eternal, cannot be nately, God gave humans a way of dealing with
explained, understood, or proved logically. He such paradoxes, including the absolute paradox,
must be taken on faith, and that is a very personal, and that was faith. We must have faith in eternal
subjective choice. Attempting to understand Jesus truths because there is no way for us to embrace
objectively reveals a number of paradoxes. Christ them objectively. The paradox that God became a
is both God and man; he is eternal truth existing finite being in the person of Christ can never be
in finite time; he lived almost 2,000 years ago but explained rationally; it must be taken on faith.
also exists presently; and he violates natural law
with his miracles. Facts or logic do not remove A Love Affair With God. As mentioned previ-
these paradoxes; they create them. Belief alone ously, Kierkegaard, perhaps reflecting on his ill-
can resolve them; subjectivity, not objectivity, is fated relationship with Regina Olsen, often referred
truth. Christian faith is something that must be to an individual’s relationship with God as a love
lived; it must be felt emotionally. For it can be affair; it is simultaneously passionate, happy, and
neither understood nor truly appreciated as a ratio- painful. He also said that one should read the Bible
nal abstraction. For Kierkegaard, it is precisely as one would read a love letter. That is, the reader
because we cannot know God objectively that we should let the words touch himself or herself person-
must have faith in his existence: ally and emotionally. The meaning of the words are
the emotional impact they have on the reader:
Without risk there is no faith. Faith is
precisely the contradiction between the Imagine a lover who has received a letter
infinite passion of the individual’s inward- from his beloved—I assume that God’s
ness and the objective uncertainty. If I am Word is just as precious to you as this letter
capable of grasping God objectively, I do is to the lover. I assume that you read and
not believe, but precisely because I cannot think you ought to read God’s Word in
do this I must believe…. Without risk the same way the lover reads this letter.
there is no faith, and the greater the risk, (Kierkegaard, 1851/1990, p. 26)
the greater the faith; the more objective
As you do not read a love letter using a dictio-
security, the less inwardness (for inward-
nary to determine the meaning of its words, neither
ness is precisely subjectivity), and the less
should you read the Bible that way. The meaning of
objective security, the more profound the
both the Bible and a love letter is found in the feel-
possible inwardness. (Bretall, 1946, pp.
ings it causes the reader to have. No one should tell
215, 219)
you what to feel as you read a love letter or the
In Fear and Trembling (1843), Kierkegaard Bible, nor should anyone tell you what the correct
recalled the biblical account of Abraham preparing interpretation of either should be. Your feelings and
to sacrifice his son at God’s command. The your interpretation define what in the experience is
moment that Abraham lifted the knife to kill his true for you. Truth is subjectivity—your subjectivity.
son captures what Kierkegaard meant by religious
faith. Such faith is a leap into the darkness accom- Stages of Personal Freedom. In Either/Or (1843),
panied by fear, dread, and anguish. It is precisely the Kierkegaard offers a stage theory of what he calls
discrepancy existing between human understanding personal freedom. Most people reside in the
and ultimate truth that creates a paradox. The par- aesthetic stage. At this stage, people seek out
adox is the understanding that there are things we many forms of pleasure and excitement. Like a
can never know, and the greatest paradox of all (the moth to the flame, they do not recognize their
“absolute paradox”) is God. We know that God ability to choose among the enticements that
exists, and at the same time, we know that we draw their attention. People operating at this level
208 CHAPTER 7
are hedonistic, and such an existence ultimately

leads to boredom and despair. Next is the ethical
stage. People operating at this level accept the
responsibility of making choices but use as their
guide ethical principles established by others—for
example, moral conventions (say, against drink-
ing and dancing) or church dogma. Although
Kierkegaard considered the ethical level higher
than the aesthetic level, people operating on the
ethical level are still not recognizing and acting on
© Bettmann/Corbis
their full personal freedom to choose a path for
themselves. Kierkegaard referred to the highest
level of existence as the religious stage. At this
stage, people recognize and accept their responsibil- Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche
ity and enter into a unique and personal relationship
with God. The nature of this relationship is not
determined by convention or by generally accepted before he had received his doctorate. He taught
moral laws but by the nature of God and by one’s at Basel for 10 years before poor health forced his
self-awareness. People existing on this level are retirement at the age of 35. His most influential
open to possibilities in life that often run contrary books followed his academic retirement.
to what is generally accepted, and therefore may During his years at Basel, Nietzsche wrote The
tend to be seen as nonconformists. Birth of Tragedy: Out of the Spirit of Music (1872) and
Untimely Meditations (1873–1876), both strongly
influenced by and supportive of Schopenhauer’s
Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche
philosophy. After his retirement, his books began
Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (1844–1900), to reflect his own thoughts. The most influential
born near Leipzig, was the son of a Lutheran minister of those books were Human, All-Too-Human
and grandson of two clergymen. Nietzsche was five (1878), The Gay Science (1882), Thus Spoke
years old when his father died, and he grew up in a Zarathustra (1883–1885), Beyond Good and Evil
household consisting of his mother, sister, two (1886), Toward a Genealogy of Morals (1887), The
maiden aunts, and his grandmother. He was a Twilight of the Idols (1889), The Antichrist (1895),
model child and an excellent student; by the time and Nietzsche Contra Wagner (1895). His last
he was 10, he had written several plays and com- books, The Will to Power (1904) and Ecce Homo
posed music. At the age of 14, he entered the famous (1908), were published posthumously.
Schulpforta (a boarding school), where religion was In April 1882, at the age of 37, Nietzsche
one of his best subjects; he also excelled in his study began a relationship with Lou Salome, the attrac-
of Greek and Roman literature. In 1864, he entered tive, intelligent, 21-year-old daughter of a Russian
Bonn University, where he expressed disgust for general. Hollingdale (1969) described this relation-
the beer drinking and carousing behavior of his ship as “the one wholly serious sexual involvement
fellow students. When Nietzsche’s favorite teacher of Nietzsche’s life” (p. 20). Nietzsche looked upon
(Friedrich Ritschl) transferred from Bonn to the Uni- Lou as his intellectual equal and envisioned con-
versity of Leipzig, Nietzsche followed him there. tinuing his life’s work with her as his partner. He
Nietzsche’s student days ended when, at the age of proposed marriage twice, once through a friend and
24, he accepted an offer he received from the Uni- once directly. In both cases Lou said no. Tanner
versity of Basel to teach classical philology (the study (2000) refers to this rejection as “the single most
of ancient languages, ideas, and word origins) even devastating experience of Nietzsche’s life” (p. 67).
It was in the aftermath of this experience that

