01 - IT-1101 IT Fundamentals - Lecture-1 Introductory Concepts

IT-1101 (IT Fundamentals) FOR IIT 1ST YEAR 1ST SEMESTER-2015 (46 BATCH)
CHAPTER-1: INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS

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THE HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

 Throughout history, humans have relied mainly on their brains to perform calculations; in
other words, they were computers.
 As civilization advanced, a variety of computing tools were invented that aided, but not
replace, manual computation.
 The earliest people used their fingers, pebbles, or tally sticks for counting purposes. Some
calculating devices before the advent of computers are discussed below.
ABACUS: First Calculating Device
 Although the abacus is not a computer, the history of computing really began with this
device.
 A wooden frame with balls or beads strung on parallel wires or rods fixed in a frame
shown in the figure below.
 Two fundamental concepts were associated with abacus:
(i) Numerical information can be represented in a physical form.
(ii) This information can be manipulated in the physical form to produce the
required result.
 Origin: Between 5000 and 2000 B.C. in China and was used by Greek, Roman, Japanese
and Chinese in pre-Christian times.
 Three different types of abacus were used.
 In the Chinese abacus,
 The frame is divided by a beam into two regions, known as “heaven” and “earth”.
 Instead of ten beads on each wire, there were two on one side of the beam and
five on the other.
 A bead in heaven was considered to have a power (value) of 5 and the bead on
earth a power (value) of 1.
 Calculations were performed by moving beads away from towards the beam; the
rule being that a bead has a numerical value only when it is adjacent to the beam.
 Figure shows a Chinese abacus representing the number 00011725
 It may be easily seen from the figure that two of the beads of the Chinese abacus
are redundant.
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PREPARED BY: K M AKKAS ALI, B.SC. (HONORS) M.SC IN CSE PAGE 1 OF 24
ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR, IIT, JAHANGIRNAGAR UNIVERSITY
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 In 1530, these two extra beads were eliminated and adopted in the Japanese
version of abacus called “Soroban”, i.e. one bead in the heaven and four beads in
the earth.
Figure: Chinese Abacus Figure: Soroban (Japanese Abacus)
NAPIER’S BONES: (By John Napier, a mathematician from Scotland)
 In the 17th century, John Napier, a Scots (Scotland) mathematician, invented an aid
for calculating logarithms in 1614. Using logarithmic rules, this machine was used to
calculate multiplication, division, square root etc.
 He also derived a set of 11 rods having 4 faces which were used as multiplication tool.
 These rods were carved from bones and are often called “Napier‟s bones”.
 These rods have numbers marked on them in such a way that by simply placing them
side by side, products and quotients of large numbers can be obtained.
SLIDE RULE: (By William Oughtred, an English mathematician)
 This is a calculating device based on the principles of logarithms.
 It was invented by an English Mathematician named William Oughtred.
 This device was used to calculate multiplication, division, square root etc using
logarithm very quickly as that compared to Napier‟s Bone.
Stepped Reckoner: (By Gottfried Leibniz, a German mathematician)
 In 1671, Gottfried Leibniz of German Mathematician invented the first calculator for
multiplication named stepped reckoner which was able to perform multiplication,
division, addition, subtraction, and square root.
 Leibniz was the first man who started the usage of binary system.
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Difference Engine and Analytical Engine: (By Charles Babbage, a British mathematician)
 Charles Babbage was a nineteenth century Professor at Cambridge University
 He is considered the father of modern digital computers though his work did not
directly influence the design of the first modern computer, but certain basic ideas of
the stored computer program can be traced back to his machine.
 During his period, mathematical and statistical tables were prepared by a group
clerks. Even the utmost care and precautions could not eliminate human errors.
Babbage had to spend several hours checking these tables. Soon he became
dissatisfied and exasperated with this type of monotonous job.
Difference Engine:
 The result was that he started thinking to build a machine, which could compute
tables guaranteed to be error-free. In this process, Babbage designed a "Difference
Engine" in the year 1822, which could produce reliable tables. This Difference
Engine was used to perform simple computations needed for setting up
trigonometric and logarithmic tables.
Analytical Engine:
 In 1842, Babbage came out with his new idea of “Analytical Engine”, which was
intended to be completely automatic. It was to be capable of performing the basic
arithmetic functions for any mathematical problem, and it was to do so at an
average speed of 60 additions per minute.
 This machine had a punched card input, a memory unit or store, an arithmetic unit
and an automatic printout.
 In short, Babbage had developed a machine that was a prototype computer and that
was 100 years ahead of its time.
 Unfortunately, Babbage was unable to produce a working model of this machine,

