Reed Wicander - Historical Geology - Part 3

Figure 17.
18 Four Stages in the Evolution of the Great Lakes As the glacial ice retreated northward, the lake
▼
basins began filling with meltwater.
14,000 Years Ago 9,000 Years Ago
ICE
ICE
Lake Chicago Lake

Elev. 640’ Algonquin
Early Lake
Elev. 605’ Early Lake Erie
Lake Maumee Ontario
Elev. 780’ Elev. 540’
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and the Great Lakes Commission, 1999.
7,000 Years Ago 4,000 Years Ago
ICE
Nipissing Stage
Elev. 605’
Otta
wa
Lake Stanley Ri
Elev. 200’ ver
iver
nce R
St La wre
Lake Chippewa Illinois
Elev. 230’ river
Early Lake Ontario
Early Lake Erie
Elev. 640’ U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Detroit District
irregularities in Earth’s rotation and orbit are sufficient to third aspect of Earth’s orbit, precession of the equinoxes,
alter the amount of solar radiation received at any given high latitudes might receive as much as 15% less solar
latitude and hence bring about climate changes. Now called radiation, certainly enough to affect glacial growth and
the Milankovitch theory, his proposal was initially ignored melting.
but received renewed interest in the 1970s and presently is This precession of the equinoxes refers to a change in
widely accepted. the time of the equinoxes. At present, the equinoxes take
Milankovitch attributed the onset of the Pleistocene Ice place on about March 21 and September 21, when the Sun
Age to variations in three aspects of Earth’s orbit. The first is directly over the equator. But as Earth rotates on its axis,
is orbital eccentricity, which is the degree to which Earth’s it also wobbles as its axial tilt varies 1.5 degrees from its
orbit around the Sun changes over time ( Figure 17.19a). current value, thus changing the time of the equinoxes.
▼
When the orbit is nearly circular, both the Northern and Taken alone, the time of the equinoxes has little climatic
Southern Hemispheres have similar contrasts between the effect, but changes in Earth’s axial tilt also change the
seasons. However, if the orbit is more elliptic, hot summers times of aphelion and perihelion, which are, respectively,
and cold winters will occur in one hemisphere, whereas when Earth is farthest from and closest to the Sun during
warm summers and cool winters will take place in the its orbit (Figure 17.19c). Earth is now at perihelion, closest
other hemisphere. Calculations indicate a roughly 100,000- to the Sun, during Northern Hemisphere winters, but in
year cycle between times of maximum eccentricity, which about 11,000 years, perihelion will be in July. Accordingly,
corresponds closely to the 20 warm–cold climatic cycles Earth will be at aphelion, farthest from the Sun, in January
that took place during the Pleistocene. and have colder winters.
Milankovitch also pointed out that the angle between Continuous variations in Earth’s orbit and axial tilt
Earth’s axis and a line perpendicular to the plane of Earth’s cause the amount of solar heat received at any latitude
orbit shifts about 1.5 degrees from its current value of to vary slightly through time. The total heat received by
23.5 degrees during a 41,000-year cycle (Figure 17.19b). the planet changes little, but according to Milankovitch
Although changes in this axial tilt have little effect on (and now many scientists agree), these changes caused
equatorial latitudes, they strongly affect the amount of complex climatic variations and provided the triggering
solar radiation at high latitudes and the duration of the mechanism for the glacial–interglacial episodes of the
dark period at and near Earth’s poles. Coupled with the Pleistocene.
What Caused Pleistocene Glaciation? 359
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▼ Figure 17.19 Milankovitch Theory According to the Milankovitch amount of energy Earth receives from the Sun. The
theory, minor irregularities in Earth’s rotation and orbit may affect climatic latter could result from the solar system passing
changes.
through clouds of interstellar dust and gas or from
substances in the atmosphere reflecting solar radia-
tion back into space. Records kept during the past
90 years indicate that during this time, the amount
of solar radiation has varied only slightly. Although
variations in solar energy may influence short-term
climatic events, such a correlation has not been
demonstrated.
During large volcanic eruptions, tremendous
(a) Earth's orbit varies from nearly a circle (left) to an eclipse (right) amounts of ash and gases are spewed into the atmo-
and back again in about 100,000 years. sphere, where they reflect incoming solar radiation
and thus reduce atmospheric temperatures. Small
Axis in approximately droplets of sulfur gases remain in the atmosphere
Axis now 11,000 years for years and can have a significant effect on cli-
mate. Several large-scale volcanic events that have
occurred, such as the 1815 eruption of Tambora,
are known to have had climatic effects. However, no
23.5
relationship between periods of volcanic activity and
glaciation has yet been established.
Glaciers Today
At present, glaciers are more restricted in their aerial
coverage than they were during the Pleistocene, but
they nevertheless remain potent agents of erosion,
sediment transport, and deposition. As noted, the
(b) Earth moves around its orbit while rotating on its axis, which is tilted only ones of continental extent now are in Greenland
to the plane of its orbit around the Sun at 23.5 degrees and points to
the North Star. Earth's axis, or rotation, slowly moves and traces out a and Antarctica, but small valley glaciers are numer-
cone in space. ous at high latitudes and high elevations and even near
Conditions now the equator. In the continental United States, Wash-
ington State has the most valley glaciers followed by
January July California, Wyoming, Montana, and Oregon. Only
these states have glaciers large enough to be evaluated
by satellite images, although Colorado has some gla-
(c) At present, Earth is closest to the Sun in January (top), when the
Northern Hemisphere experiences winter. In about 11,000 years,
ciers and Nevada and Utah have one each. Of course,
however, as a result of precession, Earth will be closer to the Sun in Alaska has thousands of glaciers. Canada has numer-
July (bottom), when summer occurs in the Northern Hemisphere. ous glaciers, too, although no one knows how many,
especially in the Northern Rocky Mountains and the
Conditions in about 11,000 years coastal mountains of British Columbia and the Yukon
Territory ( Figure 17.20).
▼
July January Even though now considerably restricted, gla-

ciers cover about 10% of Earth’s land surface. Keep
in mind that glaciers are also one reservoir in the
hydrologic cycle. Scientists continually monitor
many glaciers to better understand the dynamics of
moving bodies of ice, and scientists are also interested in
Short-Term Climatic Events glaciers as indicators of short-term climatic changes (see
Climatic events with durations of several centuries, such as the Perspective). Another notable aspect of glaciers is their
Little Ice Age, are too short to be accounted for by plate tec- scenic appeal. Glaciers are interesting to tourists and
tonics or Milankovitch cycles. Several hypotheses have been sightseers, but so is the topography resulting from gla-
proposed, including variations in solar energy and volcanism. cial erosion and deposition. Several national parks in the
Variations in solar energy could result from changes United States and Canada owe their spectacular scenery to
within the Sun or from anything that would reduce the the effects of glaciation.
360 Chapter 17 Cenozoic Earth History
Figure 17.20 The Kaskawulsh Glacier in Kluane National Park, deposits accumulated in Utah, in Death Valley, and in adja-
▼
Yukon Territory, Canada Spectacular view of two arms of the Kas- cent basins in southern California. In some areas, halite is
kawulsh glacier where they merge to form a large flowing body of
ice. The dark stripes on the glacier’s surface are lateral and medial
mined from these deposits, and borax, one of California’s
moraines. most valuable mineral commodities, was deposited in several
lakes. Borax is used in ceramics, fertilizers, glass, solder,
and pharmaceuticals.
In many U.S. states as well as Canadian provinces,
the most valuable mineral commodity is sand and gravel
used in construction, much of which is recovered from
glacial deposits, especially outwash. These same com-
modities are also recovered from deposits on the con-
tinental shelves and from stream deposits unrelated to
glaciation. Silica sand is used in the manufacture of glass,
and fine-grained glacial lake deposits are used to manu-
facture bricks and ceramics.
The California Gold Rush of the late 1840s and early
1850s was fueled by the discovery of Pleistocene and
Holocene placer deposits of gold in the American River
Sue Monroe
(see Chapter 14). Most of the $200 million in gold mined
in California from 1848 to 1853 came from placer depos-
its. Discoveries of gold placer deposits in the Yukon
Territory of Canada were primarily responsible for set-
Quaternary Mineral tlement of that area.
Peat consisting of semi-carbonized plant material
Resources in bogs and swamps is an important resource that has
been exploited in Canada and Ireland. It is burned as
Recall that during the Pleistocene, numerous pluvial lakes a fuel in some areas but also finds other uses, as in
existed in the southwestern United States. When these gardening.
lakes evaporated as the climate became more arid, vast salt
Summary
•• The most recent part of geologic time is the Quaternary tier of states, and in many mountain ranges where valley
Period (2.6 million years ago to the present), which con- glaciers were present.
sists of two epochs, the Pleistocene and the Holocene. •• The tremendous weight of Pleistocene glaciers caused isostatic
•• Although the Pleistocene is best known for widespread subsidence of Earth’s crust. When the glaciers melted, isostatic
glaciers, it was also a time of volcanism and tectonism. rebound began and continues even now in some areas.
•• Pleistocene glaciers covered about 30% of the land surface •• Major glacial episodes separated by tens or hundreds of
and were most widespread on the Northern Hemisphere millions of years probably stem from changing positions
continents. of plates, which in turn profoundly affects oceanic and
•• Several intervals of extensive Pleistocene glaciation took atmospheric circulation patterns.
place in North America, each separated by interglacial •• According to the Milankovitch theory, minor changes in
stages. Fossils and oxygen isotope data indicate about 20 Earth’s rotation and orbit bring about climatic changes
warm–cold cycles occurred during the Pleistocene. that produce glacial–interglacial intervals.
•• Areas far beyond the ice were also affected by Pleistocene •• The causes of short-term climatic changes such as those
glaciers: climate belts were compressed toward the equator; that occurred during the Little Ice Age are unknown; two
large pluvial lakes existed in what are now arid regions; proposed causes are variations in the amount of solar
and when glaciers were present, sea level was as much as energy and volcanism.
130 m lower than now. •• Pleistocene mineral resources include sand and gravel,
•• Moraines, striations, outwash, and various other glacial placer deposits of gold, and some evaporite minerals such
landforms are found throughout Canada, in the northern as borax.
Summary 361
Important Terms
cirque, p. 352 interglacial stage, p. 347 outwash, p. 354
continental glacier, p. 345 isostasy, p. 355 pluvial lake, p. 356
end moraine, p. 354 isostatic rebound, p. 356 pollen analysis, p. 350
glacial stage, p. 347 Little Ice Age, p. 351 proglacial lake, p. 357
glacier, p. 345 Milankovitch theory, p. 359 U-shaped glacial trough, p. 352
ice cap, p. 345 moraine, p. 352 valley glacier, p. 345
ice-scoured plain, p. 352 neoglaciation, p. 351 varve, p. 357
Review Questions
1. A moraine is 7. After observing a glacier for several years, you conclude
a. a ridge-like accumulation of sediment deposited (1) that the glacier’s terminus has retreated 2 km, and yet
directly by glacial ice; b. a dark-and-light couplet (2) debris on the glacier’s surface has moved 1 km toward
of fine-grained sediment; c. a type of pluvial lake; the terminus. How can you explain these observations?
d. a landform resulting from valley glacier erosion; 8. How does the Milankovitch theory account for the onset
e. the subdued topography yielded by the abrasion of glacial ages?
action of continental glaciers. 9. What kinds of evidence do geologists rely on to deter-
2. An important area of Pleistocene and Holocene volca- mine the climates of the Pleistocene?
nism in North America is the 10. The image below shows the terminus of the Lowell Gla-
a. Great Plains; b. San Andreas Fault; cier in Canada. Identify and explain the origin of the de-
c. Cascade Range; d. Gulf Coastal Plain; posits of sediment indicated on the image.
e. Appalachian Mountains.
3. Glaciers move by a combination of and .
a. saltation/abrasion; b. plastic flow/basal slip;
c. isostasy/outwash; d. recession/surging;
e. erosion/deposition.
4. A fairly recent episode of advancing glaciers and cooler cli-
mates from the 1500s to the mid- to late-1800s is called the
a. Pleistocene Rejuvenation; b. Little Ice Age; Lowell
glacier
c. Miocene Glacial Advance; d. Glacial Lake
Missoula flood; e. Agassiz Glacial Surge.
5. The Pleistocene and Holocene epochs are encompassed Deposits of
sand and
by the Period.
gravel
a. Quaternary; b. Miocene; c. Recent;
d. Periglacial; e. Neolithic.
James S. Monroe
6. What are pluvial and proglacial lakes? Give an example
of each.
362 Chapter 17 Cenozoic Earth History
18
Kent Sundell
Restoration of Archaeotherium, a large, hoofed mammal that lived from the Eocene to Oligocene. This animal is sometimes referred to as
a “killer pig” because of its slight resemblance to pigs and how it may have preyed on other mammals as shown here. But it was probably
an omnivore. Archaeotherium was a member of a group of mammals called entelodonts; it stood 1.2 m high and probably weighed 270 kg.
Entelodonts existed for about 20 million years before they went extinct during the Early Miocene.
Life of the Cenozoic Era