Nietzsche began work on Thus Spoke Zarathustra.
And, as we will see, Nietzsche himself believed
that all philosophy is autobiographical.
Incidentally, Lou Salome eventually married
Friedrich Carl Andreas, an orientalist. Later in life,
Lou Andreas-Salome developed an interest in psy-
choanalysis and became one of Freud’s most valued
friends and disciples (Gay, 1988; Weber & Welsch,
1997). For some of the more colorful details con-
cerning Lou Andreas-Salome’s involvement in the
© Mary Evans/Sigmund Freud Copyrights

Freudian inner circle, see Roazen (1992), and for
an insight into Lou Andreas-Salome’s personal
involvement with psychoanalysis and her firsthand
accounts of the schisms that occurred during its
formative years, see Leavy (1964).
From about 1880, Nietzsche became increas-
ingly isolated from everyday life. On the morning
of January 3, 1889, Nietzsche saw a cab driver beat-
ing his horse. In sympathy he tearfully threw his Lou Andreas-Salomé
arms around the horse’s neck and then collapsed.
Later he was taken to an asylum, where he began Nietzsche saw as one of his major goals the resur-
identifying himself as such individuals as the Duke rection of the Dionysian spirit. Do not just live,
of Cumberland, the Kaiser, Dionysus, “The Cruci- he said, live with passion. Do not live a planned,
fied,” and even God (Hayman, 1999). Be it tertiary orderly life; take chances. Even the failures that
syphilis, some other form of psychosis, or stroke may result from taking chances could be used to
(Hubben, 1952), Nietzsche’s demented condition enhance personal growth. Thus, what Nietzsche
continued for 11 years, until his death on August was urging was not a totally irrational, passionate
25, 1900, a few weeks before his 56th birthday. He life but a life of reasonable passion, a life worthy
was buried in his hometown in the cemetery of the of both Apollo and Dionysus.
church where his father had baptized him.
Nietzsche the Psychologist. Nietzsche viewed
The Apollonian and Dionysian. Nietzsche held himself as primarily a psychologist: “That a psychol-
that there are two major aspects of human nature, ogist without equal speaks from my writing, is per-
the Apollonian and the Dionysian. The Apollonian haps the first insight reached by a good reader—a
aspect of human nature represents our rational reader as I deserve him” (Golomb, 1989, p. 13).
side, our desire for tranquility, predictability, and Indeed, as we shall see, much of what would later
orderliness. The Dionysian aspect of human appear in Freud’s writings appeared first in
nature represents our irrational side, our attraction Nietzsche’s. Furthermore, Freudian and Nietzschian
to creative chaos and to passionate, dynamic experi- psychology shared the goal of helping individuals
ences. According to Nietzsche, the best art and gain control of their powerful, irrational impulses
literature reflect a fusion of these two tendencies, in order to live more creative, healthy lives.
and the best life reflects controlled passion. At the heart of Nietzsche’s psychology is the
Nietzsche believed that Western philosophy had tension between Apollonian and Dionysian tenden-
emphasized the intellect and minimized the human cies. The Dionysian tendency, which he referred to
passions, and the result was lifeless rationalism. as “barbarian,” could not express itself unabated
210 CHAPTER 7
without destroying the individual. Nietzsche antici- available to them into an authentic, unique per-
pated Freud by referring to these barbarian urges as sonality, they are free. If they live in accordance
das es, or the id. For Dionysian impulses (what Freud with moral standards not of their own creation,
called primary processes) to gain expression, they they are slaves. The difference, then, between free-
must be modified (sublimated) by Apollonian ratio- dom and slavery is a matter of choice: “Everyone
nality (what Freud called secondary processes). For who wishes to become free must become free
both Nietzsche and Freud, this sublimation explains through his own endeavor…. Freedom does not
works of art and other cultural achievements, and fall into any man’s lap as a miraculous gift”
it also explains the content of dreams. Dreams pro- (Golomb, 1989, p. 244).
vide an example of barbarian chaos modified by
Apollonian rationality, the modification creating The Death of God. In The Gay Science (1882/2001,
what we remember as a dream. Without the pp. 119–120), Nietzsche has a madman proclaim that
Dionysian influence, the Apollonian aspect of “God is dead” and hail this as one of the most signifi-
personality would be without emotional content: cant events in human history. When people ignore
“Apollo could not live without Dionysus” (Golomb, him, the madman concludes, “I come too early….
1989, p. 48). Likewise, without the Apollonian influ- My time is not yet.” He continues, “This deed is
