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MODULE 2--Animal Behavior
V.Habitat Selection
VI.Orientation & Migration (& Conservation)
VII.Antipredator Behavior

Consultation of Video-Documentation
◼ HABITAT SELECTION
◼ --normal notion that all animals are found
in particular habitats while ignoring or
avoiding other places.

◼ If animals do indeed have adaptive

preferences for certain kinds of living
space, then individuals that satisfy their
preferences should experience higher
fitness than those unable to settle.
◼ Linda Partridge studied 2 very similar
closely related European
tits----

coal tit blue tit

lives in pinewood prefers oak woodlnds
 Pine wood leaf Oak wood leaf

Coal tit blue tit

Proximately, habitat preferences of these tits would be
adaptive if the birds could gather food more efficiently in
their habitats
---the more efficiently these tits collect food, the more
likely it is to survive and reproduce successfully
Partridge tested the connection between
habitat type & foraging success

RESULTS: the hand-reared, unrestrained

coal tits were significaantly slower extracting
food
HYPOTHESIS--the proximate mechanisms
of habitat selection help young birds find
good places to hunt for food

COMMENT:
---this is a weak test of adaptationist
1. a prediction drawn only from a single hypothesis
2.focuses strictly on a possible benefit of having a
habitat preference
3.does not evaluate the cost (Energy) involved
◼ Nest Site Selection by Honeybees

◼ over the next few days scout workers fly out from
the swarm in search of small openings that lead
to chambers in the ground, in cliffs, and in
hollow trees.
◼ --often many such sites within
t the range of the waiting
◼ swarm, but some worker
◼ motivate to perform a dance
◼ back at the swarm
◼ and dance that communicates
information about the distance,
direction, and quality of the potential
new home
◼ others may do the same (doing the

dance) for a potential new site

◼ eventually the scout workers will
advertise only one---if it is attractive to
them & the swarm leaves its
temporary perch & flies to the most
popular site
ILOG NI MARIA---Tagaytay
◼ Thomas Seely ---scout workers are
only interested in chambers with a
volume of 30to 60 liters
◼ --the size of chambers is not only
factor assessed by scout bees--
◼ Martin Lindauer
◼ in Bavaria, Germany

◼ FACTORS
◼1holes in the ground,
◼2wooden structures,
◼3straw-basket hives
◼ if Bavarian swarm of bees were given a
choice between 2 sites (of same quality hive)
Site1 Site 2
◼ near -50m away 200maway
◼ will not be chosen this is the chosen one
◼ queens are wonderful egg layers but only marginal flyers

◼ M Lindauer added Bavarian bees ---

provided with well-insulated nest sites
that could keep the bees alive over the
winter
HABITAT PREFERENCES
& FITNESS

Thomas Whittam
---habitat preference of tiny
poplar aphids do raise fitness
poplar aphid--Thomas Whitham
large leaves vs small leaves
Gall→
◼ HABITAT SELECTION
◼ HABITAT PREFERENCES

◼ HOME RANGES

◼ TERRITOREALITY

◼ (defense/defended)
◼ Examples:HABITAT SELECTION
◼ HABITAT PREFERENCES
◼ HOME RANGES
◼ TERRITOREALITY (defense/defended)
◼ 1. Philippine Tarsier
◼ 2. Yellow-cheeked crested Gibbon
◼ 3.Giant Anteater

◼ 4. Varanids

◼ 5. Philippine Raptors
◼ The habitats are primarily located in secondary
lowland rainforest in early to mid succession stage

◼ However, the tarsiers avoided adjacent

residential areas, clearings and agricultural
plantation,
Yellow-cheeked crested gibbon

Phnom Prich Wildlife Sanctuary PPWS

an IUCN endangered primate species distributed
east of the Mekong River inCambodia, soutern
Giant Anteaters Myrmecophaga
◼ Myrmecophaga tridactyla
◼ at Ibera Nature Reserve -INR

◼ northeastern Argentina
Philippine Raptors territory

◼ 1. Above the canopy/canopy

◼ 2. Forest Interior= inside the
◼ forest/midcanopy
◼ 3. Outside the forest

(Gamauf et al .1998.Phil.Birds of Prey.

The Auk 115:(93) 713-726.)
◼ ABOVE CANOPY
Hunting Above the Forest
◼ 1.Oriental Honey Buzzard
◼ 2.Barred Honey Buzzard
◼ 3.Crested Serpent Eagle
◼ 4.Chinese Goshawk
◼ 5.Rufous Bellied Eagle
◼ 6.Changeable Hawk Eagle
◼ 7.Philippine Hawk eagle
◼ 8.Peregrine Falcon
Oriental Honey & Barred Honey Buzzard

◼ Oriental & Barred

Honey Buzzard
Hunting in the Forest Interior
1.Jeron's Baza
2.Besra
3.Crested Goshawk
4.Philippine Falconet
BESRA
Crested Goshawk
◼ Hunting Outside the Forest
◼ 1.Brahminy Kite
◼ 2.Oriental Hobby
◼ 3.Grey-faced Buzzard
◼ 4.White-Bellied Sea Eagle
◼ 5.Pied Harrier
◼ 6.Black-shouldered Kite
Pied Harrier Brahminy Kite

White-bellied Sea Eagle Grey-faced buzzard

 Philippine Raptors territory
◼ 1. Above the canopy/canopy
◼ 2. Forest Interior= inside the forest/midcanopy
◼ 3. Outside the forest

◼ (Gamauf et al .1998.Phil.Birds of Prey.