Outline
Introduction A Brief History of the Primates
The Meat Eaters—Carnivorous Mammals
Marine Invertebrates and Phytoplankton
The Ungulates, or Hoofed Mammals
Cenozoic Vegetation and Climate
Giant Land-Dwelling Mammals—Elephants
Cenozoic Birds Giant Aquatic Mammals—Whales
The Age of Mammals Begins Pleistocene Faunas
Perspective Fossil Forests Ice Age Mammals
Monotremes and Marsupial Mammals Pleistocene Extinctions
Diversification of Placental Mammals Intercontinental Migrations
Paleogene and Neogene Mammals Summary
Small Mammals—Insectivores, Rodents, Rabbits, and Bats
363
Chapter Objectives the surface and they have been little altered. Furthermore,
At the end of this chapter, you will have learned that many contain fossils; so our knowledge of life history for
this time is also better understood. The Cenozoic, the most
• Survivors of the Mesozoic extinctions evolved and gave rise to recent 66 million years, makes up only 1.4% of all geologic
the present-day invertebrate marine fauna.
time (see Figure 8.1) but was long enough for significant
• Angiosperms continued to diversify and to dominate land-plant changes to take place in Earth’s biota.
communities, but seedless vascular plants and gymnosperms In the Cenozoic seas, the marine invertebrates that
are still common. survived the end-of-Mesozoic extinctions diversified
• Many of today’s families and genera of birds evolved, and large, once again, giving rise to the present-day familiar marine
flightless birds were important Cenozoic predators. fauna. The flowering plants (angiosperms) continued to
evolve and now make up more than 90% of land plant
• If we could visit the Paleocene, many of the mammals would be
species. Birds had evolved by the Jurassic, but the families
unfamiliar, but more familiar ones evolved during the following
now common evolved during the Paleogene and Neogene,
epochs.
reached their greatest diversity during the Pleistocene, and
• Small mammals such as rodents, rabbits, insectivores, and bats have declined slightly since then. Recall from Chapter 15
adapted to the microhabitats unavailable to larger mammals. that some of the Mesozoic mammals differed little from
• Carnivorous mammal fossils are not as common as those of their cynodont ancestors, but as they evolved, they diversi-
herbivores, but there are enough to show their evolutionary fied into many lineages and adapted to nearly all terrestrial
trends and relationships to one another. habitats as well as aquatic environments. In addition, one
group, the bats, became the only mammals to fly.
• The evolutionary histories of odd-toed and even-toed hoofed
mammals are well documented by fossils.
The fossil record is very good for several mammal
lineages, especially for the hoofed mammals (horses, rhinoc-
• Today’s giant land mammals (elephants) and giant marine eroses, camels, and several others) as well as for elephants and
mammals (whales) evolved from small Early Cenozoic ancestors. whales. In fact, the so-called missing links we discussed
• Extinctions at the end of the Pleistocene Epoch were most in Chapter 7 are not missing at all, a fact that is easily
severe in the Americas and Australia, and the animals most demonstrated by those lineages noted here. Widespread
affected were large land-dwelling mammals. exposures of Cenozoic rocks deposited in continental
environments are present in the western part of North
• As Pangaea continued to fragment during the Cenozoic, inter-
continental migrations became increasingly difficult.
America. However, there are not as many in the eastern
part of the continent, Florida being an exception, although
• A Late Cenozoic land connection formed between North and Alabama and Louisiana have fossils of whales.
South America, resulting in migrations in both directions. One of the most remarkable fossil sites anywhere is the
Eocene-age Messel Pit fossil site in Germany. In addition
to the 10,000 or so fossil fish, thousands of insects have
been found, as well as birds, amphibians, reptiles, and
Introduction mammals of many kinds (including anteaters, marsupi-
als, carnivores, bats, rodents, and early hoofed mammals).
In Chapters 16 and 17, both of which discussed Cenozoic Fossil mammals are featured in several of the national
Earth history, we emphasized that Earth’s familiar features parks and monuments and state parks in North America,
developed during that time. The Cenozoic was also the time including John Day Fossil Beds, Oregon; Badlands, South
during which Earth’s flora and fauna become more like it Dakota; and Ashfall Fossil Beds State Historical Park,
is now. Indeed, in several previous chapters, we discussed Nebraska ( Figure 18.1).
▼
many animals that, if they could be resurrected, would be

quite strange to us. These include trilobites, fishes unlike
any existing now, scorpion-like marine predators (eurypter-
ids), and many of the Mesozoic reptiles. The same is true of Marine Invertebrates
land plants; a Triassic-age forest would contain few elements
with which we are familiar. In fact, if we could visit the Early
and Phytoplankton
Cenozoic (the Paleocene Epoch, for example), we would The Cenozoic marine ecosystem was populated by plants,
recognize several of the land animals as mammals, but animals, and single-celled organisms that survived the ter-
most of them would be unlike the ones we recognize today minal Mesozoic extinction. Gone were the ammonites, the
(see chapter opening photo). The ancestors of rhinoceroses, rudists, and most of the planktonic foraminifera. They were
whales, and elephants, for example, would show little resem- replaced with taxa that are common and familiar elements
blance to their more recent descendants. of today’s marine invertebrate fauna. Especially prolific
Remember from our previous discussions that Cenozoic Cenozoic invertebrate groups included the foraminifera,
Earth history is better known than preceding eras because radiolarians, corals, bryozoans, mollusks, and echinoids.
Cenozoic-age rocks are more easily accessible at or near Furthermore, because of changing ocean currents and
364 Chapter 18 Life of the Cenozoic Era
Figure 18.1 Fossils in the National Monuments
Sue Monroe
Sue Monroe
(a) Skull of the entelodont Archaeotherium from 25-million-year-old (b) These redwood trees were present in rocks at Florissant Fossil
rocks on display at John Day Fossil Beds National Monument in Beds National Monument, Colorado, about 35 million years ago.
Oregon. See also the chapter opening photo.
latitudinal temperature gradients during the Cenozoic

Figure 18.2 Miocene Diatomite and Diatoms (see Chapter 17), the marine invertebrate fauna became
▼
more provincial then it was during the Mesozoic Era.

Only a few species in each major group of phyto-
plankton survived into the Paleogene. These species
diversified and expanded during the Cenozoic, perhaps
because of decreased competitive pressures. The cocco-
lithophores, diatoms, and dinoflagellates all recovered
from their Late Cretaceous reduction in numbers to
flourish during the Cenozoic. Diatoms were particu-
larly abundant during the Miocene, probably because of
increased volcanism during this time. Volcanic ash pro-
vided increased dissolved silica in seawater, which diatoms
used to construct their skeletons. Massive Miocene diato-
Reed Wicander
mite rocks, made up of diatom shells, are present in several

western states ( Figure 18.2).
▼
(a) Outcrop of diatomite in the Monterey Formation at Newport Lagoon, The foraminifera were a major component of the Ceno-
California. The diatoms in (b) and (c) are from this formation. zoic marine invertebrate community. Although dominated
Reed Wicander
Reed Wicander
(b) A pinnate diatom. (c) A centric diatom.
Marine Invertebrates and Phytoplankton 365
▼ Figure 18.3 Cenozoic Foraminifera Figure 18.4 Cenozoic Fossil Invertebrates
R. Paselk, Humboldt State University Natural History Museum

Courtesy of B. A. Masters
Courtesy of B. A. Masters
(a) Cibicideds americanus (b) Globigerinoides fistulosus is a
from the Early Miocene of Pleistocene planktonic foraminifera
California is a benthonic from the South Pacific Ocean.
foraminifera.
(a) The gastropod Busycon contrariuim from Pliocene rocks in Florida.

by relatively small forms ( Figure 18.3), the foraminifera
▼
included some exceptionally large taxa that lived in the

warm waters of the Cenozoic Tethys Sea. Shells of these
larger forms accumulated to form thick limestones, some of
which the ancient Egyptians used to construct the Sphinx
and the Pyramids of Giza.
Having relinquished their reef-building role to rudists
(mollusks) during the Mid-Cretaceous, corals again became

the dominant reef builders during the Cenozoic. They
formed extensive reefs in the warm waters of the Cenozoic
oceans and were especially prolific in the Caribbean and
Indo-Pacific regions.
Other suspension feeders such as bryozoans and crinoids
were also abundant and successful during the Paleogene
and Neogene. Perhaps the least important of the Cenozoic
marine invertebrates were the brachiopods, with fewer
than 60 genera surviving today. Brachiopods never recov-
ered from their reduction in diversity at the end of the
Paleozoic (see Chapter 12). (b) The bivalve Chlamya sp. encrusted with barnacles from the
Just as during the Mesozoic, bivalves and gastropods Miocene of Virginia.
were two of the major groups of marine invertebrates during
the Cenozoic, and throughout the Cenozoic had a mark-
edly modern appearance ( Figures 18.4a and 18.4b).
▼
Following the extinction of ammonites and belemnites

at the end of the Cretaceous, the Cenozoic cephalopod
fauna consisted of nautiloids and shell-less cephalopods
such as squids and octopuses.
The echinoids continued their expansion into the
infaunal habitat and were very prolific during the Ceno-

zoic. New forms such as sand dollars evolved from biscuit-
shaped ancestors during this time (Figure 18.4c).
Cenozoic Vegetation
and Climate
Angiosperms continued to diversify during the Cenozoic as
more and more familiar varieties evolved, although seedless
vascular plants and gymnosperms were also present in large (c) A Pliocene echinoid (sand dollar) from Mexico.
numbers. In fact, many Paleogene plants would be familiar took place. During this time, known as the Paleocene–
to us today, but their geographic distribution was not what Eocene Thermal Maximum (see Figure 4.15), large-scale
it is now because changing climatic conditions along with oceanic circulation was disrupted so that heat transfer
shifting plant distributions were occurring. from equatorial regions to the poles diminished or ceased.
Some plants today are confined to the tropics, whereas As a result, deep oceanic water became warmer, resulting
others have adapted to drier conditions, and we have every in extinctions of many deep-water foraminifera. Some sci-
reason to think that climate was a strong control on plant entists think that this deep, warm oceanic water released
distribution during the past. For example, leaves with methane from seafloor methane hydrates, contributing a
smooth margins, many with pointed drip-tips, are domi- greenhouse gas to the atmosphere and either causing or
nant in areas with abundant rainfall and high annual tem- contributing to the temperature increase at this time.
peratures. Smaller leaves with incised margins are more Subtropical conditions persisted into the Eocene in
typical of cooler, drier areas ( Figure 18.5a). Accordingly, North America, probably the warmest of all the Cenozoic
▼
fossil floras with mostly smooth-margined leaves with epochs. A major climatic change took place at the end of
drip-tips indicate wet, warm conditions, whereas a cool, the Eocene, when mean annual temperatures dropped as
dry climate is indicated by a predominance of small leaves much as 7°C in about 3 million years (Figure 18.5b). Since
with incised margins and no drip-tips. the Oligocene, mean annual temperatures have varied
Paleocene rocks in the western interior of North somewhat worldwide, but overall they have not changed
America have fossil ferns and palms, both indicating a much in the middle latitudes except during the Pleisto-
warm, subtropical climate (see Perspective). In a Paleocene cene Epoch.
flora in Colorado with about 100 species of trees, nearly A general decrease in precipitation during the last
70% of the leaves are smooth-margined and many have 25 million years took place in the midcontinent region
drip-tips. The nature of these leaves coupled with the of North America. As the climate became drier, the vast
diversity of plants is much like that in today’s rain forests. forests of the Oligocene gave way first to savannah condi-
In fact, the Early Oligocene fossil plants at Florissant Fos- tions (grasslands with scattered trees) and finally to steppe
sil Beds National Monument in Colorado indicate that a environments (short-grass prairies of the desert margin).
warm, wet climate persisted then (Figure 18.5c). Many herbivorous mammals quickly adapted to these new
Seafloor sediments and geochemical evidence indicate conditions by developing chewing teeth suitable for a diet
that about 55 million years ago, an abrupt warming trend of grass.
Figure 18.5 Cenozoic Vegetation and Climate

▼
Paleocene
Oligocene
Miocene
Pilocene
Eocene
University of California Museum of Paleontology. Specimen no. 3827. Photo by Diane M. Erwin
100
Percentage of smooth–margined species
90 Mississippi embayment 30
Inferred annual mean temperature (°C)
80
Northern California 25
70
Pacific Northwest
60 20
50 Southern Alaska
15
40
30 10
20
5
10
0 0
60 50 40 30 20 10 0
Millions of years
(a) Plants adapted to cool (b) Climatic trends for four areas in North America (c) Fossil leaf from an extinct species
climates typically have based on the percentages of plant species with of maple from Florissant Fossil Beds
small leaves with incised smooth-margined leaves. National Monument in Colorado.
margins (top), but in humid, Numerous species of fossil plants and
warm areas, they have insects indicate that the climate here
larger, smooth-margined 35 million years ago was warmer and
leaves, many with drip-tips. wetter than it is now.
Cenozoic Vegetation and Climate 367
Cenozoic Birds these predators were giants such as Titanis, which stood
2.5 m tall and had a huge head and beak, toes with large
Birds today are diverse and numerous, making them the most claws, and small, vestigial wings ( Figure 18.6). Its mas-
▼
easily observed vertebrates. The first members of many of the sive, short legs indicate that Titanis was not very fast, but
living orders, including owls, hawks, ducks, penguins, and neither were the mammals it preyed upon. This extraor-
vultures, evolved during the Paleogene. Beginning during the dinary bird and related genera were widespread in North
Miocene, a marked increase in the variety of songbirds took America and Europe, and in South America, they were
place, and by 5–10 million years ago, many of the existing important predators until they died out 2 million years ago.
genera of birds were present. Birds adapted to numerous habi- Two of the most notable large, flightless birds were the
tats and continued to diversify into the Pleistocene, but since now-extinct moas of New Zealand and the elephant birds of
then, their diversity has decreased slightly. Madagascar. Moas were up to 3 m tall; elephant birds were
Today, birds vary considerably in diet, habitat, adapta- shorter but more massive, weighing up to 500 kg. Both are
tions, and size. Nevertheless, their basic skeletal structure known only from Pleistocene-age deposits and went extinct
remained remarkably constant throughout the Cenozoic. shortly after humans occupied their respective areas.
Given that birds evolved from a creature very much like Large, flightless birds are truly remarkable creatures,
Archaeopteryx (see Figure 15.16), this uniformity is not but the real success among birds belongs to the fliers. Even
surprising because adaptations for flying limit variations in though few skeletal modifications occurred during the Ceno-
structure. Penguins adapted to an aquatic environment, and zoic, a bewildering array of adaptive types arose. If number of
in some large, extinct and living flightless birds, the skeleton species and habitats occupied is any measure of success, birds
became robust and the wings were reduced to vestiges. have certainly been at least as successful as mammals.
Many authorities on prehistoric life are now convinced
that birds are so closely related to theropod dinosaurs that
they refer to them as avian dinosaurs and all the others as
non-avian dinosaurs. In fact, following the demise of the
The Age of Mammals Begins
non-avian dinosaurs at the end of the Mesozoic Era, the Mammals coexisted with dinosaurs for more than 160 million
dominant large, land-dwelling predators during the Paleo- years, and yet during this entire time, they were not very
cene and well into the Eocene were flightless birds. Among diverse; even the largest among them was only about 1 m long.
© Carl Buell
Figure 18.6 Cenozoic Flightless Bird Restoration of Titanis walleri, a predatory flightless bird that stood 2.5 m high and weighed about 150 kg.
▼
It lived during the Pliocene and Pleistocene, mostly in South America, but it migrated to North America, where its remains have been found in
Texas and Florida.
Perspective
Fossil Forests
The term fossil forest is used in various we know from present-day examples that not only for the variety of trees and other
ways, but here, we restrict it to mean a trees once killed by flooding may stand for plants but also for the fact that geologists
concentration of preserved trees, although tens of years before finally decaying, so have identified 27 fossil forests in a suc-
a fossil forest may also include fossils of burial need not happen immediately. cession of mudflow deposits 365 m thick
other types of vegetation. Perhaps the Another factor to consider is that at what is now called Specimen Ridge
best-known fossil forest in the United tree stumps complete with roots may (Figure 2). Tree rings indicate that some
States is in Petrified Forest National Park be transported and deposited vertically, of these forests were 500 years old when
in Arizona (see Chapter 14 Perspective), giving them the appearance of being in they were buried by a succession of mud-
which dates from the Late Triassic. Here their original position. Indeed, following flows. Yellowstone National Park today,
we concentrate on fossil forests of Ceno- the eruption of Mount St. Helens in 1980, with its warm, dry summers and cold,
zoic age, including one that is only a few many stumps were transported into Spirit snowy winters, is not the place you would
thousands years old. Lake and yet many other trees were partly expect avocado, laurel, persimmon, and
Although many fossil trees were buried where they grew. magnolia trees. Yet their presence there
transported and deposited as logs, there We should note that fossil forests are during the Eocene, about 48 million years
are numerous examples of trees preserved most commonly preserved in sediments ago, indicates that the area had a consid-
upright in their original growth position, or volcanic ash, but there are a few erably warmer climate than it does now.
some with delicate root systems penetrat- exceptions. The trees at Ginkgo Petrified Fossil plants in the Eocene-age John
ing the layers in which the tree originally Forest State Park in Washington State, Day Fossil Beds National Monument in
grew. But how is it possible for a segment many in growth position, are encased Oregon include ferns, figs, and laurels,
of a tree several meters long to be buried in Miocene-age lava. When a lava flow all of which now live in more humid
in sediment before it decays? We noted surrounds trees, they are usually inciner- regions, as in parts of Mexico and Central
previously that in most environments, ated and leave no trace, but at Ginkgo America. At present, the John Day area
sediment accumulates episodically; so Petrified Forest, the trees were water- is characterized as high desert with little
a single mudflow several meters deep logged and standing in mud and thus precipitation and low-growing, drought-
may be deposited in minutes and then were preserved (Figure 1a). About resistant bushes and grasses; trees are
be followed by an episode of no sediment 6,000 years ago, a lava flow in Oregon present mostly along waterways. During
accumulation for years or decades. The flowed around trees that were destroyed the Eocene, though, the area was covered
same is true on river floodplains where but formed casts (Figure 1b) at what with lush forests and supported a variety
little or no sediment deposition takes is now Lava Cast Forest in Newberry of animals not now found in Oregon
place most of the time, but are punctu- National Volcanic Monument. (Figure 18.8b on page 372).
ated by brief intervals of sedimentation The Eocene-age fossil forests of During the Eocene, storms from
during infrequent floods. Furthermore, Yellowstone National Park are remarkable the Pacific brought moisture far inland
Figure 1 Fossil Trees in Washington and Oregon
James S. Monroe
Sue Monroe
(a) Fossil log at the Visitor Center, Ginkgo Petrified Forest State Park (b) Cast of tree preserved in lava at Lava Cast Forest in Oregon. This
in Washington. Many of the trees at the park are in their original 6,000-year-old cast measures about 50 cm across.
growth position.
The Age of Mammals Begins 369
Perspective (Continued)
and eastern Oregon was well watered, Figure 2 Fossil Forest,