because of financial difficulties as well as technological constraints (i.e. unavailable
of the materials needed to manufacture the machine). However, his efforts
established a number of principles, which have been shown to be fundamental to the
design of any digital computer.
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Ada: (First Programming Language by Augusta Ada Byron, 1815-1852)
 Augusta Ada Byron was the daughter of famous British poet Lord Byron.
 She found out some errors on Babbage‟s works.
 She also wrote some programs for Babbage‟s Analytical Engine.
 She was the first who developed program.
 Ada is the name of a programming Language with her name.
Boolean Algebra: (By George Boole, an English mathematician)
 After Babbage‟s work on computers (1871), little progress was made until 1937.
 An important theoretical development occurred between 1847 and 1854
 George Boole, an English Mathematician, developed an algebraic system called

Boolean Algebra.
 It is used widely today for representing and manipulating logical expressions and for
the simplification of logic gates.
Census Machine: (By Herman Hollerith, an American scientist)
 In 1890, Herman Hollerith of United States came up with the concept of punched
cards, which were extensively used as input medium in computers even in late
1970s.
 He invented a device called Census Machine which would handle 50-80 punched
cards per minute.
 This machine was chosen for tabulating the 1890 census.
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HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS

In order to have a better idea of the evolution of computers, let us now briefly discuss about some
of the well-known early computers. These are as follows:
I. The Mark I Computer (1937-44): 1st Digital Computer
 This was the first fully automatic calculating machine
 It was designed by Howard A. Aiken of Harvard University, in collaboration with IBM

(International Business Machines) Corporation in 1937.
 It was an electro-mechanical device, since both mechanical and electronic components

were used in its design.
 It could automatically perform a sequence of arithmetic operations.
 It measured 15 m long, 2.4 m high, and 0.6 m wide.
 The input and output were performed by punched cards and paper tapes.
 It was capable of performing 5 basic arithmetic operations: addition, subtraction,

multiplication, division and table reference.
 Although this machine proved to be extremely reliable, it was very complex in design
and huge in size. This machine was very slow as compared to today‟s computers.
II. The Atanasoff-Berry (ABC) Computer (1939-42)
 This electronic machine was developed by Dr. John Atanasoff.
 It is used to solve certain mathematical equations.
 It was called the ABC, after its inventor‟s name and his assistant, Clifford Berry.
III. The ENIAC (1943-46): 1st Electronic Computer
 The Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator (ENIAC) was the first all electronic
computer.
 It was constructed at the Moore School of Engineering of the University of

Pennsylvania, USA by a design team lead by Professor J. Presper Eckert and John
Mauchly in 1946.
 It needed much power and produced more heat and hence needed to be water cooled.
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 ENIAC was developed for military purpose, and was used for many years to solve
ballistic problems (i.e for calculating the trajectories of missiles).
 A major drawback of ENIAC was that its programs were wired on boards, which made
it difficult to change the programs.
IV. The EDSAC (1947-49) : 1st Computer Using Stored program concept
 The Electronic Delay Storage Automatic Calculator (EDSAC) was designed using
stored program concept (John Von Neumann was the first who introduced the stored
program concept in a computer).
 This machine was developed at the Mathematical Laboratory of Cambridge University

under the leadership of Professor Maurice Wilkes.
 The problem introduced in the ENIAC was later overcome in EDSAC.
V. The UNIVAC I (1951) : 1st Commercially produced computer
 The Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) was designed using vacuum tubes (a
vacuum tube is an electronic device in which filament is used as a source of electrons. It
had a limited time and much heat was generated by it).
 Many UNIVAC machines were produced, the first of which was installed in the Census
Bureau of USA in 1951 and was used continuously for ten years.
 This computer could process numeric as well as alphanumeric data.
 The first business use of a computer, a UNIVAC I, was by General Electric Corporation
in 1954.
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GENERATIONS OF COMPUTERS
 Advances in computer hardware and software are generally classified into generations.
 The advancement of computer technology is generally grouped into 5 chronological

categories called the generation of computers.
 There are five generation of computers named as first, second, third, fourth and fifth
generations.
i) First Generation (1942-1955): Using vacuum tubes
Outstanding features of the 1st generation computers were:
Design : The first generation computer was designed by the use of vacuum
tubes.
Size : Size of the computer was large.
Space required : Lot of space was required for their storage.
Portability : They were non-portable.
Power : Lot of power was required to operate them.