ence, the Dionysian aspect of personality would still more remote to them than the remotest stars—
remain formless. If Dionysian impulses become too and yet they done it themselves.” Nietzsche (1889/
threatening, Apollonian rationality can repress them. 1998b) asked, “Is man just one of God’s mistakes?
Nietzsche often discussed the concept of repression, Or is God just one of man’s?” (p. 5). In any case,
which later was to become a cornerstone of Freudian Nietzsche announced that God was dead and that
psychoanalysis. For example, in Beyond Good and Evil we had killed him. By we, he meant the philosophers
(1886/1998a), Nietzsche said, “ ‘I have done that,’ and scientists of his day. Because we humans had
says my memory. ‘I cannot have done that,’ says my relied on God for so long for the ultimate meaning
pride and remains unshakeable. Finally memory of life and for our conceptions of morality, we are lost
yields” (p. 58). now that he is dead. Where do we now look for
Freud and Nietzsche also diverge. For example, meaning? For moral ideals? The same philosophers
Freud’s super-ego—the internalization of external and scientists who killed God also took purpose
standards—serves to protect us from our own natu- from the universe, as was found in Aristotle’s teleo-
ral desires, a notion that Nietzsche would have logical philosophy, and stripped humans of any special
utterly rejected. For Nietzsche, internalizing the place in the world. Evolutionary theory, for example,
external standards of others (such as the Church, showed that humans have the same lowly origin as
or social convention) was a bad thing. Another other living organisms and share the same fate: death.
major disagreement between Nietzschian and Furthermore, evolutionary principles are without pur-
Freudian psychologies concerns determinism; pose. Natural selection simply means that organisms
Freud accepted determinism and Nietzsche did possessing traits that allow adaptation to the environ-
not. In clear anticipation of modern existential psy- ment will survive and reproduce. Thus, humans can-
chology, Nietzsche said, “Every man is a unique not even take pride or find meaning in the fact that
miracle”; “We are responsible to ourselves for our they have survived longer or differently than other
own existence”; and “Freedom makes us responsi- species. Evolution in no way implies improvement.
ble for our characters just as artists are responsible Nietzsche described Darwinian theory as “true but
for their creations” (Golomb, 1989, pp. 123, 128, deadly” (Golomb, 1989, p. 138). Astronomy too
129). We are, however, only potentially free. Per- had shown that humans do not occupy a special
sonality is an artist’s creation, but some people are place in the universe. The earth is simply a
better artists than others. If people use their will medium-size ball of clay revolving around one of
to power (see below) to mold the ingredients hundreds of billions of suns.
Thus, there is no God who cares for us, our convictions. If all those who thought so
species occupies no significant station in the animal highly of their convictions, who made
kingdom, and the earth is just one more meaningless sacrifices of all kinds for them, and spared
heavenly body. With the death of God came the neither honour, body, nor life in their ser-
death of his shadows (metaphysics) as well. Without vice, had only devoted half of their energy
religion, science, and metaphysics, humans are left in to examining their right to adhere to this or
a “cosmic tabula rasa” without transcendental princi- that conviction and by what road they
ples or forces to guide them. According to arrived at it, how peaceable would the his-
Nietzsche, the absence of these traditional sources tory of mankind now appear! How much
of meaning and morality means that humans are more knowledge would there be! (p. 237)
on their own. For Nietzsche, there are no abstract
truths waiting to be discovered by all; there are only
Will to Power. According to Nietzsche, the answer
individual perspectives. Even the various philoso-
to our predicament can be found only within
phies that have been created through the ages are
ourselves. Humans need to acquire knowledge of
to be understood as elaborations of individual per-
themselves and then act on that knowledge. Mean-
spectives: “Every great philosophy to date has been
ing and morality cannot (or should not) be imposed
the personal confession of its author, a kind of unin-
from the outside; it must be discovered within. Such
tended and unwitting memoir” (1886/1998a, p. 8).
self-examination reveals that the most basic human
Thus, according to Nietzsche, all philosophies,
motive is the will to power. Like Schopenhauer,
including his own, are autobiographical.
Nietzsche believed that humans are basically irratio-
Of course, Nietzsche’s perspectivism was
nal. Unlike Schopenhauer, however, Nietzsche