as indicated by the fossil trees and other Yellowstone National
plants. By Oligocene time, though, the Park, Wyoming These
Cascade Range, which was made up of trees identified as
huge volcanoes and numerous smaller pines are about 0.6 m
in diameter and 7.5
volcanic vents, began to form a barrier to
m high. They were
Pacific storms (see Figure 17.3). In other
Viney, M. (2008). The Virtual Petrified Wood Museum

originally buried in
words, the Cascade volcanoes formed mudflows, but are now
a rain shadow and the climate became exposed as the deposits
progressively drier, a fact clearly indicated are eroded.
by the changing composition of the fossil
flora and fauna of the region.
By the end of the Cretaceous Period there were only a few the requisite features to be called mammals, but they appear
families of mammals, a situation that was soon to change. to have had a completely separate evolutionary history from
With the demise of non-avian dinosaurs and their relatives, that of the marsupials and placentals. Unfortunately, they
mammals quickly exploited the adaptive opportunities, have a very poor fossil record.
beginning a diversification that continued throughout the When the young of marsupial mammals are born,
Cenozoic Era. The Age of Mammals had begun. they are in an immature, almost embryonic state and then
We already mentioned that Cenozoic deposits are undergo further development in the mother’s pouch.
easily accessible at or near the surface, and overall they Marsupials probably migrated to Australia, the only area
show fewer changes resulting from metamorphism and where they are common now, via Antarctica before Pan-
deformation when compared with older rocks. In addi- gaea fragmented completely. They were also common in
tion, because mammals have teeth fully differentiated into South America during much of the Cenozoic Era until
various types (see Figure 15.17), they are easier to identify only a few million years ago. However, when a land con-
and classify than members of the other classes of verte- nection was finally established between the Americas,
brates. In fact, mammal teeth not only differ from front most of the South American marsupials died out as pla-
to back of the mouth but also differ among various mam- cental mammals from North America replaced them.
malian orders and even among genera and species. This Now the only marsupials outside Australia and nearby
is especially true of chewing teeth, the premolars and islands are species of opossums.
molars; a single chewing tooth is usually enough to identify
the genus from which it came.
Diversification of Placental
Monotremes and Marsupial Mammals
Like marsupials, placental mammals give birth to live
Mammals young, but their reproductive method differs in impor-
All warm-blooded vertebrates with hair and mammary tant details. In placentals, the amnion of the amniote egg
glands belong to the class Mammalia, which includes the (see Figure 13.16) has fused with the walls of the uterus,
monotremes, or egg-laying mammals (the platypus and forming a more efficient placenta than exists in marsupials.
spiny anteater of the Australian region); the marsupials, Because nutrients and oxygen flow from mother to embryo
commonly called the “pouched mammals” (kangaroos, through the placenta, the more efficient placenta permits
opossums, and wombats, for instance); and the placental the young to develop more fully before birth than the less
mammals (about 18 orders). Female monotremes secrete a efficient one of the marsupials. A measure of the success
milky substance that their young lick from the mother’s hair, of placental mammals is related in part to their method of
but both marsupials and placentals have true mammary reproduction—more than 90% of all mammals, fossil and
glands and milk to nourish their young. Monotremes have extinct, are placentals.
In our following discussion of placental mammals, The Paleocene mammalian fauna was also made
we emphasize the origin and evolution of several of the up mostly of small creatures. By Late Paleocene time,
18 or so living orders ( Figure 18.7). During the Paleo- though, some rather large mammals were around,
▼
cene Epoch, several orders of mammals were present, although giant terrestrial mammals did not appear until
but some were simply holdovers from the Mesozoic or the Eocene. With the evolution of a now-extinct order
belonged to new but short-lived groups that have no living known as the Dinocerata, better known as uintatheres,
descendants. These so-called archaic mammals, including and the titanotheres, giant mammals of one kind or
marsupials, insectivores, and the rodentlike multituburcu- another have been present ever since (Figure 18.8b).
lates ( Figure 18.8a), occupied a world with several new In addition, there were some large wolf-like, 3-m-long
▼
mammalian orders (for example, the first rodents, rab- predators by Eocene time.
bits, primates, and carnivores) and the ancestors of hoofed Many mammalian orders that evolved during the
mammals. Most of these Paleocene mammals, even those Paleocene died out, but of the several that first appeared
belonging to orders that still exist, had not yet become during the Eocene, only one has become extinct. Thus,
clearly differentiated from their ancestors, and the differ- by Eocene time, many of the mammalian orders existing
ences between herbivores and carnivores were slight. now were present. Yet if we could go back for a visit, we
would not recognize most of these ani-
mals. Surely we would know that they
MESOZOIC CENOZOIC MYA were mammals, and some would be at
140 130 120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 least vaguely familiar. But the ancestors
Triconodonts of horses, camels, elephants, whales, and
Monotremata rhinoceroses bore little resemblance to
Multituberculata their living descendants.
Marsupialia Warm, humid climates persisted
Palaeoryctoids
throughout the Paleocene and Eocene of
Edentata
North America, but by Oligocene time,
Pholidota
drier and cooler conditions prevailed.
Most archaic Paleocene mammals as
Lagomorpha well as several groups that had appeared
Rodentia during the Eocene died out, including
the large, rhinoceros-like titanotheres
Macroscelidea (Figure 18.8b). In addition, some other
groups of mammals suffered extinctions,
Primates
including several types of herbivores
Scandentia loosely united as condylarths, carnivo-
Dermoptera rous mammals known as creodonts, most
of the remaining multituburculates, and
Chiroptera some primates. All in all, this was a time
of considerable biotic change.
Insectivora
By Oligocene time, most of the exist-
Creodonta ing mammalian orders were present,
Carnivora and they continued to diversify as more
Condylarthra familiar genera evolved. If we were to
Artiodactyla encounter some of these animals, we
might think them a bit odd, but we would
Cetacea
have little difficulty recognizing rhinoc-
Tubulidentata eroses (although some were hornless),
Perissodactyla
Hyracoidea
Figure 18.7 The Diversification of Mammals
▼
Proboscidea Mammals existed during the Mesozoic, but

most placental mammals diversified during the
Embrithopoda Paleocene and Eocene epochs. Among the living
orders of mammals, all are placentals except for
Desmostylia the monotremes and marsupials. Several extinct
orders are not shown. Bold lines indicate actual
Sirenia geologic ranges, whereas thinner lines indicate
the inferred branching of the groups.
The Age of Mammals Begins 371
elephants, horses, rodents, and many others. However,
the large, horselike animals known as chalicotheres
Paleogene and Neogene
(with claws) and the large piglike entelodonts (see chapter Mammals
opening photo) would be unfamiliar, and others would be
found in areas where today we would not expect them— In Chapter 7 and elsewhere, we noted that populations
elephants in North America, for instance. rather than individuals evolve; so there was no first mam-
By Miocene, and certainly Pliocene time, most mammal, only populations of cynodonts developing the fea-
mals were quite similar to those existing now ( Figure 18.9). tures we associate with mammals (see Chapter 15). It is
▼
On close inspection, though, we would see horses with difficult to make a hard-and-fast distinction between some
three toes, cats with huge canine teeth, deerlike animals Mesozoic animals as either cynodont or mammal, but
with forked horns on their snouts, and very tall, slender true mammals were present by the Late Triassic. Mesozoic
camels. In addition, we would still see a few strange-looking mammal diversity was not great, but beginning during the
mammals, but overall the fauna would be familiar. Early Cenozoic, they diversified so that now about 5,000
species exist, ranging from tiny shrews to giants such as
elephants and whales. Many types of mammals are quite
familiar, but we do not often give much thought to the
Figure 18.8 Paleocene and Eocene Mammals
▼
small ones—rodents, rabbits, insectivores, and bats. And

although there are a few exceptions, most mammals from
these groups are quite small, with about 70% weighing less
than 1 kg.
Small Mammals—Insectivores,
Rodents, Rabbits, and Bats
Insectivores, rodents, rabbits, and bats share a common
ancestor, but they have had separate evolutionary histories
since they first evolved (Figure 18.7). With the exception
of bats, the oldest of which is found in Eocene rocks, these
small mammals were present by the Late Mesozoic or Paleo-
cene. The main reason we consider them together is that
with few exceptions, they are small enough to have adapted
to the microhabitats unavailable to larger mammals. In
© Nobumichi Tamura
addition to being small, bats are the only mammals capable

of flight.
(a) This squirrel-sized animal is the Paleocene genus Ptilodus, a

member of a group of mammals known as multituberculates.
5
4
3
Roy Anderson
(b) Restoration of fossils from the Eocene-age Clarno Formation in John Day Fossil Beds National Monument, Oregon. The climate
was subtropical, and the lush forests were inhabited by (1) titanotheres standing 2.5 m high at the shoulder, (2) carnivores,
(3) ancient horses, (4) tapirs, and (5) early rhinoceroses.
Figure 18.9 Ashfall Fossil Beds State Historical Park, Nebraska Restoration of fossils found at this state park near Orchard, Nebraska, include
▼
(1) one-toed horses, (2) small camels, (3) turtles, (4) rhinoceroses, (5) cranes, (6) giraffe-like camels, and (7) three-toed horses. In the distance,
you can see some carnivores and mastodons. These animals were buried in volcanic ash during the Miocene, about 12 million years ago.
6 5
Courtesy of the University of Nebraska State Museum

3
1 2
As you would expect from the name Insectivora, more than 1 m long and weighs 45 kg. One Miocene beaver
members of this order—today’s shrews, moles, and hedge- known as Paleocastor was not particularly large, but it con-
hogs—eat insects. Insectivores have probably not changed structed some remarkably large burrows ( Figure 18.10a).
▼
much since they appeared during the Late Cretaceous. In A Miocene rodent found in South America, whimsically
fact, an insectivore-like creature very likely lies at the base called “ratzilla,” weighed an estimated 740 kg and another
of the great diversification of placental mammals. had paired horns on its snout (Figure 18.10b). Rodents
More than 40% of all living mammal species are mem- evolved during the Paleocene, diversified rapidly, and
bers of the order Rodentia, most of which are very small adapted to a wide range of habitats. One reason for their
animals. A few, though, including beavers and the capy- phenomenal success is that they can eat almost anything.
bara of South America, are sizable animals; the latter is Rabbits (order Lagomorpha) superficially resemble
rodents but differ from them in several anatomical details.
Furthermore, although they arose from a common ances-
Figure 18.10 Cenozoic Rodents tor during the Paleocene, rabbits and rodents have evolved
▼
independently. Like rodents, rabbits are gnawing animals,

but features of their gnawing teeth differ. The development
of long, powerful hind limbs for speed is the most obvi-
ous evolutionary trend in this group. Today’s rabbits rarely
© Nobu Tamura
Duane Clark/Proctor Museum of Natural Science
Rayan Somma
(a) Paleocastor was a 30-cm-long, Late Oligocene, land-dwelling (b) Ceratogalus with paired horns on its snout was the only rodent
beaver that made these spiral burrows in Nebraska. The burrows are with horns and by far the smallest mammal so equipped. It was
locally called the Devil’s Corkscrew. 30 cm long and lived from the Miocene to the Pleistocene.
Paleogene and Neogene Mammals 373
weigh more than a few kilograms, but a Pliocene-age fossil Figure 18.11 Carnivorous Mammals
▼
rabbit recently found in Spain may have weighed 12 kg.
The oldest fossil bat (order Chiroptera) comes from
the Eocene-age Green River Formation of Wyoming, but
well-preserved specimens are also known from several
other areas. Apart from having forelimbs modified into
wings, bats differ little from their immediate ancestors
among the insectivores. Indeed, with the exception of
wings, they closely resemble living shrews. Unlike ptero-
saurs and birds, bats use a modification of the hand in
which four long fingers support the wings.
A Brief History of the Primates

The order Primates includes the prosimians (tarsiers, Specialized Canine
lemurs, and lorises) and the monkeys, apes, and humans, shearing teeth teeth
collectively referred to as anthropoids. Much of the primate (a) This present-day skull and jaw of a large cat show the specialized
story is more fully told in Chapter 19, where we consider sharp-crested shearing teeth, or carnassials, of carnivorous mammals.
human evolution; so in this chapter, we will be brief. Pri-
mates may have evolved by Late Cretaceous time, but by the
Paleocene, they were undoubtedly present.
Small Paleocene primates closely resembled their con-
temporaries, the shrewlike insectivores. By the Eocene,
though, larger primates had evolved and lemurs and tarsi-
ers that resemble their present descendants lived in Asia
and North America. And by Oligocene time, primitive
New World and Old World monkeys had developed in
South America and Africa, respectively. The Hominoids,
the group that includes apes and humans, evolved during
the Miocene (see Chapter 19).
The Meat Eaters—Carnivorous