requirement
Heat generation : Considerable heat was generated.
For I/O operation : Punched cards and punched paper tapes were used for input and
output of data.
Maintenance : Constant maintenance is required as lifetime of tube generates

maximum amount of heat. Thus air conditioning is required.
Cost : They were very expensive.
Processing speed : Since the switching time of the vacuum tubes is very high, the speed
of the computer was slow (as compared to the computers available
today).
Time of : Execution speed was measured in milliseconds.

execution
Storage capacity : Internal storage capacity of the computer was much limited as
compared to the present day‟s computer.
Programs written : Programs were written in machine language.
Reliability : Computers had little reliability.
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User capacity : They were single user computers.
Communication : No.
facility
Multimedia : No.
facility
Example : UNIVAC, ENIAC, EDSAC, EDVAC etc.
ii) Second Generation (1959-1964): Using Transistors
Outstanding characteristics of the 2nd generation computers were:
Design : The second generation computer was designed by the use of

transistors (A transistor is an electronic switch that alternately allows or does not allow
electronic signals to pass. It performs the same function as the vacuum tube but smaller,
less expensive, generates almost no heat and require little power).
Size : In comparison with the previous generation, they were smaller in

size.
Space required : Compared to the previous generation, less space was required for
their storage.
Portability : They had little portability.
Power : Less power was required to operate them.

requirement
Heat generation : Produced less heat.
For I/O operation : Punched cards and punched paper tapes were used for input and
output of data.
Maintenance : As lifetime of transistors is more than that of vacuum tubes and they
generate less heat, constant maintenance was not required.
Cost : They were less expensive as compared to the previous generation.
Processing speed : Since the switching time of the transistor is very low, the speed of
the computer was faster than that of previous generation.
Time of : Execution speed was measured in microseconds.

execution
Storage capacity : Internal storage capacity was increased as compared to the previous
generation.
Programs written : Programs were written using high-level language such as COBOL,
FORTRAN, ALGOL etc.
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Reliability : Computers had more reliability as compared to the previous

generation.
User capacity : They were single user computers.
Communication : No.
facility
Multimedia : No.
facility
Example : IBM 1401, CDC 1604, ICT 1300 etc.
iii) Third Generation (1965-1971): IC-based Computers (ICs with SSI and MSI chips)
Outstanding characteristics of the 3rd generation computers were:
Design : The third generation computer was designed by the use of integrated
circuit (IC: a complete electronic circuit that packages transistors and other electronic
components on a small silicon chip.).
Size : In comparison with the previous generation, they were much smaller
in size.
their storage.
Portability : They had more portability.
Power : Less power was required to operate them.

requirement
Heat generation : Produced almost no heat.
For I/O operation : Punched cards and CRT display were used for input and output of
data.
Maintenance : As IC is used instead of transistors, little maintenance was required.
Cost : They were less expensive as compared to the previous generation.
Processing speed : Processing speed of computer was faster than that of previous
generation.
Time of : Execution speed was measured in nanoseconds.

execution
Storage capacity : Internal storage capacity was increased considerably as compared to

the previous generation.
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Programs written : Programs were written in high-level language such as C, Pascal,

BASIC etc.
Reliability : Computer was highly reliable.
User capacity : They were multi user computers.
Communication : Limited communications facilities became available.

facility
Multimedia : No.
facility
Example : IBM 360, IBM-370, ICL-1900, NCR-395 etc.
iv) Fourth Generation (1971-2000): Microprocessor-based computers (ICs with VLSI chips)
Outstanding characteristics of the 4th generation computers are:
Design : The fourth generation computer is designed by the use of

microprocessor (an IC with VLSI chip).
Size : Microprocessor-based computer are smaller in size.
their storage.
Portability : They are highly portable.
Power : Less power is required to operate them.

requirement
Heat generation : Produced almost no heat.
For I/O operation : Input is given by keyboard, mouse etc. and output is provided with
monitor, printer, speaker etc.
Maintenance : Easily maintainable.
Cost : They are lower in cost.
Processing speed : Processing speed of computer is faster than that of previous

generation.
Time of : Execution speed was measured in picoseconds.

execution
Storage capacity : Huge amount of memory supports.
Programs written : Programs are written with high-level language such as C, C++, Java,
Pascal, QBASIC, Visual Basic etc.
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Reliability : Computer is highly reliable.
User capacity : They are multi user computers. Computers can be remotely
controlled.
Communication : More communications facilities become available.

