Analysis of Charge-to-Mass Ratio
John Freeman, Luis Rufino
Department of Physics, University of Utah
Introduction
The charge and mass of an electron are extremely small
relative to human size. So how did humans go about
determining these values? To better understand where
physics is, we looked to understand where it’s been. In
1865, James Clark Maxwell published his famous equations
in "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field". In
1905, Einstein published his postulates of special relativity
in "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies". This analysis
explores some experiments and resulting applications that
transitioned classical electrodynamics into the beginning of
relativistic particle physics.
History
Early cathode ray tube and beta decay experiments
verified the existence of the electron as a charged particle
with mass. The charge-to-mass ratio was found to be
dependent on the electrons velocity; as the velocity increases
the charge-to-mass ratio decreases. The procedures and
discoveries of these experiments verified revolutionary
relative physics, and consequently, are fundamental models
of numerous applications such as imaging technology,
medical diagnosis, and high energy colliders.
Figure 1: A Cathode Ray Tube with a deflecting magnetic field.
Entanglementhttps://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cathode_ray_tube_diagram-en.svg
Experiments
JJ Thomson’s Cathode Ray Tube Experiment (1897)
Thomson discovered the charge-to mass ratio of the electron, and
suggested that atoms are made up of individual particles. He did this by
experimenting with a cathode ray tube: an electrode inside a low pressure
tube consisting of a heated cathode filament and an electric field
generating anode which produces a visible electron beam. Deflection of
the beam can be measured with a phosphorescent screen as shown in
Figure 1. Thomson proposed that the electromagnetic field was
contributing to the mass of charged particles, which he called the
electromagnetic mass [1]. The term electromagnetic mass has evolved
into a more complete definition of energy-moment invariance, affecting
charged and uncharged particles alike.
Kaufmann–Bucherer–Neumann experiments(1901-1915)
Kaufmann discovered the electron charge-to-mass ratio decreases with
increasing velocity [2]. Leading physicists advocated for the
electromagnetic mass, and the geometry of charge orientation to explain
this phenomenon. Einstein proposed that the electrons are pointlike, and
that the change of mass was due to the changes between reference
frames [3]. Many set out to find a mathematical equation that modeled
the electromagnetic mass as a function of velocity; one of which, is the
famous Lorentz-Einstein equation. Early experiments disagreed with the
special theory of relativity.
Bucherer added precision to Kaufmann’s experiment by utilizing a Wien
Filter (velocity selector). Using the relation E/B = v, a combination of fields
could deflect charged particles within a smaller range of a predetermined
velocity. Bucherer also made the correction of orientating the electric and
magnetic field orthonormal to each other [4][5]. The Lorentz-Einstein
formula (Lorentz factor) showed a non varying rest mass, verifying the
relativity principle: that the laws of physics are invariant in all inertial
frames of reference. Neumann, and many others after, reconducted the
charge-to-mass ratio experiments to greater precision. Special relativity
tests are still conducted routinely in colliders today.
Millikan Oil Drop Experiment (1909)
Determined the elementary electric charge by ionizing oil droplets
within a horizontal parallel plate capacitor. A voltage is applied to suspend
the droplets in gravitational equilibrium. The charge can be determined by
the capacitors voltage by F=qV, neglecting gravitational force due to the
difference in mass [6].
Applications
Imaging Technology
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) protons are very abundant in the
human body, and it introduces a strong magnetic field. The protons align
with the field, then a technician introduces a radiofrequency that changes
the disrupt the proton to a 90 or 180 degree, and once the pulse is turned
off, the protons realign with the magnetic field releasing energy. The MRI
can detect this energy and can differentiate different tissues based on
how quickly they release energy when the pulse is turned off.
Medical Diagnosis
A cyclotron is a type of particle accelerator that repeatedly propels a
beam of charged particles (protons) in a circular path. Medical
radioisotopes are made from non-radioactive materials (stable isotopes)
which are bombarded by these protons. When the proton beam interacts
with the stable isotopes, a nuclear reaction occurs, making the stable
isotopes radioactive isotopes (radioisotopes). These are used to produce
radioisotopes for a type of medical drug called radiopharmaceuticals,
which diagnose and treat cancer because cyclotron-produced
radiopharmaceuticals are very efficient in detecting various cancers, which
is a form of medical imaging. There are over 1500 cyclotron facilities
around the world [7].
Particle Accelerator (Atom smashers)
Particle collision can teach us fundamental rules that govern matter. A
Atom Smasher works by accelerating charged particles close to the speed
of light through a electric field, and magnetic field is used to make these
particles go in a circle. The science is quite simple. break thing apart and
hope to understand how they tick. The charge to mass ratio experiment
probably fathered the idea of a particle accelerator leading to huge
discoveries such as the discovery of the Higgs Boson.
References
[1]Thomson, J. J. (1881), "On the Electric and Magnetic Effects produced by the Motion of Electrified Bodies" ,
Philosophical Magazine, 5, 11 (68): 229–249, doi:10.1080/14786448108627008
[2]Kaufmann, W. (1901), "Die magnetische und elektrische Ablenkbarkeit der Bequerelstrahlen und die
scheinbare Masse der Elektronen", Göttinger Nachrichten (2): 143–168
[3]Einstein, Albert (1905), "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter Körper" (PDF), Annalen der Physik, 322 (10): 891–921,
Bibcode:1905AnP...322..891E, doi:10.1002/andp.19053221004, hdl:10915/2786. See also: English translation.
[4]Bucherer, A. H. (1908), "Messungen an Becquerelstrahlen. Die experimentelle Bestätigung der
Lorentz-Einsteinschen Theorie. (Measurements of Becquerel rays. The Experimental Confirmation of the
Lorentz-Einstein Theory)", Physikalische Zeitschrift, 9 (22): 755–762
[5]Bucherer, A. H. (1909). "Die experimentelle Bestätigung des Relativitätsprinzips". Annalen der Physik. 333 (3):
513–536.
[6] Millikan, R. A. (1913). "On the Elementary Electrical Charge and the Avogadro Constant" (PDF). Physical
Review. Series II.
7]https://accelconf.web.cern.ch/c81/papers/gi-03.pdf