Mammals
The order Carnivora is extremely varied and includes bears,
seals, weasels, skunks, dogs, and cats. All are predators and (b) Today’s carnivorous mammals evolved from a primitive group known
as miacids. This miacid, known as Tapocyon, was a coyote-sized animal
therefore meat eaters, but their diets vary considerably. that lived during the Eocene. All weasels, otters, skunks, badgers,
For example, cats rarely eat anything but meat, whereas martins, wolverines, seals, sea lions, walruses, bears, raccoons, dogs,
bears, raccoons, and skunks have a varied diet and are thus hyenas, mongooses, and cats evolved from an ancestor very much like
omnivorous. Most carnivores have well-developed, sharp, this creature.
pointed canine teeth and specialized shearing teeth known
as carnassials for slicing meat ( Figure 18.11a). Some land- The order Carnivora began to diversify when two
▼
dwelling carnivores depend on speed, agility, and intel- distinct lines evolved from creodonts and miacids dur-
ligence to chase down prey, but others employ different ing the Paleocene. Both had well-developed canines and
tactics. For example, badgers dig their prey from burrows, carnassials, but they were rather short-limbed and flat-
and some small cats depend on stealth and pouncing to footed. Certainly, they were not very fast, but neither was
catch their meals. their prey. Because the creodont branch became extinct
Fossils of carnivorous mammals are not nearly as com- by Miocene time, it need not concern us further, but the
mon as those of many other mammals—but why? First, other branch, evolving from weasel-like miacids, led to all
in populations of warm-blooded (endothermic) animals, existing carnivorous mammals (Figure 18.11b).
carnivores constitute no more than 5% of the total popula- The dogs evolved by the Middle Eocene, and even
tion, usually less. Second, many, but not all, carnivores are though they resemble hyenas, the latter are more closely
solitary animals; so the chance of large numbers of them related to cats and viverrids (civits and mongooses) and
being preserved together is remote. Nevertheless, fossil are another good example of convergent evolution (see
carnivores are common enough for us to piece together Figure 7.11). By Early Oligocene time, cats were present,
their overall evolutionary relationships with confidence. and by the Miocene, some had developed the remarkable
enlarged canine teeth of the saber-tooths that existed during artiodactyls, or even-toed hoofed mammals, are the most
most of the Cenozoic Era. Their fossils are especially well diverse and numerous, with about 170 living species of cattle,
known from Pleistocene-age deposits. goats, sheep, swine, antelope, deer, giraffes, hippopota-
Seals, sea lions, and walruses adapted to an aquatic muses, camels, and several others. In marked contrast, the
environment; so they have a somewhat streamlined body, perissodactyls, or odd-toed hoofed mammals, have only 16
a layer of blubber for insulation, and limbs modified into existing species of horses, rhinoceroses, and tapirs. During
paddles. Most eat fish and therefore have rather simple, the Early Cenozoic, though, perissodactyls were more abun-
single-cusped teeth, except walruses, which have flattened dant than artiodactyls.
teeth for crushing shells. Fossils and studies of living animals Some defining features of these groups are their dis-
clearly indicate that these aquatic carnivores are most tinctive teeth, the number of toes, and the way the animal’s
closely related to bears. weight is borne on the toes. Artiodactyls have either two
or four toes, and their weight is borne along an axis that
passes between the third and fourth digits ( Figure 18.12a).
▼
The Ungulates, or Hoofed Mammals For those artiodactyls with two toes, such as today’s swine
Ungulate is an informal term referring to several groups of and deer, the first, second, and fifth digits have been lost or
living and extinct mammals, particularly the hoofed mam- remain only as vestiges. Perissodactyls have one or three
mals of the orders Artiodactyla and Perissodactyla. The toes, although a few fossil species retained four toes on
their forefeet. Nevertheless, their weight is borne on an axis
passing through the third toe (Figure 18.12a). Even today’s
horses have vestigial side toes, and rarely they are born
Figure 18.12 Characteristics and Evolutionary Trends in Hoofed with three toes, a so-called atavism (see Chapter 7).
▼
Mammals
Many hoofed mammals such as antelope and horses
Perissodactyls Artiodactyls depend on speed to escape from predators in their open-
grasslands habitat. As a result, they have long, slender
limbs, giving them a greater stride length. Notice from
Figure 18.12b that the bones of the palm and sole have
become very long. In addition, these speedy runners
have fewer bones in their feet compared with their ances-
tors, mostly because they have fewer toes. Not all hoofed
mammals are long-limbed, speedy runners, though.
Some are very small and dart into heavy vegetation or
a hole in the ground when threatened by predators. Size
alone is adequate protection in some very large species
such as rhinoceroses. In contrast to the long, slender
limbs of horses, antelope, and deer, for example, rhi-
noceroses and hippopotamuses have developed massive
weight-supporting legs.
Horse Rhinoceros Camel Pig
(a) Perissodactyls have one or three functional toes, whereas artio-

dactyls have two or four. In perissodactyls, the weight is borne on the
third toe, but in artiodactyls, it is borne on toes three and four.
Enamel
Dentine
Ankle Wrist
Cement
(c) High-crowned, cement-covered chewing teeth (right) evolved in
hoofed mammals that adapted to a diet of grass. Low-crowned chew-
(b) In many hoofed mammals, long, slender limbs evolved as bones ing teeth are found in many other mammals, including primates and
between the wrist and toes and the ankle and toes became longer. pigs, both of which have a varied diet.
All artiodactyls and perissodactyls are herbivo- during the Pliocene and the peculiar genus Synthetoceras,
rous animals, with their chewing teeth—premolars and with forked horns on their snouts.
molars—modified for a diet of vegetation. One evolution- During much of the Cenozoic Era, especially in North
ary trend in these animals was molarization, a change America, camels of one kind or another were common.
in the premolars so that they are more like molars, thus The earliest were small four-toed animals, but by Oligocene
providing a continuous row of grinding teeth. Some time, all had two toes. Trends in camel evolution include an
ungulates—horses, for example—are characterized as increase in body size; longer limbs; reduction of the toes
grazers because they eat grass, as opposed to browsers, to two, which are fused together; loss of the front teeth;
which eat the tender leaves, twigs, and shoots of trees and and changes in the chewing teeth.
shrubs. Grasses are very abrasive because as they grow Among the camels in North America were very tall
through soil, they pick up tiny particles of silt and sand giraffe-like camels, slender gazelle-like camels, and giants
that quickly wear down teeth. As a result, once grasses standing 3.5 m high at the shoulder. Most camel evolution
had evolved, many hoofed mammals became grazers and took place in North America, but during the Pliocene,
developed high-crowned, abrasion-resistant chewing they migrated to Asia and South America, where the only
teeth (Figure 18.12c). living species now exist. North American camels went
extinct near the end of the Pleistocene Epoch.
Artiodactyls—Even-Toed Hoofed Mammals The oldest Among the artiodactyls, the family Bovidae is by far
known artiodactyls were Early Eocene rabbit-sized animals the most diverse, with dozens of species of cattle, bison,
that differed little from their ancestors. Yet these small crea- sheep, goats, and antelope. This family did not appear
tures were ancestral to the myriad living and several extinct until the Miocene, but most of its diversification took
families of even-toed hoofed mammals ( Figure 18.13). place during Pliocene time on the northern continents.
▼
Among the extinct families are the rather piglike oreodonts Bovids are now most numerous in Africa and southern
that were so common in North America until their extinction Asia. North America still has its share of bovids, such as
Pleistocene-Recent Ruminants
2.6
PLIO.
Camels
5.0
Deer Musk deer Bovids Hippos
Tragulids
Antilocaprids Peccaries
Giraffes
MIOCENE
Pigs
eratids
23
donts
oc
OLIGOCENE
Prot
donts
Oreo
Entelo
34
EOCENE
Diacodexis
56
Figure 18.13 Relationships Among Artiodactyls (Even-Toed Hoofed Mammals) Most artiodactyls are ruminants—that is, cud-chewing animals
with complex three- or four-chambered stomachs. The bovids are the most diverse and numerous living artiodactyls, whereas some other groups
proliferated during the past—the oreodonts, for example. The oldest known artiodactyl, Diacodexis, was only about 50 cm long.
Figure 18.14 Evolution of Horses
Epoch
Phylogeny of the Equidae
South North Old
America America World
0
Equus
cene Q
hipparion
Equus Equus
Plio- Hippidion (Pleistocene)
Stylo-
Dinohippus
5 group arion
Neohipp
Nannippus
Hipparion
Pseudhipparion
ippus
Cormohipparion
Hipparion
us
10
us
Sinohippus
p
Astroh
group
Miocene
ip
Calipp
Mega-
Plioh
hippus
15
Protohippus Merychippus Hypo-
m
hippus
iu
20
er
s
Parahippus
ith
ohippu
ch
Pliohippus
An
25 (Pliocene)
Archae
mya
Oligocene
Miohippus
30
Mesohippus
35
Ha
Epihippus
plo
40
hip
Palaeothere
pu
group
Eocene
45 Orohippus
Grazing horses Merychippus
Browsing horses (Miocene)
50
Hyracotherium
56
(a) Summary chart showing the relationships among the genera
of horses. During the Oligcene, two lines emerged–one leading to
three-toed browsers and the other to one-toed grazers, including the
present-day horse Equus. Mesohippus
(Oligocene)
bighorn sheep and mountain goats, but the most common

ones during the Cenozoic were bison (which migrated
from Asia), the pronghorn, and oreodonts, all of which
Hyracotherium
roamed the western interior in vast herds. (Eocene)
Notice from Figure 18.13 that most living artiodactyls
are ruminants, cud-chewing animals with complex three- (b) Simplified diagram showing some trends in horse evolution.
or four-chambered stomachs in which food is processed to Trends include an increase in size, a lengthening of the limbs, a reduc-
extract more nutrients. Perissodactyls lack such a complex tion in the number of toes, and the development of high-crowned teeth
digestive system. Perhaps the fact that artiodactyls use with complex chewing surfaces.
the same resources more effectively than do perissodac-
tyls explains why artiodactyls have flourished and mostly
replaced perissodactyls in the hoofed mammal fauna. Horse fossils are so common—especially in North
America, where most of their evolution took place—
Perissodactyls—Odd-Toed Hoofed Mammals In that their overall history and evolutionary trends are well
Table 7.1, we said, “If we examine the fossil record of related known. The earliest member of the horse family (family
organisms such as horses and rhinoceroses, we should Equidae) is the fox-sized animal known as Hyracotherium
find that they were quite similar when they diverged from ( Figure 18.14); it stood 20–35 cm high and weighed
▼
a common ancestor but became increasingly different as about 20 kg. This small, forest-dwelling animal had four-
divergence continued.” We also discussed how the fossil toed forefeet and three-toed hind feet, but each toe was
records for horses, rhinoceroses, tapirs, and their extinct covered by a small hoof. Otherwise, it possessed few of the
relatives, the chalicotheres and titanotheres, provide pre- features of present-day horses. So how can we be sure it
cisely this kind of evidence. In short, when these animals belongs to the family Equidae at all?
first appeared in the fossil record, they differed slightly in Horse evolution was a complex, branching affair, with
size and the structure of their teeth, but as they evolved, numerous genera and species existing at various times
differences between them became more apparent. Peris- during the Cenozoic (Figure 18.14a). Nevertheless, their
sodactyls evolved from a common ancestor during the exceptional fossil record clearly shows that Hyracotherium
Paleocene, reached their greatest diversity during the Oli- and present-day Equus are related. Indeed, a series of ani-
gocene, and have declined markedly since then. mals possessing characteristics that are more and more
Table 18.1 Trends in the Cenozoic Evolution of the Present-Day Horse Equus
A number of horse genera existed during the Cenozoic that evolved differently. For instance, some horses were browsers rather than
grazers, never developed high-crowned chewing teeth, and retained three toes.
Trend
1. Size increase.
2. Legs and feet become longer, an adaptation for running.
3. Lateral toes reduced to vestiges. Only the third toe remains functional in Equus.
4. Straightening and stiffening of the back.
5. Incisor teeth become wider.
6. Molarization of premolars yields a continuous row of teeth for grinding vegetation.
7. The chewing teeth, molars and premolars, become high-crowned and cement-covered for grinding abrasive grasses.
8. Chewing surfaces of premolars and molars become more complex—also an adaptation for grinding abrasive grasses.
9. Front part of skull and lower jaw become deeper to accommodate high-crowned premolars and molars.
10. Face in front of eye becomes longer to accommodate high-crowned teeth.
11. Larger, more complex brain.
like those of horses today is well documented. In fact, if you Giant Land-Dwelling Mammals—
were to compare any two of the species in this continuum,
you would conclude that they are just slight variations, but Elephants
when you consider the entire sequence, it is apparent that We just noted that the largest land-dwelling mammal ever
the end members are very different (Table 18.1). was a hornless rhinoceros, but some of today’s elephants,
Figure 18.14 shows that horse evolution proceeded order Proboscidea, are also giants. The largest one on record
along two distinct branches. One led to three-toed brows- weighed nearly 12 metric tons and stood 4.2 m at the shoul-
ing horses, all now extinct, and the other led to three- der, and some extinct mammoths were equally as large or
toed grazing horses and finally to one-toed grazers. The perhaps slightly larger. In addition to their size, a distinctive
appearance of grazing horses, with high-crowned chewing feature of elephants is their long snout, or proboscis. Dur-
teeth (Figure 18.12c), coincided with the evolution and ing much of the Cenozoic Era, proboscideans of one kind
spread of grasses during the Miocene. Because speed was or another were widespread on the northern continents.
essential in this habitat, horses’ legs became longer and the Now only three species exist, one in southeast Asia and two
number of toes was reduced finally to one (Figure 18.14b). in Africa. The earliest member of the order was a 100- to
Pony-sized Merychippus is a good example of the early 200-kg animal known as Moeritherium from the Eocene that
grazing horses; it had three toes, but its teeth were high- possessed few characteristics of elephants. It was probably
crowned and covered by abrasion-resistant cement. aquatic.
The other living perissodactyls, rhinoceroses and By Oligocene time, elephants showed the trends
tapirs, increased in size from Early Cenozoic ancestors, toward large size and had developed a long proboscis and
and both became more diverse and widespread than they large tusks, which are enlarged incisors. Most elephants
are now. Most rhinoceroses evolved in the Old World, but developed tusks in the upper jaw only, but a few had them
North American rhinoceroses were common until they in both jaws. One group of elephants known as deinoth-
became extinct at the end of the Pleistocene. At more than eres had only lower tusks ( Figure 18.15).
▼
5 m high at the shoulder and weighing perhaps 13 or 14 The most familiar Proboscideans, other than living
metric tons, a hornless Oligocene–Miocene rhinoceros in ones, are the extinct mastodons and mammoths. Mastodons
Asia was the largest land-dwelling mammal ever. evolved in Africa, but from Miocene to Pleistocene time,
For the remaining perissodactyls, chalicotheres, and they spread over the Northern Hemisphere continents;
titanotheres, only the latter has a good fossil record. Chali- one genus even reached South America. These large,
cotheres, although never particularly abundant, are inter- browsing animals died out only a few thousand years ago.
esting because the later members of this family, which During the Pliocene and Pleistocene, mammoths and living
were the size of large horses, had claws on their feet rather elephants diverged (Figure 18.15). Mammoths were about
than hooves. The prevailing opinion is that these claws the size of elephants today, but they had the largest tusks
were used to hook and pull down branches. Titanotheres of any elephant. In fact, mammoth tusks are common
existed only during the Eocene, giving them the distinc- enough in Siberia that they have been and continue to be a
tion of being the shortest-lived perissodactyl family. They source of ivory. Until their extinction near the end of the
evolved from small ancestors to giants standing 2.5 m Pleistocene, mammoths lived on all Northern Hemisphere
high at the shoulder (Figure 18.8b). continents as well as in India and Africa.
Figure 18.15 Phylogeny of Elephants and Some of Their Relatives Large size, a long proboscis, and tusks were some of the evolutionary trends
▼
in proboscideans. Proboscideans were more diverse than indicated in this illustration, which excludes several fossil proboscideans.
Pleistocene
and Holocene
African Indian American
mya elephant elephant Mammoth mastodon
0
2.6 Deinotheres
Plio-
cene
5.0
Miocene
Shovel-tusk
mastodon
23 Gomphotherium
Oligocene
Phiomia
34 Paleomastodon
Moeritherium
Eocene
56
Paleocene
Giant Aquatic Mammals—Whales mammals, whales are most closely related to artiodactyls
Our fascination with huge dinosaurs should not overshadow (which are even-toed hoofed mammals) (Figure 18.16).
the fact that by far the largest animal ever is alive today. At more During the transition from land-dwelling animals to
than 30 m long and weighing an estimated 130 metric tons, aquatic whales, the front limbs modified into paddlelike
blue whales greatly exceed the size of any other living thing, flippers; the rear limbs were lost; the nostrils migrated to
except some plants such as redwood trees. But not all whales the top of the head; and a large, horizontal tail fluke used
are large. Consider, for instance, dolphins and porpoises—both for propulsion developed.
are sizable but hardly giants. Nevertheless, an important trend We mentioned in Chapter 7 that whales evolved from
in whale evolution has been increase in body size. land-dwelling ancestors in a part of the world where the
Several kinds of mammals are aquatic or semi-aquatic, fossil record was poorly known. Beginning about 25 years
but only sea cows (order Sirenia) and whales (order Cetacea), ago, though, paleontologists made some remarkable dis-
are so thoroughly aquatic that they cannot come onto land. coveries that resolved the enigma of how and where whales
Fossils discovered in Eocene rocks in Southeast Asia indi- evolved. For instance, the Early Eocene whale Ambulocetus
cate that the land-dwelling ancestors of whales were among still had limbs capable of supporting the animal on land,
the small, dog-sized animals ( Figure 18.16). In fact, fos- whereas Basilosaurus, a 15-m-long whale from the Late
▼
sil evidence has convinced paleontologists that among Eocene, had only tiny vestigial rear limbs. Basilosaurus also
Figure 18.16 The Evolution of Whales The
▼
PALEOCENE EOCENE OLIGOCENE MIOCENE
land-dwelling ancestors of whales were among
65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 million years ago the even-toed hoofed mammals, the artiodac-
20 15 10 tyls. Note that Pakicetus had well-developed
hind limbs, but some of the others, such as
Basilosaurus, did not. Although Basilosaurus
Artiodactyls (Hippopotamus) was a fully aquatic whale, it differed consider-
ably from today’s whales.
Pakicetus
Ambulocetus
Dalanistes
From Donald R. Prothero, Evolution: What The Fossils Say and Why It Matters. 2007 by Columbia University Press.
Rodhocetus
Takracetus
Gaviocetus
Basilosaurus
Dorudon
Mysticetes
(Baleen Whales)
Odontocetes
(Toothed Whales)
retained teeth much like those of the whale ancestors, and mostly of animals you would easily recognize. Even so, their
its nostrils were on its snout. An interesting note on Basi- geographic distribution might surprise you, because rhinoc-
losaurus was the so-called “sea serpent” that Albert Koch eroses, elephants, and camels lived in North America, and a
found in Eocene-age rocks of Alabama during the 1840s. few unusual mammals, such as chalicotheres and the heavily
Koch constructed his “sea serpent” from the remains of armored glypotodonts, were also present. Among the avian
five animals, thereby rendering a creature 35 m long, about fauna, the giant moas and elephant birds were in New Zealand
twice the length of Basilosaurus. He displayed his creation and Madagascar, respectively.
in North America and Europe, for a fee of course, but sci-
entists knew immediately that it was a hoax.
By Oligocene time, both existing whale groups—baleen Ice Age Mammals
whales and toothed whales—had evolved; baleen consists of The most remarkable aspect of the Pleistocene mammalian
platelike, filter-feeding devices that differ considerably from fauna is that so many very large species existed. Mastodons,
teeth. And yet an Oligocene whale known as Aetiocetus mammoths, giant bison, huge ground sloths, immense
had both baleen and teeth; it also had a blowhole (nostrils) camels, and beavers nearly 2 m long were present in North
about midway between the snout and the top of the head. America. South America had its share of giants, too, espe-
cially sloths and glyptodonts. Elephants, cave bears, and
giant deer known as Irish Elk lived in Europe and Asia
Pleistocene Faunas ( Figure 18.17), and Australia had 3-m-tall kangaroos and
▼
wombats the size of rhinoceroses.

