Antioxidants and heart health

LO; understand the link between dietary antioxidants and the risk of
cardiovascular diseases (CVD)
Keyword
Antioxidant are molecules that inhibit the oxidation of other molecules
which can lead to chains of reaction that may damage cells.
Examples of antioxidants
i) Vitamin A –found in carrots
ii) Vitamin C-from citrus fruits
iii) Vitamin E-from leafy green vegetables, almonds and sunflower
-Antioxidants have many health benefits- including reducing the risk of
developing CVD’s -However there is some evidence that show
antioxidants may cause CVD’s.
CASE STUDY; VITAMIN C
ROLE OF VITAMIN C
 Important in the formation of connective tissue in the body e.g. in
the bones teeth skin and many internal body surfaces including
the endothelial lining of blood vessels.
 Lack of vitamin C in the diet causes scurvy, which can result in
bleeding gum, bruising easily and painful joints.
 As you have seen if the lining of the artery is damaged,
atherosclerosis is more likely to develop.
 So it makes sense in the theory that if your diet is low in vitamin c
your arteries are more likely to be damaged and you are more
likely to be affected by CVD.
 Recent studies have also shown that there is no relationship
between antioxidant properties of vitamin C and reducing risk of
 CVD studies also show that taking vitamin c supplements could
damage heart health, this is a good example of where there is a
contradictory evidence- and where scientists must look at all
evidence to avoid coming to wrong conclusions

Exercise
6) A person at a risk of cardiovascular disease may be given
medication to reduce their risk.
c) The graph below shows the relative risk of coronary heart
diseases plotted against the number of servings of fruit and
vegetable eaten per day.
i) People are advised to eat at least five servings of fruit and
vegetables per day. Justify the advice using the information in the
graph.
People who take pieces of fruits their risk is reduced by 0.9 so

ii) Suggest what evidence there is in the graph to modify the

advice

Health risk, correlation and cause

LO; a)Be able to analyze and interpret quantitative data on illness and
mortality rates to determine health risks
b)Distinguish between correlation and causation and recognize
conflicting evidence.
Keywords
Risk-the probability that an event will take place.
Correlation-a strong tendency for two sets of data to change together
Causation-when a factor directly causes a specific effect
 Health is the probability of one developing an illness.
 Infectious diseases affect one randomly- and there is nothing you
can do to change whether you are affected or not
 However non infectious diseases such as heart disease and
cancer, you can lower your risk of becoming ill based on factors in
your lifestyle

If you can understand the risk factors you can help to make
yourself and your family healthier

Health risk and correlation

 It is possible to identify the risk factors that may contribute to the
cause of a disease e.g. you can look at people who have the same
factors such as smoking and compare their risk of the disease with
the average risk of the whole population
 When two different sets of data change together, there may be
link which is called correlation.
 For example mortality data from a disease such as atherosclerosis
may change in a similar pattern to a lifestyle factor such as
smoking or lack of exercise
 However this does not prove that one is the cause of the other
 They could be caused by something else which would explain why
they change the same way.
Health risk and causation
 Correlation is not the same as causation
Investigating the causes of CVD’s
LO; Be able to evaluate the design of studies used to determine health
risk factors including sample selection and sample size used to collect
data that is both valid and reliable.
Designing studies
Most epidemiological studies are based on a very big sample size
usually the bigger the study, the more meaningful the results.
Evidence based on large amounts of data is more likely to be
statistically significant than evidence based on small studies. The ideal
is to investigate one factor of variable, keeping all the other variables
the same (controlled).
However, controlling variables is almost impossible when you are
working with human beings.
Some epidemiological studies are carried out over a long time
(longitudinal studies). They are very reliable because they follow the
same group of individuals over many years.
Evaluating scientific studies
a) Precision- you need to see if the measurements have been carried
out with precision (meaning measurements with little difference
between them.)
b) Reliability – The results have to be reliable – meaning the
investigation is repeated by other scientists who get similar
results.
c) Validity – The study must be properly designed to answer the
question(s) being asked. Validity answers question the scientists
are asking.
Clw pg 72 no 3 ©
Perception towards health risk
L.O Understand why people’s perception of risks are often different
from actual risks, including underestimating and overestimating the
risks due to diet and other lifestyle factors in the development heart
disease.
The actual risk of doing something is not always the same as the sense
of risk one feels. Personal perception of risk is based on a variety of
factors which include;
i) How familiar you are with the activity
ii) How much you enjoy the activity
iii) Whether or not you approve the activity
The actual mathematical risk may play very little part in developing
your personal perception of risk.
People often overestimate the benefits, or minimize the risk of
behavior that they want to continue with.
Examples
1. There is now a strong evidence from around the world that
obesity is linked to a range of diseases such as diabetes,
cardiovascular disease and some cancers. However people like
eating and so they still become overweight.
2. There is good scientific evidence that smoking affects our risk of
developing diseases e.g. atherosclerosis, as well as lung cancer.
However, knowledge of mathematics risk is an early death if you
smoke doesn’t always stop people from smoking
DIET AND CVDs
Lo; a) Be able to analyze data on the possible significance for health of
blood cholesterol levels and levels of high density lipopropreins (HDLs)
and low density lipoproteins (LDLs).
b) Know the evidence for a causal relationship between blood
cholesterol levels (total cholesterol and LDL cholesterol) and
cardiovascular disease.
Keywords
Low density proteins (LDLs): lipoproteins which transports lipids around
the body.
High density lipoproteins (HDLs) : lipoproteins which transport
cholesterol from body tissues to liver and can help reduce risk of CVDs.
Relationship between blood cholesterol levels of HDLs and LDLs
i) Low density lipoproteins (LDLs)
Are made from saturated fats, cholesterol and protein.
Binds to cell membrane before being taken into the cells
If there are high levels of some ldl’s your cell membranes become
saturated and so more cholesterol remains in your blood
ii) High-density lipoproteins (HDLs)
 Are made from unsaturated fats cholesterol and protein
 They carry cholesterol from body tissue to the liver to be broken
down