facility
Multimedia : Yes.
facility
Example : IBM PC, Macintosh, Cray, Compaq, HP, Del etc.
v) Fifth Generation: (2001- Present): Computers based on ULSI Technology
 The fifth generation computers are under development. Japan and USA have undertaken to
design and develop such computers.
 Computers of this generation have the following important characteristics:
(i) Mega-chip memories,
(ii) The ability to extensive use of parallel processing
(iii) AI (artificial intelligence) based computers. (These computers are knowledge-based, and used
for information management, natural language processing, speech-, character- and image- recognition and
such other artificial intelligence applications).
(iv) More devices have hot-pluggable features (a failed component is to be replaced with a new one,
without the need to shut down the system) and hence the uptime of the system is very high.
(v) Distributed, rather than centralized.
(vi) Wireless enabled multimedia high performance mobile computers.
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WHAT IS A COMPUTER?
 The word „Computer‟ comes from the Greek word “compute” which means to calculate.
 In fact, the original objective for inventing the computer was to create a fast calculating
machine.
 However, more than 80% of the work done by computers today is of non-mathematical or
non-numerical nature.
 Hence, to define a computer merely as a calculating device is to ignore over 80% of its
functions.
 It is used to describe a device made up of a combination of electronic and electromechanical
components.
 A computer can solve problems by accepting data and instructions, processing the data
according to the given instructions and presenting the results of operation through a suitable
output media.
 It is the most powerful multitasking amazing tool man has ever created.
 Few tools can help you perform so many different tasks in so many areas of our lives
without computer.
 By itself, a computer has no intelligence and is referred to as hardware.
 A computer or computer system does not come to life without software, which refers to the
written instructions, or programs that tell the hardware how to perform a task or control the
operation of a computer.
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONIC DEVICES:

Criteria Electrical devices Electronic Devices
Type of Operating power AC DC
Power Requirement High Low
Heat generation Excessive Low
Cost High Low
Size Big Small
Space required More Less
Weight High Low
Need Transistor? Not necessary Must
Longevity/ Lifetime Short Long
Reliability Less More
Example Fan, Lamp, Motor etc. TV, Computer, Mobile Phone, Watch, etc.
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MAIN FEATURES OF A COMPUTER
a) Speed
 As the computer is electronic, its internal speed is virtually instantaneous.
 The speed of execution of operations by modern computer is several million operations per
second.
 The processing time of a computer varies a few microseconds (10-6) for small computers to
few nanoseconds (10-9) and for large ones even the picoseconds (10-12).
 The speed of a computer depends on the fact that how swiftly it can process a fixed amount
of data.
 Speed is measured by MIPS (Million of instructions per second).
b) Accuracy
 If there is no error in the given instruction and data, computer gives result accurately as well
as quickly.
c) Reliability
 Computer systems are widely accepted because of their exceptional reliability.
 Unlike most human, a computer is capable of operating under the most adverse conditions
for extended periods of time without showing any sign of fatigue.
 Computers consistently provide the same accurate result under all operating conditions. Of
course computers do break down and may require servicing.
d) High Storage Capability

 Computer can store a huge quantity of data and programs on its memory.
 It has the capability of storing data either permanently or temporarily.
e) Automatic Operation
 A machine is said to be automatic, if it works by itself without human intervention.
 Computers are automatic in operation. Once data and program are fed to a computer,
operation of the computer is automatic in the sequence of steps defined by the program (as
opposed to mechanical or electronic calculator in which operator‟s intervention is required).
 However, computers, being machines, can not start themselves. They have to be instructed.
f) Versatility
 Computers are extremely versatile, and are capable of performing almost any task, provided
that the task can be reduced to a series of logical steps.
 It can solve problems on various fields like complex scientific problems, business problem,
the problem of traffic at an airport, space-exploration etc.
g) Diligence
 A computer, being a machine, does not suffer from boredom, tiredness or lack of
concentration even if it has to work for long hours.
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 Thus, if a computer is to perform millions of calculations, it will perform the last calculation
with the same accuracy and perfection as it will do the first one.
h) No I.Q.
 A computer is not a magical device. It is not brainy than human.
 In fact, it possesses no intelligence of its own. Its IQ is zero, at least until today.
 It has to be told what to do and in what sequences.
 Hence, only the user can determine what tasks a computer will perform. A computer can not
take its own decision in this regards.
i) No Feelings
 Computers are devoid of emotions.
 They have no feelings and no instincts because they are machines.
 Based on our feelings, taste, knowledge, and experience, we often make certain judgements.
However, computers cannot make such judgements on their own. Their judgement is based
on the instructions given to them in the form of programs that are written by us.
FOR WHAT PURPOSES YOU SHOULD USE A COMPUTER?