Unlike the Paleocene fauna, with its archaic mammals, Of course, many smaller mammals also existed, but
unfamiliar ancestors of living mammalian orders, and one obvious trend among Pleistocene mammals was
large, predatory birds, the fauna of the Pleistocene consists large body size. Perhaps this was an adaptation to the
Figure 18.17 The Irish Elk Restoration of the giant deer Mega- Pleistocene Extinctions
▼
loceros giganteus, commonly called the Irish elk. It lived in Europe
and Asia during the Pleistocene and may have persisted in Eastern During the Pleistocene, the continental interior of North
Europe until only a few thousand years ago. Large males probably America was teeming with horses, rhinoceroses, camels,
weighed 700 kg, about the same as a present-day moose, and had an
mammoths, mastodons, bison, giant ground sloths, glypto-
antler spread of nearly 4 m.
donts, saber-toothed cats, dire wolves, rodents, and rabbits.
Beginning about 14,000 years ago, however, many of these
animals became extinct, especially the larger ones. These
Pleistocene extinctions were modest compared with
those at the end of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras, but
they were unusual in that they had a profound impact on
Charles R. Knight/National Geographic Society/Corbis

large, land-dwelling mammals (those weighing more than
44 kg). Particularly hard hit were the mammalian faunas
of Australia and the Americas.
In Australia, 15 of the continent’s 16 genera of large
mammals died out. North America lost 33 of 45 genera
of large mammals, and in South America, 46 of 58 large
mammal genera went extinct. In contrast, Europe had only
7 of 23 large genera die out, whereas Africa south of the
Sahara lost only 2 of 44 genera. These data bring up three
questions, none of which has been answered completely:
(1) What caused Pleistocene extinctions? (2) Why did
these extinctions eliminate mostly large mammals?
(3) Why were extinctions most severe in Australia and
cooler conditions that prevailed during that time. Large the Americas? Scientists are currently debating two com-
animals have less surface area compared to their volume peting hypotheses for these extinctions. One, the climate
and thus retain heat more effectively than do smaller change hypothesis, holds that rapid changes in climate at
animals. the end of the Pleistocene caused extinctions, whereas
Some of the world’s best-known fossils come from proponents of prehistoric overkill contend that human
Pleistocene deposits. You have probably heard of the frozen hunters were responsible.
mammals found in Siberia and Alaska, such as mam- Rapid changes in climate and vegetation occurred
moths and bison. These extraordinary fossils, although over much of Earth’s surface during the Late Pleistocene,
very rare, provide much more information than most as glaciers began retreating. The North American and
fossils do (see Figure 5.12b). Contrary to what you might northern Eurasian open-steppe tundras were replaced
hear in the popular press, all these frozen animals were with conifer and broadleaf forests as warmer and wetter
partly decomposed, none were fresh enough to eat, and conditions prevailed. The Arctic region flora changed
none were found in blocks of ice or icebergs. All were from a productive herbaceous one that supported a vari-
recovered from permanently frozen ground known as ety of large mammals to a comparatively barren water-
permafrost. logged tundra that supported a much sparser fauna. The
Paleontologists have recovered Pleistocene animals southwestern United States region also changed from a
from many places in North America; two noteworthy areas moist area with numerous lakes, where saber-toothed
are Florida and the La Brea Tar Pits at Rancho La Brea cats, giant ground sloths, and mammoths roamed, to a
in southern California. In fact, Florida is one of the few semiarid environment unable to support a diverse fauna
places in the eastern United States where fossils of Ceno- of large mammals.
zoic land-dwelling animals are common ( Figure 18.18a). Rapid changes in climate and vegetation can affect
▼
At the La Brea Tar Pits, at least 230 kinds of vertebrate animal populations, but there are several problems with
animals have been found trapped in the sticky residue the climate-change hypothesis. First, why didn’t the large
where liquid petroleum seeped out at the surface and mammals migrate to more suitable habitats as the climate
then evaporated. and vegetation changed? After all, many animal species
The “tar” is really naturally formed asphalt, not the did. For example, reindeer and the Arctic fox lived in
product manufactured from peat or coal. Many of the fos- southern France during the last glaciation and migrated
sils are carnivores, especially dire wolves, saber-toothed to the Arctic when the climate became warmer. The second
cats, and vultures, that gathered to dine on mammals that argument against the climate hypothesis is the apparent
became mired in the “tar” (Figure 18.18b). As a matter of lack of correlation between extinctions and the earlier
fact, even today, small mammals, birds, and insects are glacial advances and retreats throughout the Pleistocene
trapped in the sticky tarlike deposits just as they were in Epoch. Previous changes in climate were not marked by
the past. episodes of mass extinctions.
Pleistocene Faunas 381
▼ Figure 18.18 Pleistocene Fossils from Florida and California
Erika Simons/Florida Museum of Natural History

(a) Among the diverse Pliocene and
Pleistocene mammals of Florida were
6-m-long ground sloths and armored
glyptodonts that weighed more than
2 metric tons.
(b) Restoration of a mammoth trapped in the sticky

Sue Monroe
residue at the La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles,

California.
Proponents of the prehistoric-overkill hypothesis argue human inhabitants of North and South America as well
that the mass extinctions in North and South America and as Australia probably lived in small, scattered communi-
Australia coincided closely with the arrival of humans. ties, gathering food and hunting. How could a few hunt-
Perhaps hunters had a tremendous impact on the faunas ers decimate so many species of large mammals? However,
of North and South America about 11,000 years ago humans have caused extinctions on oceanic islands. For
because the animals had no previous experience with example, in a period of about 600 years after arriving in
humans. The same thing happened much earlier in Aus- New Zealand, humans exterminated several species of the
tralia soon after people arrived about 40,000 years ago. large, flightless birds called moas.
No large-scale extinctions occurred in Africa and most of A second problem is that present-day hunters concen-
Europe because animals in those regions had long been trate on smaller, abundant, and less dangerous animals.
familiar with humans. The remains of horses, reindeer, and other smaller animals
One problem with the prehistoric-overkill hypothesis are found in many prehistoric sites in Europe, whereas
is that archaeological evidence indicates that the early mammoth and woolly rhinoceros remains are scarce.
and North America are only
narrowly separated at the
B er ing St rait, w hich at
several times during the
Cenozoic formed a land cor-
Migrants from ridor across which mammals
South America Opossum
migrated (see Figure 17.14).
Ground sloth During the Early Cenozoic,
a land connection between
Armadillo Europe and North America
Glyptodont
Caribbean
allowed mammals to roam
Sea across all the northern conti-
nents. Many did; camels and
Pacific horses are two examples.
Ocean In contrast, the southern
Bear
continents were largely sepa-
rate island continents dur-
Horse Tapir
ing much of the Cenozoic.
Africa, however, remained
Squirrel
fairly close to Eurasia, and
Camel at times, faunal interchange
Figure 18.19 The Great American
between those two con-
▼
Atlantic tinents was possible. For