Obesity indicators
Lo; understand how people use scientific knowledge about the effect of
diet, including obesity indicators such as body mass index and waist to
hip ratio exercise and smoking to reduce the risk of coronary heart
disease

Keyword
Body mass index (BMI); a calculation to determine if you are healthy
weight by comparing your weight to your height in a simple formula.
 a) The body mass index (BMI)
Doctors and scientists look at your body mass index (BMI) to decide if
you are unhealthy or healthy.
This compares your weight and height in a simple formula.

BM= weight in kilograms/(height in metres)2

For an adult the following definition apply

Category BMI range kgm-2
Underweight Less than 18.5
Healthy weight From 18.5 to 25
Overweight From 25 to 30
Obese Over 30

b) Waist to hip ratio

 Scientist are finding that a simple waist to hip ratio is the best
measure of obesity and also the best way to predict an increased
risk of CVD’s
 Waist size gives a good indication of the amount of fat a person is
carrying.
 The waist is measured just above the navel and the hips at the
widest part of the hips.
 The size of the waist is then divided by the size of the hips.
Waist-to-hip-ratio = waist size (cm)/hip size (cm)

Gender Waist:hip ratio including obesity

 Male ˃0.00
Female ˃0.85

The benefits and risks of treatment

Keywords
Antihypertensive, diuretics, beta blockers, sympathetic nerve inhibitors,
ACE inhibitors, anticoagulant, and platelets inhibitory drugs.

1. Controlling blood pressure

High blood pressure (hypertension) is a major risk factor to
cardiovascular diseases.

a) Antihypertensive
They are drugs that reduce blood pressure.
Examples
1) Diuretics;
 Drugs which increase the volume of urine produced. This
eliminates the volume of urine produced. This eliminates
excess of fluids and salts so that blood volume decreases.
 With less blood smaller volume is pumped from the heart
and blood pressure falls.
2) Beta blockers
 Drugs which block the response of the heart to hormones
such adrenaline which normally act to speed up the heart
rate and increase blood pressure .
 So, beta blockers make the heart rate slower and the
contraction less strong so that blood pressure is lower.
3) sympathetic nerve inhibitors
 Drugs which inhibit sympathetic nerves keeping arteries
dilated and your blood pressure lower.
 Sympathetic nerves go from your CNS to all parts of your
body and they stimulate your arteries to constrict, which
raises your blood pressure
 Angiotensin is a hormone which stimulate the
constriction of your blood vessels and also cause the
blood pressure to rise.
4) ACE inhibitors
Drugs which block the production of angiotensin hormone
which reduces the constriction of your blood vessels and so
keeps your blood pressure lower.

Benefits;
Reduce the risk of CVD.
Reduce the damage of the kidneys, and eyes of high blood
pressure.
Risks
Blood pressure may become too low leading to falls and
injuries particularly elderly patients.