directly contrary to Enlightenment philosophy and
thought that the instincts should not be repressed
is seen, by many, as the forerunner of postmodern-
or sublimated but should be given expression. Even
ism (see Chapter 20).
aggressive tendencies should not be totally inhibited.
Convictions. In Human, All Too Human (1878/ The will to power can be fully satisfied only if a
2006), Nietzsche said, “Convictions are more danger- person acts as he or she feels—that is, acts in such a
ous enemies of truth than lies” (p. 209). He defined way as to satisfy all instincts: “The will to power is
conviction as the “belief in the possession of absolute the primitive motive force out of which all other
truth on any matter of knowledge” (p. 236). It is, motives have been derived” (Sahakian, 1981, p.
according to Nietzsche, convictions that have caused 80). Even happiness, which the utilitarians and others
countless humans to sacrifice themselves throughout claimed to be so important as a motive, is the result
history. In the realm of religion, convictions are com- of the increase in one’s power: “The only reality is
mon and are unchallengeable for those entertaining this: The will of every centre of power to become stronger—
them because “To allow their belief to be wrested not self-preservation, but the desire to appropriate,
from them probably meant calling in question their to become master, to become more, to become
eternal salvation” (p. 237). Opinions are different stronger” (Sahakian, 1981, p. 80). And in The Gay
because they are tentative, challengeable, and easily Science, Nietzsche said, “The great and the small
modified in light of new information. In other struggle always revolves around superiority, around
words, convictions are thought to reflect Truth and growth and expansion, around power—in accor-
opinions truth; convictions reflect certainty, opinions dance with the will to power which is the will of
probability. It is, according to Nietzsche, convictions life” (1882/2001, p. 292). For Nietzsche, then, all
that cause fanaticism, not opinions. conceptions of good, bad, and happiness are related
to the will to power:
It is not the struggle of opinions that has
made history so turbulent; but the struggle What is good? Everything that heightens
of belief in opinions—that is to say, of the feeling of power in man, the will to
212 CHAPTER 7
power, power itself. What is bad? Every- say: The Superman shall be the meaning of
thing that is born of weakness. What is the earth! I entreat you, my brothers,
happiness? The feeling that power is remain true to the earth, and do not believe
growing, that resistance is overcome. those who speak to you of superterrestrial
(Kaufmann, 1982, p. 570) hopes! They are poisoners, whether they
know it or not. They are despisers of life,
Thus, Nietzsche disagreed with anyone who
atrophying and self-poisoned men, of
claimed that the master human motive was self-
whom the earth is weary; so let them
preservation (such as Spinoza and Schopenhauer).
be gone! (Nietzsche, 1883–1885/1969,
Humans do not attempt to preserve themselves;
pp. 41–42)
rather they attempt to become more than they
were, or at least, according to Nietzsche, this is Humans are in a precarious position. We are no
what they should attempt. longer animals, we are not yet supermen, and God,
being dead, cannot help us: “Man is a rope, fastened
Supermen. The will to power is the tendency between animal and Superman—a rope over an
to gain mastery over one’s self and one’s destiny. abyss. A dangerous going-across, a dangerous wayfar-
If given expression, the will to power causes a per- ing, a dangerous looking-back, a dangerous shudder-
son to seek new experiences and to ultimately reach ing and staying-still” (Nietzsche, 1883–1885/1969,
his or her full potential. Such individual growth p. 43). The problems characterizing the human con-
cannot (or should not) be inhibited by conventional dition are solved one person at a time. If every indi-
morality and thus must go “beyond good and vidual strove to be all that he or she could be, more
evil.” People approaching their full potential are general human problems would solve themselves. A
supermen because standard morality does not gov- prerequisite, then, for an improvement in the human
ern their lives. Instead, they rise above such moral- condition is self-improvement:
ity and live independent, creative lives. Nietzsche
Physician, heal yourself: Thus you will heal
declared that “All gods are dead: now we want the
your patient too. Let his best healing-aid be
Superman to live” (1883–1885/1969, p. 104).
to see with his own eyes him who makes
It is in Thus Spoke Zarathustra that Nietzsche
himself well. There are a thousand paths
most fully described his concept of the superman.
that have never yet been trodden, a thou-
(It should be noted that Nietzsche’s term Übermensch