◼ The Auk 115:(93) 713-726.)
◼ MIGRATION
The whale migration
The great migration of Serengeti
Zambia's Fruit Bat Migration
The marine turtle migration
The bird migration in America(Arctic Tern/Robin)
The bird migration in Asia
◼ This world-renowned ecoregion is a stage for some of
the most spectacular mass game migrations in the
world.
◼ Although populations fluctuate, there are an estimated
◼

1.1.3 million blue wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus)

2.200,000 plains zebra (Equus burchelli), and
3.400,000 Thomson’s gazelle (Gazella thomsoni)
migrating between this ecoregion and the Southern
Acacia-Commiphora bushlands ecoregion each year
(Campbell & Borner 1995, WCMC 2001).
Migration begins at Ngorongoro
Conservation area of the
Southern Serengeti in Tanzania
and loops clockwise thru
Serengeti National Park and
North towards Masai Mara
reserve in KENYA
Initial phase lasts about from
Jan. to March
During February, the wildebeests
are on the short grass plain of the
Southeast part of the ecosystem,
grazing and giving birth to
approx. 500,000 calves in 2 to 3
weeks. As the rain ends in MAY
tha animals start moving
northwest into the areas around
the GRUMETI RIVER
As the rain ends in May, the animals
start moving towards northwest into
the areas around GRUMETI River,
where they typically remain until
June .
Grumeti and Mara rivers are popular
safari attraction because the
crocodiles are lying in wait----the
herds arrive in KENYA in late
July/August except that the Thomson
and Grant gazelles move only
east/west. In early Nov with the start
of short rains, the migrations starts
moving South again, to the short
grass plains of the Southeast usually
arriving in December in plenty of
time for calving in FEBRUARY.
The mammals of Serengeti
Blue Wildebeest = GNU
 Gazelle

ZEBRAS
AFRICAN BUFFALO
WARTHOG
ELAND
TOPI
Forget the wildebeest of the Serengeti – Africa’s greatest
mammal migration involves 8 million animals and takes place
in the air. This is Zambia’s secret bat spectacle.
Zambia's Kasanka
National Park hosts
the largest fruit bat
migration in the
world every
November and
December.
STRAW-COLOURED
FRUIT BAT
Eidolon helvum Straw-coloured fruit bat
The fruit bats are vital to pollinate flowers and seed the
forests;This fruit bats grow up to 20cm in length
◼ Biologist Heidi Richter from the University of Florida is
determined to find out where the bats go after Kasanka, and why
they come here in the first place.

◼ Through her research, she has discovered that several of the

females are expecting. Some will have only recently conceived,
but others are nearly full-term.

◼ “They must have migrated while heavily pregnant – a high-risk

strategy because of the energy demands. There must be
essential nutrients at Kasanka to make such a trip
worthwhile,” she explains.
Straw-coloured bats flock together during migration in
Kasanka National Park, Zambia
ARCTIC TERN
Worldwide Bird Migratory Flyways
 East Asian-Australasian flyway

Birds breed in Siberia,

North China, Japan,
Korea

Stopover at staging sites

Migrate south to
Australia & New Zealand

Danny Rogers
Who are migrating?
◼ Plovers pratincoles
◼ sandpipers red-necked stint
◼ egrets & herons painted snipe
◼ black-winged stilts/avocets oystercatcher
◼ whimbrel pheasant-tailed jacna
Egrets & Herons
Heron

Purple Heron

Gray Heron
JACANAS
Pheasant-Tailed Jacana
painted snipe
OYSTERCATCHER
STILTS & AVOCETS
Black-winged stilt

Avocet
CURLEWS/WHIMBRELS
SANDPIPERS
RED-NECKED STINT
 Snipe
Sandpipers Curlews Knots

Oystercatchers

Stints

Godwits

Plovers

Pratincoles Avocets
MIGRATION

2 SEASONS
1.Southward Migration
*Sept- November
*downward direction from Siberia,
China, Japan, Korea
*end area= AUSTRALIA
MODULE 2--Animal Behavior
VIII. Habitat Selection
IX. Orientation & Migration (& Conservation)
X. Antipredator Behavior
XI. Foraging= Feeding Behavior
XII.The Evolution of Sex & Sexual Selection
XIII.Parental Care
XIV. Group Living

SECOND LONG EXAM

ANTI-PREDATOR
ANTI-PREDATOR BEHAVIOR
◼ MORPHOLOGICAL CHEMICAL
◼ 1.Defense 1.toxin
◼ 2.Avoidance/camouflage 2.ink
◼ 3.Escape 3.evisceration