The benefits and risks of treatment

Side effects; coughs swelling of the arteries, impotence
tiredness, fatigue and constipation .

2) Controlling cholesterol level in the blood

Statins
o Drugs that lower cholesterol levels I the blood.
 o They block the enzyme in the liver that is responsible for
making cholesterol and are very effective at blocking the
production of LDL’s
o Improve the balance of LDL’s to HDL’s
o Reduce the inflammation in the lining of the arteries
o Both functions reduces atherosclerosis developing.

Risks
Side effects, nausea, constipation, diarrhea.

Anticoagulant and platelet inhibitory Drugs

a) Anticoagulant
 Anticoagulant is a substance that interferes with the
manufacture of prothrombin in the body.
 Low prothrombin levels makes the blood clot less
easily
 An example is warfarin
b) Platelets
 They are drugs used to prevent blood clots forming by
preventing platelets clumping together.
 They make the platelets less sticky and so reduce the
clotting ability of blood.
 Example is aspirin (which is cheapest) and clopidogrel
 The risks of aspirin are; irritates the stomach lining and
causes bleeding in the stomach

Membranes proteins and gene expression

a) Properties of gas exchange surfaces
LO; i) describe the properties of gas exchange surfaces.
 ii) Understand how the rate of diffusion is dependent on those
properties and how they can be calculated using Fick’s law of diffusion
o Gas exchange systems are specialized for the exchange of oxygen and
carbon dioxide between the body and the organism and the
environment
o The gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) are exchanged by simple
diffusion

Factor that control the rate of diffusion across a membrane

I. The suface area
The bigger the surface area the more particles can be exchanges at the
same time

II. The concentration gradient of the particles diffusing

o Particles diffuse from an area where they are at relatively high
concentration to an area where they are relatively low concentration
o This means that, the more particles they are on one side of the membrane
compared with the other, the factor they move across
o Maintaining the gradient (e.g by transporting substances away once they
have diffused) makes diffusion faster.

III. The thickness of the exchange surfaces

The shorter the diffusion distance the faster the diffusion can take place

Fick’s law of diffusion

Ca be used to calculate the rate at which substances of a given size will diffuse at
a known temperature

Rate of diffusion=surface area x concentration difference÷thickness of exchange

membrane/ bariers

Note; any factor which makes…

The mammalian heart

LO; understand how the structure of the mammalian lung is
adopted for rapid gaseous exchange.

Structures & Functions in the Gas Exchange System

Table
Thorax Structures Table

The structure of the membranes

LO; I ) describe the structure and properties of the cell membrane.

ii) describe the fluid mosaic model of the cell membrane.

Keywords
 Fluid mosaic model
Phospholipids
Cholesterol
Glycoproteins
Glycolipids
Transport proteins

The Fluid Mosaic Model of Membranes

 The fluid mosaic model of membranes was first outlined in 1972 and it
explains how biological molecules are arranged to form cell membranes
 The fluid mosaic model also helps to explain:
o Passive and active movement between cells and their surroundings
o Cell-to-cell interactions
 o Cell signalling
 The fluid mosaic model describes cell membranes as ‘fluid’ because:
o The phospholipids and proteins can move around via diffusion
o The phospholipids mainly move sideways, within their own layers
o The many different types of proteins interspersed throughout the
bilayer move about within it (a bit like icebergs in the sea)
although some may be fixed in position
 The fluid mosaic model describes cell membranes as ‘mosaics’ because:
o The scattered pattern produced by the proteins within the
phospholipid bilayer looks somewhat like a mosaic when viewed
from above
 The fluid mosaic model of membranes includes four main components:
o Phospholipids
o Cholesterol
o Glycoproteins and glycolipids
o Transport proteins

Phospholipids

 Phospholipids form the basic structure of the membrane (the phospholipid

bilayer)
 The tails form a hydrophobic core comprising the innermost part of both
the outer and inner layer of the membrane
 Phospholipids bilayers act as a barrier to most water-soluble
substances (the non-polar fatty acid tails prevent polar molecules or ions
from passing across the membrane)
 This ensures water-soluble molecules such as sugars, amino acids and
proteins cannot leak out of the cell and unwanted water-soluble molecules
cannot get in
 Phospholipids can be chemically modified to act as signalling molecules by:
o Moving within the bilayer to activate other molecules (eg. enzymes)
o Being hydrolysed, which releases smaller water-soluble molecules
that bind to specific receptors in the cytoplasm