sand forms of health and hidden islands of
can be translated as “overman,” “higher-man,” or
life. Man and man’s earth are still unex-
“superman.”) After 10 years of solitude and con-
hausted and undiscovered…. Truly, the
templation in the mountains, Zarathustra decides
earth shall yet become a house of healing!
to return to civilization and share his insights with
And already a new odour floats about it, an
his fellow humans:
odour that brings health—and a new hope!
I teach you the Superman. Man is something (Nietzsche, 1883–1885/1969, pp. 102–103)
that should be overcome. What have you
The superman, as we have seen, exercises his
done to overcome him? … What is the
will to power by expressing all thoughts, even neg-
ape to men? A laughing-stock or a painful
ative ones:
embarrassment. And just so shall man be to
the Superman: A laughing-stock or a Let us speak of this, you wisest men, even if
painful embarrassment. You have made it is a bad thing. To be silent is worse; all
your way from worm to man, and much in suppressed truths become poisonous. And
you is still worm…. Behold, I teach you let everything that can break upon our
the Superman. The Superman is the truths—break! There is many a house still to
meaning of the earth. Let your will build! (Nietzsche, 1883–1885/1969, p. 139)
Like Goethe, Nietzsche did not believe that For Nietzsche, the good life is ever-changing, chal-
negative experiences or impulses should be denied. lenging, devoid of regret, intense, creative, and risky.
Rather, one should learn from such experiences. It is self-overcoming. Acting in accordance with the
Nietzsche believed that the journey toward one’s will to power means living a life of becoming
personal heaven often requires traveling through more than you were, a life of continual self-
one’s personal hell. Nietzsche (1889/1998b) renewal. Science, philosophy, and especially religion
famously said, “Whatever does not kill me makes can only stifle the good life—the life of the super-
me stronger” (p. 5) and gave the following man. Any viewpoint that promotes herd conformity
example: as opposed to individuality should be actively
avoided. Nietzsche believed that repressive civiliza-
I have often asked myself whether I am not
tion is the primary cause of humans’ mental anguish,
more heavily obligated to the hardest years
a belief later shared by Freud.
of my life than to any others…. And as for
The meaning of life, then, is found within the
my long sickness, do I not owe it inde-
individual, and the daring, the supermen, will find
scribably more than I owe to my health?
it there: “Only dare to believe in yourselves—in
I owe it a higher health—one which is made
yourselves and in your entrails! He who does not
stronger by whatever does not kill it. I also
believe in himself always lies” (Nietzsche, 1883–
owe my philosophy to it. Only great pain is the
1885/1969, p. 146). To be a superman, one must
ultimate liberator of the spirit…. Only great
necessarily be intensely individualistic; and yet, all
pain, that long, slow pain in which we are
supermen have in common the same philosophy
burned with green wood, as it were—pain
of life: “I am Zarathustra the godless: Where shall
which takes its time—only this forces us
I find my equal? All those who give themselves their
philosophers to descend into our ultimate
own will and renounce all submission, they are my
depths and to put away all trust, all good-
equals” (Nietzsche, 1883–1885/1969, p. 191).
naturedness, all that would veil, all mildness,
Thus, Nietzsche advised people to use their
all that is medium—things in which for-
will to power to combine their Dionysian and
merly we may have found our humanity.
Apollonian tendencies in their own unique way.
I doubt that such a pain makes us “better,”
This artistic creation is the only meaningful basis
but I know that it makes us more profound.
of morality. Beyond this concept, Nietzsche gave
(Kaufmann, 1982, pp. 680–681)
no general formula for living. Through Zarathustra,
The notion of supermen was Nietzsche’s Nietzsche (1883–1885/1969) responded to those
answer to the human moral and philosophical looking to him for a philosophy of life: “ ‘This …
dilemma. The meaning and morality of one’s life is … my way: where is yours?’ Thus I answered
come from within oneself. Healthy, strong indivi- those who asked me ‘the way.’ For the way—does
duals seek self-expansion by experimenting, by liv- not exist!” (p. 213). And earlier through Zarathustra,
ing dangerously. Life consists of an almost infinite Nietzsche said, “One repays a teacher badly if one
number of possibilities, and the healthy person (the remains only a pupil” (p. 103).
superman) explores as many of them as possible. Indeed, as some critics have noted, Nietzsche’s
Religions or philosophies that teach pity, humility, writings often contain harsh statements that would