Computers are used to solve problems very easily and very quickly without having any error on the
results. It is not expected to use computer in every task. We should use computers based on the
following purposes:
i) If the task to be solved is tremendous
ii) If it is very complex
iii) If you need the repetition of the task
iv) If same data is to be used in the task
v) If more accuracy is needed
SOME APPLICATION OF COMPUTERS ON VARIOUS FIELDS

 It is difficult to imagine a day that is not in some way affected by computers. It is changing
people‟s lives in the area as diverse as medicine, education, publishing, business, the home,
and transportation. Consider the following applications of computer.
 Computers have altered completely the structure of business. Large volume of accounting
and record keeping data can be manipulated, organized, stored, retrieved, and used for
specific purposes. Bills and statements are processed and sent to customers in much less
time and with much less effort than would be required for the same processes done
manually. Financial projections are made with greater ease. Planning and decision-making
become more efficient and accurate. In manufacturing industries, computer directs
production, guide machine tools, control quality, design parts and monitor inventories.
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 In modern offices, word processing saves time for people at all levels of the organization
and helps ensure accurate letters, reports and memos. Automated filing uses far less storage
space than endless stacks of paper and enables workers to retrieve documents rapidly when
they are needed.
 Modern banking and insurance would be impossible without the computer. More than 500
billion dollars a day is shifted electronically in the USA and 1000 billion dollars globally.
 Medical record keeping is vastly improved using computer. Information related to patient‟s
records, births, deaths, Blue Cross, Medicare, insurance malpractice, nurses‟ hours worked,
and dosages given all are carefully tracked by computer. Some computers are being
programmed to assist doctors with diagnoses by analyzing symptoms and the variables,
pertaining to a specific patient. Medical research is aided by computers that analyze data
and create reports.
 Computers analyze scientific data, test variables, and monitor experiments in almost every
scientific field. Computers assist engineers in designing and testing products of many kinds.
Computer simulations help avoid costly design errors.
 It would be difficult for the federal government to function without computers. Economic
and demographic statistics can be more easily collected, analyzed and reported. National
defense systems are guided and managed by computer systems.
 Global communication has been facilitated by the electronic transmission of data that
connects individuals, regardless of geographic location, almost instantaneously.
 These are only a few of the countless tasks or applications performed by computers.
CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS ACCORDING TO VARIOUS CRITERIA
Computer can be classified into three categories according to the working principle and the
technology being used. These are:
(i) Analog Computer
(ii) Digital Computer
(iii) Hybrid Computer
Computer can also be classified into four categories according to size, cost, processing speed,
storage capacity, types of tasks they can handle, types of hardware they contain, kinds of
software they can run etc. These are
(a) Super Computer
(b) Mainframe Computer
(c) Minicomputer
(d) Microcomputer
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ANALOG COMPUTER
 This type of computer works on the principle of measurement.
 In analog computers, the physical quantities such as temperature, pressure, acceleration,
power, force etc are represented by electrical current or voltage signal.
 In this computer, the analog electrical parameter will be continuously varying with the
continuous variation of its physical parameter. Such a continuous varying electrical voltage
is fed to as the input to the analog computer which are then manipulated using various
electronic modules such as inverters, comparators, summers, multipliers, integrators etc and
the results are measured and displayed by meters, oscilloscopes etc.
 Analog computers have many applications in scientific and industrial fields in stimulating
various physical systems or automatically controlling industrial process.
DIGITAL COMPUTER
 Digital computer works on the principle of counting.
 This computer operates on discrete numbers represented by a finite sequence of digits.
 In other words, a digital computer accepts discrete numbers as input and after performing
the desired operations on these numbers, it produces discrete numbers as output.
 Digital computers are the most widely used computers ever today. They break all types of
information into tiny units, and use numbers to represent those pieces of information.
HYBRID COMPUTER
 This type of computer combines the feature of both analog and digital computers.
 It has the speed of analog computer and the accuracy of digital computer.
 In many cases, a hybrid computer is an analog computer controlled by a digital computer
instead of human beings. For example, in an intensive care unit, analog device measures a
patent‟s heart-function, temperature, pressure and other vital signs. These measurements are
then converted into numbers and supplied to digital a component that monitors the patent‟s
vital signs.
 Hybrid computers are used only for special purpose applications such as aerospace and
process control.
COMPARISON OF ANALOG AND DIGITAL COMPUTERS