Interchange South America was iso- Mastodon
Ocean
lated during much of the Cenozoic, Migrants from example, elephants first
North America Cats—including
and its mammal fauna consisted of
saber-tooths
evolved in Africa, but they
marsupials and placentals unlike migrated to all the northern
those anywhere else. When the
Isthmus of Panama formed during
continents.
the Late Pliocene, many placental S out h A m e r i c a w a s
mammals migrated south, and many isolated from all other
Deer
South American mammals went landmasses from the Late
extinct. A few South American mam- Cretaceous until a land
mals migrated north and successfully
occupied North America.
connection with North
Amer ica for med ab out
5 million years ago. Before
the connection was estab-
Finally, few human artifacts are found among the lished, the South American fauna was made up of mar-
remains of extinct animals in North and South America, supials and several orders of placental mammals that
and there is usually little evidence that the animals were lived nowhere else. These animals thrived in isolation
hunted. Countering this argument is the assertion that the and showed remarkable convergence with North Ameri-
impact on the previously unhunted fauna was so swift as can placental mammals. When the Isthmus of Panama
to leave little evidence. formed, migrants from North America soon replaced
The reason for the extinctions of large Pleistocene many of the indigenous South American mammals, whereas
mammals is unresolved and probably will be for some fewer migrants from the south were successful in North
time. It may turn out that the extinctions resulted from America ( Figure 18.19). As a result of this great Ameri-
▼
a combination of different circumstances. Populations can interchange, today, about 50% of South America’s
that were already under stress from climate changes mammalian fauna came from the north, but in North
may have been more vulnerable to hunting, especially America, only 20% of its mammals came from the south.
if small females and young animals were the preferred Even today, the coyote (Canis latrans) is extending its
targets. range from the north through Central America.
Most living species of marsupials are restricted to the
Australian region. Recall from Chapter 15 that marsupials
occupied Australia before its separation from Gondwana,
Intercontinental Migrations but apparently placentals, other than bats and a few
rodents, never got there until they were introduced by
Intercontinental migrations account for the many simi- humans. So, unlike South America, which now is con-
larities of North American, Asian, and European mam- nected to another continent, Australia has remained iso-
malian faunas throughout the Cenozoic. Even today, Asia lated, and its fauna is unique.
Intercontinental Migrations 383
Summary
•• The marine invertebrate groups that survived the Mesozoic Eocene. Many ungulates show evolutionary trends such
extinctions diversified throughout the Cenozoic. Bivalves, as molarization of the premolars as well as lengthening of
gastropods, corals, and several kinds of phytoplankton the legs for speed.
such as dinoflagellates proliferated. •• During the Paleogene, perissodactyls were more common
•• During much of the Early Cenozoic, North America was than artiodactyls, but now their 16 living species consti-
covered by subtropical and tropical forests, but the climate tute less than 10% of the world’s hoofed mammal fauna.
became drier by Oligocene and Miocene time, especially •• Although present-day Equus differs considerably from the
in the midcontinent region. oldest known member of the horse family, Hyracotherium,
•• Birds belonging to the living orders and families evolved an excellent fossil record shows a continuous series of
during the Paleogene Period. Large, flightless, predatory species linking the two.
birds of the Paleogene were eventually replaced with •• Even though horses, rhinoceroses, and tapirs as well as
mammalian predators. the extinct titanotheres and chalicotheres do not closely
•• Evolutionary history is better known for mammals than resemble one another, fossils show that they diverged
for other classes of vertebrates because mammals have from a common ancestor during the Eocene.
a good fossil record, their teeth are so distinctive, and •• The fossil record for whales verifies that they evolved
Cenozoic deposits are easily accessible. from land-dwelling ancestors during the Eocene.
•• Egg-laying mammals (monotremes) and marsupials •• Elephants evolved from rather small ancestors; became
(pouched) exist mostly in the Australian region. The pla- quite diverse and abundant, especially on the Northern
cental mammals—by far the most common mammals— Hemisphere continents; and then dwindled to only three
owe their success to their method of reproduction. living species.
•• All placental and marsupial mammals descended from •• Horses, camels, elephants, and other mammals spread
shrewlike ancestors that existed from Late Cretaceous to across the northern continents during the Cenozoic
Paleogene time. because land connections existed between those land-
•• Small mammals such as insectivores, rodents, and rabbits masses at various times.
occupy the microhabitats unavailable to larger mammals. •• During most of the Cenozoic, South America was isolated
Bats, the only flying mammals, have forelimbs modified and its mammal fauna was unique. A land connection was
into wings but otherwise differ little from their ancestors. established between the Americas during the Late Ceno-
•• Most carnivorous mammals have well-developed canines zoic, and migrations in both directions took place.
and specialized shearing teeth, although some aquatic •• One important evolutionary trend in Pleistocene mam-
carnivores such as seals have peglike teeth. mals and some birds was toward giantism. Many of these
•• The most common ungulates are the even-toed hoofed large species died out beginning about 40,000 years ago.
mammals (artiodactyls) and odd-toed hoofed mammals •• Changes in climate and prehistoric overkill are the two
(perissodactyls), both of which evolved during the hypotheses explaining Pleistocene extinctions.
Important Terms
Artiodactyla, p. 375 Hyracotherium, p. 377 Perissodactyla, p. 375
browser, p. 376 molar, p. 370 premolar, p. 370
carnassials, p. 374 molarization, p. 376 Proboscidea, p. 378
Carnivora, p. 374 Paleocene–Eocene Thermal ruminant, p. 377
Cetacea, p. 379 Maximum, p. 367 ungulate, p. 375
grazer, p. 376
Review Questions
1. The Perissodactyla is an order of mammals that includes 2. Cenozoic temperatures were highest during the
a. dogs and cats; a. Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum;
b. horses and rhinoceroses; b. Little Ice Age;
c. whales and elephants; c. Pleistocene Heat Wave;
d. rodents and rabbits; d. Miocene–Oligocene Warm Interval;
e. primates and insectivores. e. Holocene Humid Episode.
3. The carnassials of carnivores are 6. You are a high school science teacher who receives
a. long, dagger-like canines; numerous mammal and plant fossils with labels giving
b. modified for a diet of grass; genus and species and age. How would you show your
c. bladelike shearing teeth; students mammal adaptations for diet and speed? What
d. premolars that look much like molars; features of the skulls, teeth, and limbs would allow you
e. typically found in browsing animals. to point out which mammals were herbivores (browsers
4. The monotremes, one of the three basic groups of mam- versus grazers), which were carnivores, and which were
mals, is the only one that speedy runners? Also, how could you use the plant fossils
a. gives birth to live young; to make inferences about ancient climates?
b. is warm-blooded; 7. What are the hypotheses for extinctions at the end of
c. lays eggs; the Pleistocene Epoch? Does any evidence support these
d. has a well-developed placenta; hypotheses? Explain.
e. is extinct. 8. How do you explain the fact that much more is known
5. Cenozoic bryozoans were particularly abundant and about Cenozoic Earth and life history than about the
successful previous intervals of geologic time?
a. suspension feeders; 9. Give a summary of the evolutionary changes that took
b. predatory birds; place in Cenozoic horses.
c. marine mammals; 10. What were the major developments in the Cenozoic ma-
d. bony fish; rine invertebrates?
e. land-dwelling carnivores.
Review Questions 385
Courtesy of Persis Sturgis
19
Olduvai Gorge, on the eastern Serengeti Plain, Northern Tanzania, is often referred to as the “Cradle of Mankind” because of the many
important hominin discoveries made there. The gorge, part of the East African Rift Valley, is 48 km long and 9 m deep and formed as a
result of the tectonic forces shaping East Africa.
Primate and Human Evolution

Outline
Introduction
What Are Primates?
Prosimians
Anthropoids
Hominids and Hominins
Australopithecines
The Human Lineage
Perspective Discovery of a 1.8 Million-Year-Old Skull at

Dmanisi, Georgia, Sheds New Light on Early Homo Evolution
Summary
386
386 Chapter 19 Primate and Human Evolution
Chapter Objectives in their evolution that help define primates and that are
At the end of this chapter, you will have learned that related to their arboreal, or tree-dwelling, ancestry. These
include changes in the skeleton and mode of locomotion; an
• Primates are difficult to characterize as an order because they increase in brain size; a shift toward smaller, fewer, and less
lack strong specializations found in most other mammalian orders.
specialized teeth; stereoscopic vision; and the evolution of
• Primates are divided into two suborders: the prosimians, which a grasping hand with an opposable thumb. Not all of these
include lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, and tree shrews, and the an- trends took place in every primate group, nor did they evolve
thropoids, which include monkeys, apes, and humans. at the same rate in each group (see mosaic evolution in Chap-
• The hominins include present-day humans and their extinct ter 7). In fact, some primates have retained certain primitive
ancestors, which have a fossil record extending back almost features, whereas others show all or most of these trends.
7 million years. The order Primates is divided into two suborders, the
Prosimii and Anthropoidea ( Figure 19.1, Table 19.1).
▼
• Hominin, and therefore human evolution, is very complex and
The prosimians include the lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, and
in a constant state of flux owing to various new discoveries.
tree shrews, whereas the anthropoids include monkeys,
• The most famous of all fossil humans are the Neanderthals, apes, and humans.
who inhabited Europe and the Middle East beginning about
200,000 years ago.
• The Neanderthals were succeeded by the Cro-Magnons, also
known as Anatomically Modern Humans, about 30,000 years ago. Prosimians
Prosimians are generally small, ranging from species the
size of a mouse to those as large as a house cat. They are
Introduction arboreal, have five digits on each hand and foot with either
claws or nails, and are typically omnivorous. They have
Who are we? Where did we come from? What is the human
large, forwardly directed eyes specialized for night vision—
genealogy? What does it mean to be human? These are
hence, most are nocturnal (Figure 19.1a). As their name
basic questions that all of us have probably asked ourselves
implies (pro means “before,” and simian means “ape”), they
at some time or another. Just as many people enjoy tracing
are the oldest primate lineage, with a fossil record extending
their family history as far back as they can, paleoanthro-
back to the Paleocene.
pologists are discovering that the human family tree is more
During the Eocene, prosimians were abundant,
complicated and goes back much farther than they thought.
diverse, and widespread in North America, Europe, and
So where does this leave us, evolutionarily speaking? It
Asia ( Figure 19.2). As the continents moved northward
▼
leaves us in a very exciting time as we seek to unravel the his-

during the Cenozoic and the climate changed from warm-
tory of our species. Our understanding of our own phylogeny
tropical to cooler mid-latitude conditions, the prosimian
is presently in flux, and each new fossil hominin discovery
population decreased in both abundance and diversity.
sheds more light on our ancestry. Although some may find it
frustrating, human evolution is just like that of other groups in
that we have followed an uncertain evolutionary path. As new
species evolved, they filled ecological niches and either gave
rise to descendants better adapted to the changing environ- Table 19.1 Classification of the Primates
ment or became extinct. So it should not surprise us that our Order Primates: Lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, tree shrew, monkeys,
own evolutionary history has many “dead-end” side branches. apes, humans
In this chapter, we examine the various primate groups, in Suborder Prosimii: Lemurs, lorises, tarsiers, tree shrews
particular the origin and evolution of the hominins, the group Suborder Anthropoidea: Monkeys, apes, humans
that includes our ancestors. However, we must point out that Superfamily Cercopithecoidea: Macaque, baboon,
proboscis monkey (Old World monkeys)
recent discoveries of fossil hominins, as well as innovative
Superfamily Ceboidea: Howler, spider, and squirrel
techniques for scientific analysis, are leading to new hypoth-
monkeys (New World monkeys)
eses about our ancestry. By the time you read this chapter, new Superfamily Hominoidea: Apes, humans
discoveries may have changed some of the conclusions stated Family Hylobatidae: Gibbons, siamangs
here. Such is the nature of paleoanthropology—and one rea- Family Hominidae: Orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees,
son the study of hominins is so fascinating and exciting. humans
Subfamily Ponginae: Orangutans and their extinct
ancestors
What Are Primates? Subfamily Homininae: Gorillas, chimpanzees, humans
and their extinct ancestors
Primates are difficult to characterize as an order because Tribe Gorillini: Gorillas
Tribe Panini: Chimpanzees
they lack the strong specializations found in most other
Tribe Hominini: Humans and their extinct ancestors
mammalian orders. We can, however, point to several trends
Prosimians 387
Figure 19.1 Primates Primates are
▼
divided into two suborders: the prosimians
(a) and the anthropoids (b–d), which are
further subdivided into three superfami-
lies: Old World monkeys (b); New World
monkeys (c); and hominoids, which in-
clude the apes (d) and humans.
© Tony Camacho/Science Source

© G. Austing/Science Source
(a) Tasier. (b) Baboon.
© worldswildlifewonders/Shutterstock.com
(c) Spider monkey. (d) Chimpanzee. Tom McHugh/Science Source
By the Oligocene, few prosimians were left in the ( Figure 19.3). Aegyptopithecus had not only monkey char-
▼
northern continents as the once-widespread Eocene pop- acteristics but also features that were more like those of apes.
ulations migrated south to the warmer latitudes of Africa, As such, it is presently the closest link we have to the Old
Asia, and Southeast Asia. Presently, prosimians are found World primates.
only in the tropical regions of Asia, India, Africa, and Scientists divide anthropoids into three superfamilies:
Madagascar. Cercopithecoidea (Old World monkeys), Ceboidea (New
World monkeys), and Hominoidea (apes and humans)
Anthropoids
Sometime during the Late Eocene, the anthropoids evolved
from a prosimian lineage, and by the Oligocene, they were
a well-established group. Much of our knowledge about the
early evolutionary history of anthropoids comes from fossils
found in the Fayum district, a small desert area southwest
of Cairo, Egypt. During the Late Eocene and Oligocene,
this region of Africa was a lush, tropical rainforest that
supported a diverse and abundant fauna and flora. Within
this forest lived many different arboreal anthropoids as
well as various prosimians. In fact, several thousand fossil
specimens representing more than 20 primate species have
been recovered from rocks of this region. One of the earli-
est anthropoids was Aegyptopithecus, a small, Late Eocene, Figure 19.2 Eocene Prosimian Notharctus, a primitive Eocene
▼
fruit-eating, arboreal primate that weighed about 5 kg prosimian from North America.
Figure 19.3 Aegyptopithecus zeuxis Skull of Aegyptopithecus tions also changed. Prosimians and monkeys became rare,
▼
zeuxis, one of the earliest known anthropoids. whereas hominoids diversified in the newly forming envi-
ronments and became abundant. Ape populations became
reproductively isolated from each other within the various
forests, leading to adaptive radiation and increased diver-
sity among the hominoids. During the Miocene, Africa
collided with Eurasia, producing additional changes in the
climate as well as providing opportunities for migration of
animals between the two landmasses.
Harry Taylor/Dorling Kindersley/Getty Images