Cholesterol
  Cholesterol increases the fluidity of the membrane, stopping it from
becoming too rigid at low temperatures (allowing cells to survive at lower
temperatures)
 This occurs because cholesterol stops the phospholipid tails packing too
closely together
 Interaction between cholesterol and phospholipid tails also stabilises the
cell membrane at higher temperatures by stopping the membrane from
becoming too fluid
o Cholesterol molecules bind to the hydrophobic tails of phospholipids,
stabilising them and causing phospholipids to pack more closely
together
o The impermeability of the membrane to ions is also affected by
cholesterol
 Cholesterol increases the mechanical strength and stability of
membranes (without it membranes would break down and cells burst)

Glycolipids and glycoproteins

 Glycolipids and glycoproteins contain carbohydrate chains that exist on the

surface (the periphery/extrinsically), which enables them to act as receptor
molecules
o The glycolipids and glycoproteins bind with certain substances at the
cell’s surface
 There are three main receptor types:
o Signalling receptors for hormones and neurotransmitters
o Receptors involved in endocytosis
o Receptors involved in cell adhesion and stabilisation (as the
carbohydrate part can form hydrogen bonds with water molecules
surrounding the cell
 Some glycolipids and glycoproteins act as cell markers or antigens, for cell-
to-cell recognition (eg. the ABO blood group antigens are glycolipids and
glycoproteins that differ slightly in their carbohydrate chains)

Transport proteins

 Transport proteins create hydrophilic channels to allow ions and polar

molecules to travel through the membrane. There are two types:
o Channel (pore) proteins
 o Carrier proteins
 Carrier proteins change shape to transport a substance across
the membrane
 Each transport protein is specific to a particular ion or molecule
 Transport proteins allow the cell to control which substances enter or leave

The main components of cell membranes. The distribution of the proteins within the membrane
gives a mosaic appearance and the structure of the proteins determines their position in the
membrane.

CORE PRACTICAL 3;
AIM; investigate the membrane properties including the effect on alcohol on
temperature on membrane permeability.
 C-change-independent variable
 O-organism
 R-reliability
 M-measure-dependent variable
 M-time
 S-control
Beetroot can be used to investigate the permeability of cell membranes since
when its cell membranes are damaged a colored pigment that gives beetroot its
purple color leaks out.
The higher the permeability of the membrane the more pigment is released
outside of cells. The permeability of cell membranes is affected by a number of
factors including temperature, alcohol and solvent concentration.

Independent variable; temperature or alcohol concentration

Dependent variable; absorbance reading of liquid
Equipment list
 Beetroot
 Scalpel
 4 test tubes
 Colorimeter
 Cuvettes
 Stopwatch
 Water baths
 Pipette
Method
The following method describes how to investigate how cell membranes
permeability changes with temperature, the effect of alcohol can also be
investigated by placing the beetroot cubes in solution containing differing
concentrations of ethanol instead, and then following the same colorimetry
technique.
1. Use the scalpel to cut 4 equal pieces of beetroot from the same beetroot
and rinse each piece with water to remove any pigment already released
from the cutting
2. Use pipette to fill 4 test tubes with 5cm³ of water and place a cube of
beetroot in each test tube.
3. Place of each of the test in a water bath at the following temperatures -
0°C, 20°C, 40°C and 60°C remove the test tubes from the water baths after
exactly 5 minutes and remove the beetroot pieces leaving only the colored
liquid.
4. Set up the colorimeter by giving it 5 minutes to stabilize and by first
measuring its absorbance with pure water in a cuvette. Then use a pipette
to fill a cuvette with liquid from each of the 4 tubes to measure and record
their absorbance with the colorimeter.
5. Plot a graph of temperature against absorbance.

Risk assessment
Hazard Risk Precaution
Broken glass Cuts from sharp objects Take care when handling
glass objects
Keep away from edge of
desk
Ethanol Highly flammable and Keep away from naked
volatile flames and extreme heat
Put the lid once used
Keep away from edge of
desk

Result table
Temperature (°C) Colorimeter absorbance
0
20
40
60

Alcohol Colorimeter absorbance

concentration(mol/dm³)

Conclusion
Temperature
 Below 0°C –Ice crystals forming the membrane, piercing it and allowing
molecules including beetroot pigment to leak out.
 0°C-40°C- As temperature increases the phospholipids in the membrane
gain kinetic energy and move more, increasing the permeability.
 Over 40°C-Proteins in the membrane deform at high temperatures meaning
they cannot control what goes in and out of the cell – increase membrane
permeability
Futhermore, the phospholipi