 Analog computer works on the principle of measurement, while, digital computer works on
the principle of counting.
 Data representation is different in analog and digital computers.
 Analog computer can take on any value over a continuous range, while digital computer can
take on only discrete values.
 In analog computer, the amplitude of the signal is an important factor, whereas, amplitude
of the signal is not important in digital computer because of its discrete nature.
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 An analog computer cannot perform logical operations, but a digital computer can do.
 Analog computer can never be extremely accurate, since physical quantities are always
difficult to measure precisely. But digital computers have almost an ultimate memory and
potentially a much higher accuracy. The precision of a digital computer can usually be made
as good as one desires by simply allocating memory space to hold the additional significant
figures in numbers.
 Differential equations and problems involving integration of continuous data are more
readily solved on analog computer. Whereas, problems involving large amount of data in
discrete form are most readily solved on digital computers.
 Since, the digital computer is uses binary number where exact value of voltage or current
are not important, it is easier to design than analog computer.
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SUPERCOMPUTER
 These are the largest and the most powerful computers available today in terms of
processing.
 Supercomputers have large memories and high processing speeds. They can process up to a
billion of instructions (operations) per seconds.
 The high speed in these computers is due to use of a number of processors working in
parallel (this is known as parallel processing) and high storage densities are obtained by
using magnetic bubble memories.
 These computers are used for complex scientific purposes such as in nuclear fission, NASA,
weather forecasting, defense research, space research etc.
 The primary disadvantage of supercomputer is their high cost. The software that runs on
them is also very expensive. Examples of supercomputers are: CYBER-205, CRAYXMP-
14, and CRAYYMP.
MAINFRAME COMPUTER
 Mainframe computers are larger than mini- and microcomputers and they usually have one
or more central processors.
 These computers have many terminals connected to them.
 They handle massive amount of input, output and storage.
 These computers are used where many people in a large organization need frequent access
to the same information, which is usually organized into one or more huge databases. Here
each user uses a terminal for accessing data into the mainframe computer.
 They are ideal for research organizations, large industries, bank and insurance company,
government organizations and large-scale on line reservation systems.
 Commonly used mainframe computers are: IBM 4300 series, HP 9000, Cyber 170 etc.
Note:
 Atomic Energy Commission of Bangladesh used a mainframe computer in the early 1980s
for the first time in Bangladesh.
 A terminal is a keyboard and screen wired to the mainframe computer. It does not have its
own CPU or storage; it is just an input/output (I/O) device that functions as a window into a
computer located somewhere else.
MINICOMPUTER
 These computers are smaller in size, and lower in cost than super- and mainframe
computers but slightly bigger in size, memory and speed compared to microcomputers.
 These computers are often referred as “mid-range computers” since their capabilities lie
between those of mainframe and microcomputers.
 Minicomputers are multi-user system. This means that more than one user can use the
computer system at the same time.
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 These computers are ideal for those organizations and companies that cannot afford or
don‟t need mainframe systems such as in industrial process control, engineering and
scientific research etc.
 Commonly used microcomputers are HP2000, IBM SYS/3, PDP11 etc.
MICROCOMPUTER
 These are the smallest and cheapest category of digital computers, which are widely used in
the world.
 It is called micro because of its miniature size and using of microprocessor.
 A microcomputer consists of a main microprocessor (a CPU on a chip), several support
microprocessors, and associated control unit, primary storage, secondary storage and a
variety of input/output devices.
 Computers of this category are supported by single-user operating system. This category is
further subdivided into a) Home computers and b) Personal computers (PC).
Home Computers:
 These computers are used for entertainment, education, training and for home
management.
 They have keyboard integrated with the CPU in one box, which is interfaced with an
ordinary color television to act as the VDU (video display unit) and an audio
cassette recorder to act as the secondary storage device.
 Examples of home computers are TSR-80, UNICORN etc.
Personal Computers:
 These computers are used by only one person at a time.
 These are often shared by several people, but not at the same time.
 They can be connected together to create networks.
 These computers are meant for professionals, small business units and for office
automation systems. Personal computers can be further subdivided into Desktop,
Laptop etc.
 The style of personal computer introduced first was the desktop model. Most
desktop computers are actually small enough to fit on a desk with monitor sitting on
the top of the system unit. In tower model of personal computer, the system unit sits
vertically with the monitor.
 The Laptop computer (also called note book computer) approximates the shape of an
8.5 by 11 inch notebook that can fit easily inside a briefcase. This computer can
operate on plug-in current or with special batteries. i.e. these computers are battery-
operated and hence can be used any time and any where. This computer is so called
because it can fit on the lap of a user.
*******************************************************************
*******************************************************************
 There are another computers also such as PDA (personal digital assistance), which
are the smallest of portable computers. PDAs are called Palmtop and are much less
powerful than Laptop or Desktop computers. They are normally used for special
applications such as creating small spreadsheets, displaying important telephone
numbers and addresses, keeping track of dates or agendas. Many PDAs can be
connected to larger computers to exchange data.
BASIC ELEMENTS OR COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER
Basically a computer system consists of 3 types of components. These are