Two apelike groups evolved during the Miocene that
ultimately gave rise to present-day hominoids. Although
there is still no agreement on the early evolutionary rela-
tionships among the hominoids, fossil evidence and
molecular DNA similarities between present-day homi-
noid families are providing a clearer picture of the evolu-
tionary pathways and relationships among the hominoids.
The first group, the dryopithecines, evolved in Africa
during the Miocene and subsequently spread to Eurasia
following the collision between the two continents. The
(Table 19.1). Old World monkeys (superfamily Cercopi- dryopithecines were a group of hominoids that varied in
thecoidea) include the macaque, baboon, and proboscis size, skeletal features, and lifestyle. One of the best known
monkey and are characterized by close-set, downward- dryopithicines is Proconsul, an apelike, fruit-eating ani-
directed nostrils (like those of apes and humans), grasping mal that led a quadrupedal arboreal existence with limited
hands, and a nonprehensile tail (Figure 19.1b). Present- activity on the ground ( Figure 19.4). The dryopithecines
▼
day Old World monkeys are distributed throughout the were very abundant and diverse during the Miocene and
tropical regions of Africa and Asia and are thought to have Pliocene, particularly in Africa.
evolved from a primitive anthropoid ancestor, like Aegyp- The second group, the sivapithecids, evolved in Africa
topithecus, sometime during the Oligocene. during the Miocene, then spread throughout Eurasia. The
New World monkeys (superfamily Ceboidea) are found fossil remains of sivapithecids are plentiful and consist
only in Central and South America. They are character- mostly of skulls, jaws, and isolated teeth. Body or limb
ized by a prehensile tail, flattish face, and widely separated bones are rare, limiting our knowledge about what they
nostrils and include the howler, spider, and squirrel mon- looked like and how they moved around. We do know that
keys (Figure 19.1c). New World monkeys probably evolved sivapithecids had powerful jaws and thick-enameled teeth
from African monkeys that migrated across the widening with flat chewing surfaces, suggesting a diet of hard and
Atlantic sometime during the Early Oligocene, and they coarse foods, including nuts.
have continued evolving in isolation to this day. No evi- It is clear from the fossil evidence that sivapithecids were
dence exists of any prosimian or other primitive primates not involved in the evolutionary branch leading to humans,
in Central or South America or of any contact with Old but they were probably the ancestral stock from which
World monkeys after the initial immigration from Africa.
Hominoids (superfamily Hominoidea) consist of two
families: the Hylobatidae, which are the gibbons and sia-
mangs (lesser apes), and the Hominidae, which include
orangutans, gorillas, chimpanzees, and humans and their
extinct ancestors (Table 19.1 and Figure 19.1d). The homi-
noid lineage diverged from Old World monkeys some-
time before the Miocene, but exactly when is still being
debated. It is generally accepted, however, that hominoids
evolved in Africa, probably from the ancestral anthropoid
group that included Aegyptopithecus.
Recall that beginning in the Late Eocene, the north-
ward movement of the continents resulted in pronounced
climatic shifts. In Africa, Europe, Asia, and elsewhere, a
major cooling trend began (see Figure 18.5b) and the
tropical and subtropical rain forests slowly began to
change to a variety of mixed forests separated by savan-
nas and open grasslands as temperatures and rainfall Figure 19.4 Proconsul Probable appearance of Proconsul,
▼
decreased. As the climate changed, the primate popula- a dryopithecine.
Anthropoids 389
present-day orangutans evolved. In fact, one genus, Giganto- Discovered in northern Chad’s Djurab Desert, the
pithecus, was a contemporary of early Homo in Eastern Asia. nearly 7-million-year-old skull and dental remains of
Although many pieces are still missing, particularly Sahelanthropus tchadensis (but nicknamed Tourmaï,
during critical intervals in the African hominoid fossil which means “hope of life” in the local Goran language)
record, molecular DNA as well as fossil evidence indicates make it the oldest known hominin yet unearthed and
that the dryopithecines, apes, chimpanzees, and humans one that existed at or very near to the time when homi-
and their extinct ancestors form a closely related lineage. nins and chimpanzees diverged from a common ancestor
The sivapithecids and orangutans, as previously discussed, ( Figure 19.7). Currently, most paleoanthropologists accept
▼
form a different lineage, one that did not lead to humans. that the hominin–chimpanzee stock separated from gorillas
approximately 8 million years ago and that hominins sepa-
rated from chimpanzees about 7 million years ago.
Besides being the oldest known hominin, Sahelanthro-
Hominids and Hominins pus tchadensis shows a mosaic of primitive and advanced
features that has both excited and puzzled paleoanthro-
The term hominids is now generally used to com- pologists. Its small brain case and most of its teeth (except
prise the subfamily Homininae, which include goril- the canines) are chimplike. However, the nose, which is
las, chimpanzees, humans and their extinct ancestors, fairly flat, and the prominent brow ridges are features seen
and is distinct from the subfamily Ponginae (orangutans only, until now, in the human genus Homo. It is hypothe-
and their extinct ancestors) (Table 19.1). The Hom- sized that Sahelanthropus tchadensis was probably bipedal
ininae are further divided into three tribes: Hominini in its walking habits, but until bones from its legs and feet
(humans and their extinct ancestors), Gorillini (goril- are found, that supposition remains conjecture.
las), and Panini (chimpanzees) (Table 19.1). Thus, mem- The next oldest hominin is Orrorin tugenensis, whose
bers of the Hominini are now referred to as hominins. fossils have been dated at 6 million years old and consist
Several features serve to distinguish the hominins from of bits of jaw, isolated teeth, and finger, arm, and partial
the other two hominid tribes (gorillas and chimpan- upper leg bones (Figure 19.6). At this time, there is still
zees). Hominins are bipedal; that is, they have an upright debate as to exactly where Orrorin tugenensis fits in the
posture, which is indicated by several modifications in hominin lineage, but analysis of the leg bones indicates
their skeleton ( Figure 19.5a). In addition, they show that individuals of this species climbed trees, but also
▼
a trend toward a large and internally reorganized brain probably walked upright while on the ground.
(Figure 19.5b). Other features include a reduced face and Sometime between 5.8 and 5.2 million years ago,
reduced canine teeth, omnivorous feeding, increased man- another hominin, Ardipithecus kadabba, was present in
ual dexterity, and the ability to use sophisticated tools. eastern Africa (Figure 19.6). The recent discovery of a sec-
Many anthropologists think that these features evolved ond species of Ardipithecus, A. ramidus, has caused paleoan-
in response to major climatic changes that began during the thropologists to once again rethink the human evolutionary
Miocene and continued into the Pliocene. During this time, lineage. Nicknamed “Ardi,” this skeleton and skull of a
vast savannas replaced the African tropical rain forests where female, standing 1.2 m tall and weighing approximately
the prosimians and Old World monkeys had been so abun- 50 kg, lived approximately 4.4 million years ago
dant. As the savannas and grasslands continued to expand, ( Figure 19.8). Ardi displays an interesting mosaic of evo-
▼
hominins made the transition from true forest dwelling to lutionary characteristics that include a dexterous hand
life in an environment of mixed forests and grasslands. for grasping and a foot with an opposable big toe. Despite
Presently, there is no clear consensus on the evolution- having an opposable big toe, Ardi’s foot lacked the flexibility
ary history of the hominin lineage. This is due, in part, to of an ape’s foot, which is used for climbing and maneuvering
the incomplete fossil record of hominins, as well as new in trees. Based on these and other features, scientists think
discoveries, and also because some species are known only that Ardi was able to walk upright on the ground but still
from partial specimens or fragments of bone. retained some ability to climb and maneuver in trees.
Because of these factors, there is even disagreement on The discovery of Ardi has caused paleoanthropologists
the total number of hominin species. A complete discus- to once again reevaluate the human evolutionary lineage.
sion of all the proposed hominin species and the various But as we’ve pointed out repeatedly throughout this book,
competing schemes of their evolutionary history is beyond this is how science works. With the discovery of new
the scope of this chapter. We will, however, briefly discuss hominin fossils, some questions are answered, yet other
the generally accepted taxa ( Figure 19.6) and present new ones arise, thus either confirming our previously held
▼
some of the current theories of hominin evolution. notions or forcing us to form new hypotheses.
Remember that although the fossil record of hominin
evolution is far from complete, what does exist is well
documented. It is, however, the interpretation of that fossil Australopithecines
record that precipitates the often vigorous and sometimes Australopithecine is a collective term for all members of the
acrimonious debates concerning our evolutionary history. genus Australopithecus. Currently, five species are generally
Figure 19.5 Comparison of Gorilla and Human Locomotion and Anthropoid Brain Size
Ischium
Ischium
Gorilla Human
(a) In gorillas, the ischium bone is long and the entire pelvis is tilted toward the horizontal. In humans, the ischium bone is much
shorter and the pelvis is vertical.
Parietal
Frontal
Parietal
Frontal Parietal Frontal
Occipital
Temporal Occipital
Temporal Occipital
Temporal
Cerebellum Cerebellum
Cerebellum
New World Monkey Great Ape Human

(b) An increase in brain size and organization is apparent in comparing the brains of a New World monkey (Superfamily Ceboidea), a great ape
(Superfamily Hominoidea; Family Hominidae), and a present-day human (Superfamily Hominoidea; Family Hominidae).
recognized: A. anamensis, A. afarensis, A. africanus, A. boisei, Kenya, and her colleagues, this 4.2-million-year-old bipedal
and A. robustus. However, a recently discovered sixth species species has many features in common with its younger
may result in a new interpretation of the origin of our own relative, Australopithecus afarensis, yet is more primitive
genus, Homo (see Perspective). Notwithstanding this new dis- in other characteristics, such as its teeth and skull. A.
covery, many paleoanthropologists accept the evolutionary anamensis is estimated to have been between 1.3 and 1.5 m
scheme in which A. anamensis, the oldest known australo- tall and weighed 33–50 kg.
pithecine, is ancestral to A. afarensis, who in turn is ancestral A discovery of fossils of Australopithecus anamensis
to A. africanus and the genus Homo, as well as the side branch from the Middle Awash area in northeastern Ethiopia
of australopithecines represented by A. robustus and A. boisei. has shed light on the transition between Ardipithecus
The oldest known australopithecine is Australopithecus and Australopithecus. Prior to this discovery, the origin
anamensis. Discovered at Kanapoi, a site near Lake Turkana, of Australopithecus has been hampered by a sparse fossil
Kenya, by Meave Leakey, of the National Museums of record. The discovery of Ardipithecus in the same region of
Hominids and Hominins 391
▼ Figure 19.6 The Stratigraphic Record of Hominins The geologic ranges for the commonly accepted species of hominins (the tribe of primates
that includes present-day humans and their extinct ancestors).
Millions of years ago

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
Sahelanthropus tchadensis
Orrorin tugenensis
Ardipithecus kadabba
Ardipithecus ramidus
Australopithecus anamensis
Australopithecus afarensis
Australopithecus africanus
Australopithecus boisei
Australopithecus robustus
Australopithecus sediba
Homo habilis
Homo erectus
Homo sapiens
Figure 19.8 Ardipithecus

▼
ramidus Frontal view of a
female Ardipithecus ramidus,
known as “Ardi.” A. ramidus,
who lived approximately 4.4
million years ago in what
is now Ethiopia, shows an
interesting variety of features,
such as a dexterous hand for
grasping and a foot with an
opposable big toe (clearly
shown here) that allowed it to
© 2012 Richard Nowilz
walk upright, yet also climb

and maneuver in trees.
Figure 19.7 Sahelanthropus tchadensis Discovered in Chad in

▼
2002 and dated at nearly 7 million years, this skull of Sahelanthro-

pus tchadensis is presently the oldest known hominin.
HO/AFP/Getty Images/NEWSCOM
Figure 19.9 Skeleton of Lucy (Australopithecus afarensis)
▼
Lucy, whose fossil remains were discovered by Donald Johanson
in 1974, is an approximately 3.5-million-year-old, fully bipedal
Australopithecus afarensis individual.
Africa and at the same time as the earliest Australopithecus

provides strong evidence that Ardipithecus evolved into
Australopithecus and links these two genera in the evolu-
tionary lineage leading to humans.
Australopithecus afarensis ( Figure 19.9), who lived 3.9–
▼
3.0 million years ago, was fully bipedal and exhibited great
variability in size and weight. Members of this species ranged
from just over 1 m to about 1.5 m tall and weighed between 29
and 45 kg. They had a brain size of 380–450 cubic centimeters
(cc), larger than the 300–400 cc of a chimpanzee, but much
smaller than that of present-day humans (1,350 cc average).
The skull of A. afarensis retained many apelike features,
including massive brow ridges and a forward-jutting jaw,
Ariadne Van Zandbergen/Lonely Planet Images/Getty Images

but its teeth were intermediate between those of apes and
humans. The heavily enameled molars were probably an
adaptation to chewing fruits, seeds, and roots ( Figure 19.10).
▼
Recall that one of the features that distinguish hominins
from the other members of the Homininae is the fact that
they are bipedal. Australopithecus afarensis was certainly
fully bipedal, as indicated by its fossil bones (Figure 19.9).
What about the fossil record of hominin footprints? What
can they tell us about when hominins walked upright?
Although fossil trackways of various animals extend as
far back as the Paleozoic (see Chapter 13 opening photo),
the oldest hominin footprints
come from an ash bed radiometri-
cally dated at 3.8–3.4 million years
old ( Figure 19.11). Discovered in
▼
1978 at Laetoli in northern Tan-

zania by Mary Leakey, these 54
individual footprints comprise a
trackway 27 m long. Dubbed the
Footprint Tuff, this volcanic ash
layer reveals the footprints of three
individuals, two adults and per-
haps a child (Figure 19.11).
What makes this find so excit-
ing and scientifically valuable is
that the footprints prove that early
hominins were fully bipedal and
had an erect posture long before
the advent of stone toolmaking or
an increase in the size of the brain.
© Darwen and Vally Hennings 1990
Figure 19.10 African Pliocene Land-

▼
scape Re-creation of a Pliocene landscape

showing members of Australopithecus afa-
rensis gathering and eating various fruits
and seeds.
▼ Figure 19.11 Hominin Footprints Discovered in 1978 by Mary Figure 19.12 Australopithecus africanus A reconstruction of
▼
Leakey, these hominin footprints preserved in volcanic ash at the La- the skull of Australopithecus africanus. This skull, known as that of
etoli site, Tanzania, prove that hominins were bipedal walkers at least the Taung child, was discovered by Raymond Dart in South Africa in
3.5 million years ago. The footprints of two adults and possibly those 1924 and marks the beginning of modern paleoanthropology.
of a child are clearly visible in this photograph.
Replica courtesy of Carolina Biological Supply. Photo by Sue Monroe

Figure 19.13 Australopithecus robustus The skull of Australo-
© John Reader/SPL/Science Source
pithecus robustus had a massive jaw; powerful chewing muscles;

and large, broad, flat chewing teeth apparently used for grinding up
coarse plant food.
Furthermore, the footprints showed that early hominins

walked like present-day humans by placing the full weight
of the body on the ball of the heel.

A. afarensis was stratigraphically succeeded by Aus-
tralopithecus africanus, who lived 3.0–2.3 million years
ago ( Figure 19.12). The differences between the two spe-
▼
cies are relatively minor. They were both about the same
size and weight, but A. africanus had a flatter face and
somewhat larger brain. Furthermore, it appears that the
limbs of A. africanus may not have been as well adapted
for bipedalism as those of A. afarensis.
Both A. afarensis and A. africanus differ markedly from
the so-called robust australopithicine species, A. boisei
(2.6–1.0 million years ago) and A. robustus (2.0–1.2 million
years ago). Both of these robust species were about the
same size (1.1–1.4 m tall) and weight (32–49 kg) and had
similar morphologic features. For example, A. robustus had accept the idea that the robust australopithecines form
a flat face, and the crown of its skull had an elevated bony a separate lineage from the other australopithecines and
crest that provided additional area for the attachment of went extinct around 1 million years ago.
strong jaw muscles ( Figure 19.13). In addition, its broad, At a site called Malapa, approximately 40 km north-
▼
flat molars indicate that it was a vegetarian. Most scientists west of Johannesburg, South Africa, fossils from an eroded
limestone cave have yielded the bones of hominin individuals What makes A. sediba such an exciting discovery is that
that might represent the oldest known species of the human it contains a combination of primitive and advanced features.
lineage. Named Australopithecus sediba ( Figure 19.14), it Among the primitive features that it shares with australopithi-
▼
appears to be an intermediate form between the youngest cines is a small brain, 420 cc in size, comparable to that of other
australopithecines and Homo (Figure 19.6). australopithicines, yet smaller than the larger-brained Homo
habilis (700 cc average). Other primitive features include long
Figure 19.14 Australopithecus sediba—The Ancestor of Homo? upper arms; long, high cheekbones; primitive molar cusps; a
▼
primitive heel bone; and an overall small size (1.3 m tall).

