GLE 594: An introduction to

applied geophysics

Electrical Resistivity Methods

Fall 2004

Earth Properties and Basic Theory

Reading
Today : 207-218
Next Lecture : 218-228

1
 Introduction
• Link resistivity (ability of the earth to
conduct an electric current) to subsurface
structure.
• Useful because resistivity of earth
materials varies by around 10 orders of
magnitude.
• Developed by Conrad Schlumberger
(France) and Frank Wenner (United
States) in early 20th century.
• Uses: Archeology, Environmental, Mineral
exploration

Electricity Basics
Voltage V - Electrical potential energy per unit charge [volts]
Current i - amount of charge per unit time [amperes]

1
i= V
R

Resistivity R is just a proportionality constant [ohms]

R relates current I to voltage I.

However, no units of length in this form of Ohm’s law.

2
 Resistivity
Resistance includes length and area
We want resisitivity ρ [ohm/m] because
- property of the material alone.
- no geometry included

R =ρ
L
[ohm] ↑ length
↑area
→
→
↑ resistance
↓resistance
A

Conductivity σ [siemens/m] or [mhos/m]:

σ=
1
[mhos m]
ρ
It is the ability of the electrical charge to move through the material

Electrical Conductivity of Geomaterials

• Non-conductive minerals

Electric field Electric field

Hydrated ion mobility Double layer surface conduction

Equation Comments

Electrolyte σel [mS ]

m = 0.15 TDS
[ ] mg
L TDS: total dissolved salts

Soil (Archie’s law) σsoil = aσel Scr n m a≈1; m~1-2.4; c~4-5

Soil (clays) σsoil = nσel + (1 − n )Θρ gSs Θ ≈ 10-9 S (for Kaolinite)

3
• Non-conductive Minerals

4
 Analogous to Heat and Fluid Flow
Any solutions you know for one of these flows works for the others with the
analogous boundary and initial conditions.

(Wang and Anderson 1982)

Earth as a Circuit
Soils and rocks can be conceptually modeled as a circuit made of a
resistor, capacitor, inductor and battery:

Electrodes

R
C
L
B

Resistor R: dissipator of applied energy as heat

Capacitor C: storage of energy as separation of charges
Inductor L: self voltage associated to electromagnetic methods
Battery B: electrokinetics and self-potentials

5
 Current Source on Surface
Electric potential at distance away from current source on surface
given as V(r)=ρI/2πr. How?

Boundary conditions:
1)As r => ∞, V => 0.
2) V is continuous across any boundary
3) Tangential E continuous across any boundary
4) Normal I continuous across any boundary.
5) Above leads to no vertical current crossing earth-air interface.

Current Flow in a Homogeneous and

Isotropic Medium
Point Current Source:
l dr
dV = iR shell = iρ = iρ
A 2 πr 2

Voltage decreases as the inverse of

the distance from the current source.
Shape of constant voltages are
hemispheres for a single point source.
∞ ∞ ∞
iρ dr iρ
VD = ∫ dV = ∫ = (− 1)1
D
2π D r 2
2π rD
iρ
= (− 1)⎛⎜ 1 − 1 ⎞⎟ = iρ
2π ⎝ ∞ D ⎠ 2 πD

6
Two Current Electrodes: Source and Sink
• Why run an electrode to infinity when we can use it?

source sink

rsource rsink
P
iρ iρ
Vsource = Vsin k =
2πrsource 2 πrsink

iρ ⎛ 1 1 ⎞
Vp = Vsource − Vsin k = ⎜⎜ − ⎟
2 π ⎝ rsource rsink ⎟⎠
Total Voltage at P:

Measurement Practicalities
Can’t measure potential at single point unless the other end of our
volt meter is at infinity. This is inconvenient. It is easier to
measure potential difference (∆V). This lead to use of four
electrode array for each measurement.

Resulting measurement given as

∆V=VP1-VP2= ρI/(2π)*(1/r1-1/r2-1/r3+1/r4). Can be rewritten

∆V=ρI*G/(2π) where G/2π is the Geometrical Factor of the array.

7
 Current density and equipotential lines
for a current dipole
d

fraction total current

2 ⎛ 2z ⎞
i f = tan−1⎜ ⎟
π ⎝d⎠

d
if=0.5 at z=
2
if=0.7 at z = d

Wider spacing → Deeper currents

Apparent Resistivity

Previous expression can be

ρ1
rearranged in terms of resistivity:
ρ=(∆V/I) (2π/G).

This can be done even when

medium is inhomogeneous. Result
is then referred to as Apparent ρ2
Resistivity.

Definition:Resistivity of a fictitious homogenous subsurface

that would yield the same voltages as the earth over which
measurements were actually made.

8
 Geometrical Factors

Array advantages and disadvantages

Array Advantages Disadvantages
Wenner 1. Easy to calculate ρa in the 1. All electrodes moved each
field sounding
2. Less demand on 2. Sensitive to local shallow
instrument sensivity variations
3. Long cables for large depths
Schlumberger 1. Fewer electrodes to move 1. Can be confusing in the field
each sounding 2. Requires more sensitive
2. Needs shorter potential equipment
cables 3. Long Current cables
Dipole-Dipole 1. Cables can be shorter for 1. Requires large current
deep soundings 2. Requires sensitive instruments