i) Input Device,
ii) Central Processing Unit (CPU) and
iii) Output Device.
CPU comprises of 3 parts:

[a] Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU),
[b] Control Unit, and
[c] Memory.
The above three components of the CPU along with the input and output devices form the five
important components of any computer system.
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*******************************************************************
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF A TYPICAL COMPUTER/ BASIC ORGANIZATION OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM
 There are several types of computer systems, but each can be broken down into the same
functional units.
 Each unit performs specific functions and all units function together to carry out the
instructions given in the program.
 Figure shows the functional block diagram of a digital computer.
 The solid lines with arrows represent the flow of information and the dashed lines with
arrows represent the flow of timing and control signals.
ALU
(Arithmetic & Logic Unit)
From Operator To Operator

Input Device Memory Output Device
Control Unit
Central Processing Unit (CPU)
Figure: Functional block diagram of a computer/ basic organization of a computer system
BASIC FUNCTIONS OF EACH UNIT OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

The three components of the CPU (ALU, memory and control unit) along with the input and output
devices form the five important components of any computer system. Functions of these
components are described here briefly.
(I) INPUT DEVICE

 Through this unit, a complete set of instructions and data is fed into the computer system
and into the memory unit, to be stored until needed.
 In short, the following functions are performed by an input device:
(i) It accepts data and instructions in a form understandable to human beings form the
outside world.
(ii) It converts these data and instructions into a computer acceptable form.
*******************************************************************
*******************************************************************
(iii) It supplies the converted instructions and data to the memory unit of the computer or
register unit of CPU for further processing.
Example of some input devices

Keyboard, mouse, trackball, trackpad, joystick, light-pen, microphone, modem, scanner, digital
camera, punch card, magnetic tape, magnetic disk, Optical Mark Reader (OMR), Optical Character
Recognition (OCR) etc.
(II) CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

This unit is like the brain of a computer.
It—
 accepts data and instructions from the input device (or from the software stored in its
memory),
 processes the data according to the given instructions,
 and finally stores the results of the operations in its memory or displays it in a suitable
output media such as monitor, printer etc.
 The CPU also controls the flow of data and information throughout the system.
(a) Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)

 All arithmetic calculations and logical decisions are performed in this unit.
 Data and instructions, stored in the primary memory before processing, are
transferred to the ALU as and when needed for processing.
 Intermediate results generated in the ALU are temporarily transferred back to
the primary memory, until needed later.
 After the processing is over, the ALU then sends result to the memory unit to be
stored either permanently or temporarily. Hence, data may move from primary
memory to ALU, and back again to main memory, many times, before the
processing is over.
(b) Memory
 The memory stores the instructions and data received from the input device.
 Information from the memory can be transferred to the ALU where comparisons
or calculations are done and the results are sent back to the memory unit.
 Memory also supplies information to the output unit.
 In short, the specific functions of the memory unit are:
(i) It holds (or stores) data and instructions received from the input
device for processing.
(ii) It holds (stores) intermediate results of processing.
(iii) It supplies final results to the output device
*******************************************************************
*******************************************************************
Examples of memory devices
Two types of memory devices are used in a computer system:
1. Primary memory
RAM (Random Access Memory) and ROM (Read Only Memory) are called
primary memory.
2. Secondary memory
Hard disk (HD), floppy disk (FD), compact disk (CD), digital versatile disk
(DVD), magnetic tape, flash disk (pen drive) etc are referred to as secondary
memory.
(c) Control Unit