blind obedience, self-restraint, guilt, or a sense of not be wise to embrace as presented. Such state-
community are simply incorrect. ments are better viewed as challenges to the reader’s
On the other hand, Nietzsche very much own preconceptions and as an invitation for per-
admired the ancient Cynics (see Chapter 3) and sonal inquiry. For Nietzsche then, it was important
referred to them often in his works. What he espe- for each individual to find the meaning in his or her
cially appreciated about Cynicism was its criticism of own life and then to live in accordance with that
conventional morality (Niehues-Pröbsting, 1996). meaning. In accordance with what would become a
214 CHAPTER 7
canon of existentialism, Nietzsche said, “If you have “secondary gains” from neuroses. Freud’s colleague
your why? for life, then you can get along with Carl Jung was also influenced by Nietzsche. In
almost any how?” (1889/1998b, p. 6). Jung’s famous distinction between introversion and
extroversion, the introvert was viewed as dominated
Misunderstanding of Nietzsche’s Supermen. by the Apollonian tendency and the extrovert by the
Throughout history, scientific and philosophical Dionysian tendency (Golomb, 1989).
works have often been distorted in order to support
political ideologies. Nietzsche’s philosophy is an
example. His philosophy was embraced by the
KIERKEGAARD AND NIETZSCHE
German National Socialists (the Nazis), who
claimed that the German people were the supermen AS PSYCHOLOGY
to whom Nietzsche referred. For the Nazis, supermen
meant “superior men,” and the Germans were, they Nietzsche was apparently unaware of Kierkegaard’s
believed, superior. Nothing could have been more work, yet he developed ideas that were in many
alien to Nietzsche than the thought of national or ways similar to Kierkegaard’s. Like Kierkegaard,
racial superiority. Nietzsche dissolved his close Nietzsche rejected what was conventionally
relationship with the famous German composer accepted, such as the organized church and science.
Richard Wagner partly because Wagner held strong For both men, Hegelian philosophy was a favorite
nationalistic and anti-Semitic views (Blackburn, target, and both men preached reliance on direct,
1994). Each individual, according to Nietzsche, has personal experience. The major difference between
the potential to be a superman. What differentiates the two was that Kierkegaard accepted the existence
the superman from the nonsuperman is passion, of God, whereas for Nietzsche God did not exist.
courage, and insight—nothing else. As examples of Both Kierkegaard and Nietzsche alienated almost
supermen, Nietzsche offered the historical Jesus, everyone, especially the establishment. For example,
Goethe (from whom Nietzsche borrowed the term almost no one bought Kierkegaard’s books when
superman), Dostoevsky, and himself. Freud agreed they were published. Three years after the publica-
that Nietzsche should be on the list of supermen: tion of his Philosophical Fragments (1844/1985), it had
“[Freud] said of Nietzsche that he had a more pene- sold 229 copies from a printing of 525 (Hong &
trating knowledge of himself than any other man Hong, 1985, p. xix). Now Fragments is highly
who ever lived or was ever likely to live. From the regarded and considered one of Kierkegaard’s finest,
first explorer of the unconscious this is a handsome most influential works.
compliment” (Jones, 1955, p. 344). As noted previously, substantial parallels between
Again, both Schopenhauer and Nietzsche Nietzsche and the psychodynamic approaches of
believed that nonrational instincts strongly influence both Freud and Adler abound. Other modern
human behavior. But whereas Schopenhauer clinical psychologists—such as Irvin Yalom—have
believed that such instincts should be repressed, also acknowledged the influence of Nietzsche. Like-
Nietzsche thought that they should be largely wise, Kierkegaard can be seen as an anticipator of
expressed. In this regard, Freud was influenced most modern clinical psychology (Nordentoft, 1978). His
by Schopenhauer, whereas one of Freud’s early fol- The Concept of Dread (1844) is a study of what we
lowers, Alfred Adler, was influenced more by would now call anxiety, whereas his book The Sickness
Nietzsche. Not only did Adler stress the gaining of Unto Death (1849) is a consideration of depression.
power in order to overcome feelings of inferiority, he Indeed, much from (romanticism and) existentialism
also shared Nietzsche’s belief that weak individuals has melded to form the third-force movement in
often gain power over others by eliciting their pity psychology, exemplified by the theories of Rogers,
or by hurting them with their suffering. Freud also Maslow, May, and Kelly, which we will explore in
recognized this phenomenon in his concept of Chapter 17.
If existentialism could be captured as a catch- on human existence; the importance of subjective