◼ Behavioural SOUND/CALLS
◼ 1.Aggregating 1.warning
◼ 2.Distraction displays 2. defense/growling
◼ 3.Pursuit Deterrence
◼ 4.Fight back
 MORPHOLOGICAL
1. Defense --spines/quills
3.Avoidance---patagium of flying lemur, flying
lizard, sail-fin lizard
 flying lizard

sail-fin lizard
2. CAMOUFLAGE
---same color/accent/design
as the background
Brown dead leaf grasshopper 1
2
3
4
 5
Spiny leaf insect
PERU LEAF INSECT
LEAF BUG
Malaysia's Walking Leaf
CALIFORNIA STICK INSECT
LICHEN MOTH
Mantidactylus asper leaf frog on
Nosy Mangabe
It is not a piece of wood! Toads are the masters in the art of tricking.
They use their camouflage ability to hide from their numerous
predators.---Wood Toad
CRAB SPIDER
KNOBBLY SPIDER
liturgid bark mantis
Bark Butterfly
BATESIAN VS MULLERIAN MIMICRY
The Red Postman Butterfly vs The Common Postman Butterfly

This is an example of Müllerian mimicry, where both these

species of unpalatable butterflies look alike, which offers more
protection from predators. Notice the almost-similar placement
of dots on the wings.
monarch butterfly viceroy butterfly

The monarch and viceroy butterflies were believed to be exhibiting Batesian

mimicry for a very long time; the monarch was thought to be the harmful one.

However, studies have shown that the viceroy is actually just as unpalatable as the
monarch, sometimes even more. Thus, it is now proven that they exhibit
Müllerian mimicry.
 Mullerian mimicry

Yellow Jacket bee Cuckoo wasp

The cuckoo wasp and yellow jacket bee exhibit Müllerian mimicry.
Their similar appearances help protect both species and keep their
frequency dependence positive.
 The bright colours of this The honey badger's
granular poison frog signal reverse countershading
a warning to predators of its makes it conspicuous,
toxicity. warning of its aggressive
temperament, and its
sharp teeth and claws
The most common and effective colours are red, yellow, black and
white.
◼ Aposematic signals are primarily visual, using
bright colours and high-contrast patterns such
as stripes.

◼ Warning signals are honest indications of

noxious prey, because conspicuousness evolves
in tandem with noxiousness. Thus, the brighter
and more conspicuous the organism, the more
toxic it usually is
Flamboyant cuttlefish colours warn of toxicity
The skunk -----an aposematic mammal

THE SKUNK ---AN APOSEMATIC MAMMAL

THE NUDIBRANCH Phyllidia varicosa is believed (with evidences
to be aposematic.
The crown-of-thorns starfish, like other starfish such as Metrodira
subulata, has conspicuous coloration and conspicuous long, sharp
spines, as well as chemical defences in the form of saponins; this
evidence is argued to be sufficient for such species to be
considered aposematic
Iridescent blue rings on the mantles of the venomous
octopus Hapalochlaena lunulata are considered by some to
be aposematic.
A venomous and genuinely
aposematic coral snake

The harmless red milk snake,

a Batesian mimic of the coral snake
ANTI-PREDATOR BEHAVIOR
◼ MORPHOLOGICAL CHEMICAL
◼ 1.Defense-spines 1.toxin
◼ 2.Avoidance/camouflage 2.ink
◼ 3.Escape 3.evisceration

◼ Behavioural SOUND/CALLS
◼ 1.Aggregating 1.warning
◼ 2.Distraction displays 2. defense/growling
◼ 3.Pursuit Deterrence
◼ 4.Fight back
BEHAVIOURAL

1.Aggregating
a. dilution eg.wildebeest--
disadv. mix with juveniles & injured individuals
b.predator confusion eg. zebras
c. sentinel behavior- many eyes watching
eg.banded mongoose

Mantidactylus asper leaf frog on Nosy Mangabe

◼ 2.Distraction display
injury feigning --grass snake (acting as dead)
kildeer (acting as having a broken wing)

3.Pursuit Deterrence
a. stare down---cheetah/orangutan/gorilla
b.mobbing-- birds to boomslang (South-African snake)
c.bucking--kicking lion by zebra
d.stotting/pronking-jumping up-high
4.FIGHT BACK
◼ a. swim at high speed----octopus or mollusks
◼ b. outrun(run at high speed)----prey of cheetah
◼ c. confuse the predator while running
◼ d.come face to face with the preator
◼ eg. mongoose with snakes
3.CHEMICAL
a. toxin---neurotoxin vs hemotoxin
b. ink----octopus, squids
c. evisceration --- Holothuria
◼ Evisceration is the ejection of internal organs
used by animals as a defensive strategy. It is
white milky, sticky substance thick thread in
◼ appearance.
◼ Sea cucumbers (Holothuroidea) eject parts of the
gut in order to scare and defend against potential
predators such as crabs and fish.
◼ The organs are regenerated in a few days by cells
in the interior of the sea cucumber.
ODOUR
◼ foul smell--- stink badger, skunk, bugs