 Although, control unit does not perform any actual processing on the data, it
acts as a central nervous system.
 It controls and coordinates the activities of all other units of a computer system.
 It takes instructions from the memory unit one at a time and interprets them. It
then sends appropriate signals to all other units to cause the specific instruction
to be executed.
 According to the stored instructions, the control unit ensures that the right
operation is done on the right data at the right time.
 The results that are stored in the memory can be transferred into human readable
form by means of an output device.
(III) OUTPUT DEVICE

 After the processing of data and instructions, the result must be made available in a human
readable form.
 The functions of an output device are:
(i) It accepts the results produced by the computer (which are in coded form, and hence,
can not be easily understood by human)
(ii) It converts these coded results to human acceptable form.
(iii) Finally it supplies the converted results to the user.
Example of some output devices

Monitor, printer, speaker, plotter etc.
*******************************************************************
*******************************************************************
ORGANIZATIONAL CHART OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM
Computer System
Hardware Software
Input Device CPU Output Device Application Soft System Soft
Word Processing OS
Direct Entry ID
ALU Hard-copy OD
Spreadsheet Analysis Utility soft
Pointing ID
Control Unit Soft-copy OD
Database Soft
Imaging ID
Memory Unit RAM Graphics Soft
Audio ID
Primary Mem
Presentation Design
ROM
Video ID Secondary Mem
Multimedia Soft
Hard Disk
CD
DVD
Pen Drive
Tape memory
*******************************************************************

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IT-1101 (IT Fundamentals) FOR IIT 1ST YEAR 1ST SEMESTER-2015 (46 BATCH)

CHAPTER-1: INTRODUCTORY CONCEPTS

THE HISTORY OF COMPUTERS

ABACUS: First Calculating Device

 Two fundamental concepts were associated with abacus:

(i) Numerical information can be represented in a physical form.

 Three different types of abacus were used.

 In the Chinese abacus,

 Figure shows a Chinese abacus representing the number 00011725

Figure: Chinese Abacus Figure: Soroban (Japanese Abacus)

NAPIER’S BONES: (By John Napier, a mathematician from Scotland)

SLIDE RULE: (By William Oughtred, an English mathematician)

 This is a calculating device based on the principles of logarithms.

 It was invented by an English Mathematician named William Oughtred.

Stepped Reckoner: (By Gottfried Leibniz, a German mathematician)

 Charles Babbage was a nineteenth century Professor at Cambridge University

 Unfortunately, Babbage was unable to produce a working model of this machine,

Ada: (First Programming Language by Augusta Ada Byron, 1815-1852)

 She found out some errors on Babbage‟s works.

 She also wrote some programs for Babbage‟s Analytical Engine.

 She was the first who developed program.

 Ada is the name of a programming Language with her name.

Boolean Algebra: (By George Boole, an English mathematician)

 An important theoretical development occurred between 1847 and 1854

 George Boole, an English Mathematician, developed an algebraic system called

Census Machine: (By Herman Hollerith, an American scientist)

 This machine was chosen for tabulating the 1890 census.

HISTORICAL EVOLUTION OF COMPUTERS

I. The Mark I Computer (1937-44): 1st Digital Computer

 This was the first fully automatic calculating machine

 It was designed by Howard A. Aiken of Harvard University, in collaboration with IBM

 It was an electro-mechanical device, since both mechanical and electronic components

 It could automatically perform a sequence of arithmetic operations.

 It measured 15 m long, 2.4 m high, and 0.6 m wide.

 It was capable of performing 5 basic arithmetic operations: addition, subtraction,

II. The Atanasoff-Berry (ABC) Computer (1939-42)

 This electronic machine was developed by Dr. John Atanasoff.

 It is used to solve certain mathematical equations.

III. The ENIAC (1943-46): 1st Electronic Computer

 It was constructed at the Moore School of Engineering of the University of

 This machine was developed at the Mathematical Laboratory of Cambridge University

 The problem introduced in the ENIAC was later overcome in EDSAC.

V. The UNIVAC I (1951) : 1st Commercially produced computer

 This computer could process numeric as well as alphanumeric data.

 The advancement of computer technology is generally grouped into 5 chronological

i) First Generation (1942-1955): Using vacuum tubes

Outstanding features of the 1st generation computers were:

Size : Size of the computer was large.

Space required : Lot of space was required for their storage.

Portability : They were non-portable.

Power : Lot of power was required to operate them.

Heat generation : Considerable heat was generated.

Maintenance : Constant maintenance is required as lifetime of tube generates

Cost : They were very expensive.

Time of : Execution speed was measured in milliseconds.

Programs written : Programs were written in machine language.

Reliability : Computers had little reliability.