phrase, it would surely be the admonition to never let experience; a deep respect for individuality; a belief
other people (be it the voice of science, the Church, or in free will; and a distrust of the grandiose theories
any other authority) do your thinking for you. Such an of human nature created by the rationalists, empiri-
idea would find favor with subsequent philosophers— cists and sensationalists, and natural scientists. The
including Martin Heidegger, and the Nobel Prize latter theories, they believed, minimized the impor-
winners Jean-Paul Sartre and Albert Camus—all of tance of the individual attempting to make sense
whom we will also see in Chapter 17. out of his or her life and freely acting upon his or
The romantic and early existential philosophers her interpretations of life’s meaning. Similar ideas
considered here had much in common. The themes are echoed in postmodernism, which will be dis-
running through both philosophies are an emphasis cussed in Chapter 20.
SUMMARY
The accomplishments of individuals such as mold a child. Goethe, a scientist, poet, and philos-
Hobbes, Bacon, Descartes, and Newton ushered opher, viewed life as consisting of choices between
into Western philosophy a period called the conflicting forces (such as good and evil). He
Enlightenment. The Enlightenment was character- believed that the best life is one lived with passion
ized by skepticism toward religious dogma and and that results in self-expansion. He also believed
other forms of traditional authority. There was that the physical sciences, although effective in pro-
widespread optimism that the principles governing viding useful information about the physical world,
the universe could be discovered and applied to the are of limited value when it comes to understanding
betterment of humankind. Under the umbrella of people.
the Enlightenment, the philosophies of empiricism, Following Kant, Schopenhauer distinguished
sensationalism, and rationalism pictured humans as between the noumenal world (things in themselves)
complex machines, products of experience, or and the phenomenal world (consciousness). What
highly rational beings operating in accordance Kant called the noumenal world, Schopenhauer
with lofty, abstract principles. In the opinion of called the universal will. When manifested in an
the romantics, all these philosophies left something individual human, the universal will becomes the
important out of their analyses. Alternatively, the will to survive, which is the most powerful
romantics emphasized inner, personal experience motive for human behavior. Life, according to
and distrusted both science and the philosophers Schopenhauer, consists of an unending cycle of
who pictured humans as products of experience, needs and need satisfaction. Because intelligent
as machines, or as totally rational beings. organisms are most aware of their needs, they suffer
Rousseau is usually considered the father of more than unintelligent organisms do. Satisfying
modern romanticism. He believed that humans our needs simply postpones death, which is inevit-
are born free and good but are contaminated by able. The only way to minimize human suffering is
society. As a guide for living and for believing, to deny or minimize one’s needs. Needs can be
the natural impulses of the “heart” could be trusted. sublimated into such pursuits as music, art, and
Rousseau believed that humans have both an indi- poetry. Schopenhauer’s philosophy had a consider-
vidual will and a general will and that for govern- able influence on Freud’s psychoanalytic theory.
ment to work, people must deny their individual Another reaction against Enlightenment
will. Education should take into consideration a philosophy was existentialism. The existentialist
child’s natural curiosity rather than attempting to stressed meaning in life, freedom of choice,
216 CHAPTER 7
subjective experience, personal responsibility, and or she feels. Acting on primal instincts causes a per-
the uniqueness of the individual. Kierkegaard is son to have new experiences and thus to develop
generally considered the first existential philoso- greater potential as a person. According to Nietzsche,
pher. He believed that rationalistic philosophy, sci- science, religion, rationalism, and empiricism stifle
ence, and the organized church discouraged people irrationality and thereby inhibit human develop-
from having a deep, personal relationship with ment. Nietzsche believed that rational philosophy
God. Logic and facts have nothing to do with and science had emphasized the Apollonian, or ratio-
such a relationship, which must be based on faith nal, aspect of human nature at the expense of the
alone. By one’s accepting God on faith, God Dionysian aspect. He believed that giving reasonable
becomes a living, emotional reality in one’s subjec- expression to both aspects of human nature is best.
tive experience. For Kierkegaard, the only truth is He also believed that the only source of information
subjective truth—that is, truth that exists as a per- for what is good or bad, desirable or undesirable, is
sonal belief. Furthermore, the existence of God the individual. According to Nietzsche, there are no
cannot and need not be proved by rational argu- universal truths, only individual perspectives. There
ment; it can only be taken on faith. One should is considerable similarity between Nietzsche’s per-
become emotionally involved with God and read spectivism and contemporary postmodernism.
his word (the Bible) as one would read a love letter. Nietzsche referred to humans who have the courage
Nietzsche agreed with Schopenhauer that many to live in accordance with their own values, thus
human desires are irrational, but disagreed with him rising above conventional morality, as supermen
that they should be repressed or sublimated. For (higher men). Supermen experiment with life and
Nietzsche, the basic human motive is the will to are constantly in the process of becoming something
power, which is satisfied when a person acts as he other than what they were.
DISCUSSION QUESTIONS
1. What was romanticism a reaction against? Discuss 8. What is existentialism? How does existentialism
the major features of the romantic movement. differ from romanticism?
2. What assumptions did Rousseau make about 9. What type of religion did Kierkegaard oppose?
human nature? What did he mean by his Which type did he promote?
statement “Man is born free yet we see him 10. What did Kierkegaard mean by his statement
everywhere in chains”? “Truth is subjectivity”?
3. What did Rousseau and Hobbes have in 11. Describe the type of relationship Kierkegaard
common? In what ways did they disagree? believed individuals should have with God.
4. Summarize Rousseau’s views on education. 12. Describe what Kierkegaard referred to as the
5. How did Goethe view life? What was his atti- three stages toward full personal freedom.
tude toward science? What were his contribu- 13. What were the important aspects of Freudian
tions to psychology? psychoanalysis anticipated by Nietzsche?
6. For Schopenhauer, what is the primary motive 14. Discuss the importance of innate Dionysian and
for human behavior? Discuss the implications Apollonian tendencies for Nietzsche’s
of this motive for human existence. psychology.
7. What did Schopenhauer suggest we could do 15. What, according to Nietzsche, were the
to minimize the influence of the powerful, implications of the death of God (and his
irrational forces within us? “shadows”) for human existence?
16. Discuss Nietzsche’s distinction between opi- conception of supermen has been
nions and convictions. Which did he believe misunderstood.
had a negative influence on human history? 18. What did the philosophies of romanticism and
17. According to Nietzsche, what are supermen? existentialism have in common?
Give an example of how Nietzsche’s
SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING

Gardiner, P. (2002). Kierkegaard: A very short introduction. Nietzsche, F. (1969). Thus Spoke Zarathustra (R. J.
New York: Oxford University Press. Hollingdale, Trans.). New York: Viking Books/
Golomb, J. (1989). Nietzsche’s enticing psychology of power. Penguin Press. (Original work published 1883–1885)
Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press. Rousseau, J. J. (1947). The social contract (C. Frankel,
Hayman, R. (1999). Nietzsche. New York: Routledge. Trans.). New York: Macmillan. (Original work
published 1762)
Janaway, C. (2002). Schopenhauer: A very short introduction.
New York: Oxford University Press. Rousseau, J. J. (1974). Emile (B. Foxley, Trans.).
London: Dent. (Original work published 1762)
Kaufmann, W. (Ed. and Trans.). (1982). The portable
Nietzsche. New York: Viking Books/Penguin Tanner, M. (2000). Nietzsche: A very short introduction.
Press. New York: Oxford University Press.
GLOSSARY
Aesthetic stage According to Kierkegaard, the first Existentialism The philosophy that examines the
stage in the growth toward full personal freedom. At this meaning in life and stresses the freedom that humans
stage, the person delights in many experiences but does have to choose their own destiny. Like romanticism,
not exercise his or her freedom. existentialism stresses subjective experience and the
Apollonian aspect of human nature According to uniqueness of each individual.
Nietzsche, that part of us that seeks order, tranquility, General will According to Rousseau, the innate ten-
and predictability. dency to live harmoniously with one’s fellow humans.
Convictions According to Nietzsche, beliefs that are Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von (1749–
thought to correspond to some absolute truth and, as such, 1832) Believed that life is characterized by choices
are immutable and dangerous. (See also Opinions.) between opposing forces and that much about humans is
Dionysian aspect of human nature According to forever beyond scientific understanding.
Nietzsche, that part of us that seeks chaos, adventure, and Kierkegaard, Søren (1813–1855) Believed that reli-
passionate experiences. gion had become too rational and mechanical. He
Enlightenment A period during which Western phi- believed that a relationship with God should be an
losophy embraced the belief that unbiased reason or the intensely personal and a highly emotional experience,
objective methods of science could reveal the principles like a love affair. Taking the existence of God on faith
governing the universe. Once discovered, these princi- makes God a living truth for a person; thus Kierkegaard
ples could be used for the betterment of humankind. contended that truth is subjectivity.
Ethical stage According to Kierkegaard, the second Nietzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm (1844–1900) Claimed
stage in the growth toward full personal freedom. At this that humans could no longer rely on religious supersti-
stage, the person makes ethical decisions but uses prin- tion or metaphysical speculation as guides for living;
ciples developed by others as a guide in making them. instead, they must determine life’s meaning for
218 CHAPTER 7
themselves. By exercising their will to power, people can Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1712–1778) Considered the
continue to grow and overcome conventional morality. father of modern romanticism, Rousseau believed that
The term superman described those who experimented human nature is basically good and that the best society is
with life and feelings and engaged in continuous self- one in which people subjugate their individual will to
overcoming. the general will. The best education occurs when edu-
Noble savage Rousseau’s term for a human not con- cation is individualized and when a student’s natural
taminated by society. Such a person, he believed, would abilities and curiosity are recognized.
live in accordance with his or her true feelings, would Schopenhauer, Arthur (1788–1860) Believed that the
not be selfish, and would live harmoniously with other will to survive is the most powerful human motive. Life
humans. is characterized by a cycle of needs and need satisfaction,
Opinions According to Nietzsche, beliefs that are ten- and need satisfaction simply postpones death. The most
tative and modifiable in light of new information and, people can do is to minimize the irrational forces oper-
therefore, reasonable. (See also Convictions.) ating within them by sublimating or repressing those
forces.
Perspectivism Nietzsche’s contention that there are no
universal truths, only individual perspectives. Supermen The name Nietzsche gave to those indivi-
duals who have the courage to rise above conventional
Phenomenology Refers to Goethe’s assertion that
morality and herd conformity and to follow their own
meaningful whole experiences are the proper unit of
inclinations instead. The German word Ubermensch can be
analysis when studying human nature.
translated as “overman,” “higherman,” or “superman.”
Religious stage According to Kierkegaard, the third
Will to power According to Nietzsche, the basic
stage in the growth toward full personal freedom. At this
human need to become stronger, more complete, and
stage, the person recognizes his or her freedom and
more superior. While satisfying the will to power, a
chooses to enter into a personal relationship with God.
person continually becomes something other than he or
Romanticism The philosophy that stresses the she was.
uniqueness of each person and that values irrationality
Will to survive According to Schopenhauer, the
much more than rationality. According to the romantic,
powerful need to perpetuate one’s life by satisfying one’s
people can and should trust their own natural impulses as
biological needs.
guides for living.

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7

Romanticism and Existentialism

Also, Enlightenment thinkers devalued the ROMANTICISM

fact, Rousseau’s father abandoned him when he

with sexual desire but didn’t know what to do

and had no methods at hand of extricating

satisfaction. For Schopenhauer, the powerful drive

All willing springs from lack, from defi-

are hedonistic, and such an existence ultimately

It was in the aftermath of this experience that

© Mary Evans/Sigmund Freud Copyrights

If existentialism could be captured as a catch- on human existence; the importance of subjective

SUGGESTIONS FOR FURTHER READING

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