On the other hand, the shape of A. sediba’s brain as
AP Images/Brett Eloff/Lee Berger/University of Witwatersrand/dapd

well as such facial features as smaller teeth and chewing
muscles are advanced traits that are not characteristic of
earlier australopithicines. Other advanced features are a
humanlike pelvis; long legs; and a hand with the capability
to bring its thumb and fingers together to form a preci-
sion grip, a feature necessary for manipulating objects and
making and using tools (Figure 19.14b).
Currently, there is great debate as to whether A. sediba
is a true transitional species between Australopithecus and
either H. habilis or H. erectus or simply a later southern Afri-
can branch of Australopithecus that coexisted with members
of the evolving Homo genus. And, as with previous new
(a) The skull of Australopithecus sediba contains both primitive and hominin finds, A. sediba’s place in the human phylogenetic
advanced features. One of the primitive features is a small brain, com-
tree will eventually be determined by the bones themselves.
parable in size to that of other australopithicines. On the other hand,
the skull displays such advanced features as relatively small premolars
and molars as well as facial features that are more similar to Homo.
The Human Lineage
Homo habilis The earliest member of our own genus,
Homo, is Homo habilis, who lived 2.5–1.6 million years ago.
Its remains were first found at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania
(see chapter opening photo) by Mary and Louis Leakey,
but it is also known from Kenya, Ethiopia, and South Afri-
ca. H. habilis evolved from the A. afarensis and A. africanus
lineage and coexisted with A. africanus for approximately
200,000 years (Figure 19.6). H. habilis had a larger brain
(700 cc average) than its australopithecine ancestors, but a
smaller face and teeth ( Figure 19.15). It was between 1.2
▼
Ap Images/Peter Schmid, courtesy of Lee Berger and the University of Witwatersrand
© The Bridgeman Art Library/Getty Images
(b) Shown in this image are bones of the right hand of Australopithe-
cus sediba against a modern human hand. The hand lacks three wrist
bones and four terminal phalanges (fingertip bones) but is otherwise
complete. An important and advanced feature of the hand of A. sediba Figure 19.15 Homo habilis Homo habilis is the earliest species
▼
is that the thumb and fingers can be brought together to grip items, a of the Homo lineage. Shown is an approximately 1.9-million-year-old
feature necessary for the manipulation of objects. skull from Kenya.
Perspective
Discovery of a 1.8 Million-Year-Old Skull at Dmanisi, Georgia,

Sheds New Light on Early Homo Evolution
The recent discovery of a 1.8 million-year- (Figure 2); various crude stone tools; and less than that of Homo erectus, and about
old skull at Dmanisi, 155 km southwest numerous mammals, including saber- one-third the volume of a present-day
of Georgia’s capital, Tbilisi, has prompted toothed cats and an extinct large cheetah. human brain. The face was relatively long
paleoanthropologists to reexamine wheth- The hominin remains were recovered from and flat with a jutting jaw and large, heav-
er our ancestors emerged from Africa an underground den, where the unfortu- ily worn teeth, features of early hominins,
as a single species or as several species nate individuals were probably carried after but it also displayed thick brow ridges,
(Figure 1). The skull, referred to as Skull 5 being killed. Analysis of the site indicates a key feature of Homo erectus. The four
(Figure 2), is presently the most complete that it was occupied between 1.85 and 1.77 other partial skulls and limbs from Dmanisi
adult hominin skull recovered from Lower million years ago, and the surrounding area include an elderly toothless male, another
Pleistocene deposits. at that time is best described as a humid adult male, a young female, and an ado-
Skull 5 joins the fossil skulls and bones forest. Whereas the five individuals probably lescent of unknown gender (Figure 2).
of four other similar hominin individuals did not live alongside each other, they were Taken together, the fossil remains of
most likely part of a multigenerational popu- these five hominin individuals indicate a
lation spread over a few thousand years. species that had a small brain and was
RUSSIA 100 KM What makes the discovery of Skull short in stature, but had modern body
CAUC 5 so exciting and significant is that it proportions and could walk long distances
AS displays a mosaic of features seen in both as fully upright bipeds. Using statistical
US
MOUNT
AINS earlier and later hominins. Furthermore, analysis and Skull 5 as a benchmark for
because of the completeness of Skull 5, comparison with the other four skulls,
GEORGIA it shows that the variation in morphology researchers have concluded that despite
Black Tbilisi
Sea among the five hominins at Dmanisi is no some of their differences, these five hom-
Dmanisi
greater than that exhibited between mem- inin individuals most likely belonged to a
bers of any living primate species, leading single variable species that are best placed
TURKEY many paleoanthropologists to conclude in Homo erectus. Such a conclusion also
ARMENIA
that these hominin specimens belonged brings up the question as to whether the
The New York Times to a single species, most likely Homo various species of Homo in Africa are, in
Figure 1 Location of Dmanisi, Georgia, erectus ( Figures 19.16 and 19.17). fact, distinct species or, as some have
where fossil bones and the skulls of five The morphology of Skull 5, likely be- suggested, variants of Homo erectus.
hominins, dated at 1.8 million years, are longing to a male, shows a small brain case It should also be pointed out that not
contributing to the debate on the early evo- with a volume of 546 cm3, comparable to all paleoanthropologists agree with the
lution of humans. the low end of variation in Homo habilis, conclusion that all five hominin specimens
Figure 2 With the discovery of a nearly complete 1.8-million-year old adult skull, named Skull #5, at Dmanisi,
Georgia, scientists are now able to analyze the physical differences between individuals of different ages and gender
that lived in the same place and at about the same time (nearly 2 million years ago). Using Skull #5 as their bench-
mark (far right), paleoanthropologists compared skulls from an adolescent of unknown gender, a young female, an
elderly toothless male, and another adult male. Despite some of their differences, it appears that all five individuals
most likely belonged to the same species, Homo erectus.
Marcia Ponce de León and Christoph
Zollikofer, University of Zurich
from Dmanisi should be considered a focused mainly on the skull while down- amine the known fossil record, apply new
single species. While recognizing the excel- playing other parts of the skeleton. techniques in their analysis, and hopefully
lent preservation and completeness of Skull What the discovery of Skull 5 does fill in the gaps with new discoveries of
5, those who don’t agree with consolidating show is that the evolution of the human earlier hominin fossils, thus leading them
the five individuals into one species point lineage is far from resolved. Debate will to a clearer resolution and understanding
to the methodology of the analysis, which continue as paleoanthropologists reex- of human evolution.
and 1.3 m tall, had disproportionately long arms compared Figure 19.16 Homo erectus A reconstruction of the skull of
▼
with modern humans, and weighed only 32–37 kg. Homo erectus, a widely distributed species whose remains have been
found in Africa, Europe, India, China, and Indonesia.
The evolutionary transition from H. habilis to Homo
erectus appears to have occurred in a short period of time,
between 1.8 and 1.6 million years ago. However, evidence
indicating that H. habilis and H. erectus may have coex-
isted for approximately 500,000 years has led some scien-
tists to suggest that H. habilis and H. erectus evolved from
a common ancestor and thus represent separate lineages
of Homo, rather than the traditional linear view of H. erec-
tus evolving from H. habilis (see Perspective).
Homo erectus In contrast to the australopithecines and
H. habilis, which are unknown outside Africa, Homo erec-
tus was a widely distributed species, having migrated from

Africa during the Pleistocene. Specimens have been found
not only in Africa, where it evolved 1.8 million years ago,
but also in Europe, India, China (“Peking Man”), and In-
donesia (“Java Man”). By 1 million years ago, H. erectus
was present in southeastern and eastern Asia, where it sur-
vived until about 100,000 years ago.
Although H. erectus developed regional variations in
form, the species differed from modern humans in several
ways. Its brain size of 800–1,300 cc, although much larger
than that of H. habilis, was still less than the average for
Homo sapiens (1,350 cc). The skull of H. erectus was thick-
walled, its face was massive, it had prominent brow ridges,
and its teeth were slightly larger than those of present-day The alternative explanation, the “multiregional” view,
humans ( Figure 19.16). H. erectus was comparable in size maintains that early modern humans did not have an iso-
▼
to present-day humans, standing between 1.6 and 1.8 m lated origin in Africa, but that they established separate
tall and weighing between 53 and 63 kg. populations throughout Eurasia. Occasional contact and
The archaeological record indicates that H. erectus was interbreeding between these populations enabled our spe-
a toolmaker. Furthermore, some sites show evidence that cies to maintain its overall cohesiveness while still pre-
its members used fire and lived in caves, an advantage for serving the regional differences in people we see today.
those living in more northerly climates ( Figure 19.17). Regardless of which theory turns out to be correct, our
▼
Debate still surrounds the transition from H. erectus to species, H. sapiens, most certainly evolved from H. erectus.
our own species, Homo sapiens. Paleoanthropologists are
split into two camps. On the one side are those who sup- Neanderthals Perhaps the most famous of all fossil
port the “out of Africa” view. According to this view, early humans are the Neanderthals, who inhabited Europe and
modern humans originated in Africa and then migrated the Near East from about 200,000 to 30,000 years ago and,
out of Africa, perhaps as recently as 100,000 years ago, according to the best estimates, never exceeded 15,000
populating Europe and Asia and driving the earlier hom- individuals in western Europe. Some paleoanthropologists
inin populations there to extinction. regard the Neanderthals as a variety or subspecies (Homo
▼ Figure 19.17 Pleistocene Landscape with Homo erectus Re-creation of a Pleistocene setting in Europe in which members of Homo erectus
are using fire and stone tools.
Publiphoto/Science Source
sapiens neanderthalensis), whereas others consider them as Figure 19.18 Neanderthal Skull The Neanderthals were charac-
▼
a separate species (Homo neanderthalensis). In any case, terized by prominent heavy brow ridges, a projecting mouth, and a
weak chin as seen in this Neanderthal skull from Wadl Amud, Israel.
their name comes from the first specimens found in 1856 In addition, the Neanderthal brain was slightly larger, on average,
in the Neander Valley near Düsseldorf, Germany. than that of present-day humans.
The most notable difference between Neanderthals
and present-day humans is in the skull. Neanderthal
skulls were long and low with heavy brow ridges; angled
cheek bones; a large nose; a projecting mouth; and a weak,
receding chin ( Figure 19.18). Their brain was slightly
▼
larger (1,600 cc), on average, than our own (1,400 cc) and
somewhat differently shaped. The Neanderthal body was
more massive and heavily muscled than ours, particularly
in the arms and hand, with a flaring rib cage and rather
short lower limbs, much like those of other cold-adapted
people of today. Neanderthal males averaged between 1.6
and 1.7 m in height and weighed about 83 kg.
In recent years, scientists have been able to successfully
sequence the complete mitochrondrial DNA (mtDNA) as
well as sequences of the nuclear DNA of Neanderthals,
thus adding to our knowledge of them based previously
only on their fossil record. Mitochrondrial DNA occurs
in mitochrondria, which are structures that are found
Ira Block/National Geographic/Getty Images
in most eukaryotic cells and that provide the principal

source of cellular energy. They are self-replicating and
contain their own DNA. Furthermore, mitochrondrial
DNA is primarily inherited through the maternal lineage.
Results from mtDNA (and to a lesser extent nuclear DNA
analysis) shows that the Neanderthals are consistently
different genetically from modern humans. However, Cro-Magnons The name Cro-Magnons, who lived in
there is strong evidence that some interbreeding between Europe and the Middle East from about 35,000 to 10,000
Neanderthals and modern humans probably occurred years ago, is the term given to the successors of the Ne-
and that Neanderthals contributed approximately anderthals. The name derives from the discovery in 1868
1–4 percent to the genomes of non-African modern of parts of five skeletons found in a shallow cave at Cro-
humans. Genetic studies are thus playing an important Magnon in the Dordogne region of southwestern France
role in the debate of an “out of Africa” or “multiregional” and has been part of the lexicon of hominin names ever
origin of modern humans and their subsequent spread since. Many paleoanthropologists today prefer to use the
throughout the world. term Anatomically Modern Humans (AMH) or Early Mod-
Another interesting genetic study shows that a ern Humans (EMH) to designate the hominin remains
pigmentation gene from a segment of Neanderthal DNA from this time interval that look very much like us but dif-
extracted from two individuals indicates that at least fer slightly in certain features. For example, the skeletons
some Neanderthals had red hair and light skin. Also, of Anatomically Modern Humans were more robust and
the gene is different from that of present-day red-haired had a slightly larger cranial volume (1,600 cc on aver-
people, suggesting that Neanderthals and present-day age) than that of humans today. However, they also pos-
humans may have developed the trait independently in sessed features unique to present-day humans, such as a
response to similar higher-northern-latitude environ- tall, rounded skull with a straight forehead, reduced brow
mental pressures. ridges, and a prominent chin.
Based on fossil specimens from more than 100 sites as It was during the Late Paleolithic period, which began
well as genetic analysis, we now know that Neanderthals approximately 40,000 years ago, that the development of
are our closest extinct relative, albeit morphologically art and technology far exceeded anything the world had
more robust. Europe’s Neanderthals were the first humans previously seen. Using paints made from manganese
to move into truly cold climates, enduring miserably long and iron oxides, Cro-Magnon (AMH) people painted
winters and short summers as they pushed north into hundreds of scenes on the ceilings and walls of caves in
tundra country ( Figure 19.19). Their remains are found France and Spain, where many of them are still preserved
▼
chiefly in caves and hut-like rock shelters, which also con- ( Figure 19.20).
▼
tain a variety of specialized stone tools and weapons. In Cro-Magnons (AMH) were also skilled nomadic hunt-
addition, archaeological evidence indicates that Neander- ers, following the herds in their seasonal migrations and
thals commonly took care of their injured and buried their using a variety of specialized tools in their hunts, perhaps
dead, frequently with such grave items as tools, food, and including the bow and arrow. They sought refuge in caves
perhaps even flowers. and rock shelters and formed living groups of various sizes
As more fossil discoveries are made and increasingly ( Figure 19.21).
▼
sophisticated techniques of DNA extraction and analysis With the appearance of Anatomically Modern
are carried out, our view of Neanderthals and their society, Humans, our evolution has become almost entirely cul-
as well as their place in human evolution, will undoubt- tural rather than biologic. Since the appearance of the
edly change and come into sharper focus. Neanderthals approximately 200,000 years ago, humans
Figure 19.19 Pleistocene Cave

▼
Setting with Neanderthals Archaeolog-

ical evidence indicates that Neander-
thals lived in caves and participated
in ritual burials, as depicted in this
painting of a burial ceremony, such
as occurred approximately 60,000
years ago at Shanidar Cave, Iraq.
Painting by Ronald Bowen/Robert Harding Picture Library
have gone from a stone culture to
today’s culture with its emphasis on
technology that has allowed us to
visit other planets with space probes
and land astronauts on the Moon. It
remains to be seen how we will use this
technology in the future and whether
we will continue as a species, evolve
into another species, or become extinct
as many groups have before us.
Robert Harding Picture Library

Figure 19.20 Cro-Magnon Cave Painting Cro-Magnons (Anatomically Modern Humans)
▼
were very skilled cave painters. Shown is a painting of a horse from the cave of Niaux, France.
Figure 19.21 Pleistocene Cro-Magnon

Camp in Europe Cro-Magnons (AMH) were
highly skilled hunters who formed living
groups of various sizes.
Summary
•• Primates, which evolved during the Paleocene, differ from a fully bipedal group that evolved in Africa 4.2 million
other mammalian orders on the basis of overall skeletal years ago.
structure and mode of locomotion, an increase in brain •• Recent discoveries indicate that Ardipithecus evolved into
size, stereoscopic vision, and evolution of a grasping hand various species of Australopithecus, of which five species
with opposable thumb. are generally recognized.
•• The primates are divided into two suborders: prosimians, •• The human lineage began approximately 2.5 million years
which are the oldest primate lineage and include lemurs, ago in Africa with the evolution of Homo habilis, who was
lorises, tarsiers, and tree shrews, and anthropoids, which superseded by Homo erectus sometime between 1.8 and
include the New and Old World monkeys, apes, and 1.6 million years ago. Homo erectus was the first of the
hominins (humans and their extinct ancestors). hominins to migrate out of Africa, spreading to Europe,
•• The hominin lineage begins nearly 7 million years ago India, China, and Indonesia between 1.8 and 1 million
with Sahelanthropus tchadensis, followed by Orrorin tuge- years ago.
nensis at 6 million years, and then two species of Ardipi- •• The transition from H. erectus to H. sapiens is still unre-
thecus at 5.8 and 4.4 million years ago, respectively. These solved because there is presently insufficient evidence to
early hominins were succeeded by the australopithecines, determine which hypothesis—the “out of Africa” or the
“multiregional”—is correct. Nonetheless, we know that H. • • The Cro-Magnons, also referred to as “Anatomically
erectus used fire, made tools, and lived in caves. Modern Humans” (AMH), were highly skilled hunt-
•• The most famous of all human fossils are the Neanderthals, ers and cave painters who lived throughout Europe
who inhabited Europe and the Near East between 200,000 and the Middle East from about 35,000 to 10,000
and 30,000 years ago. They differed from present-day years ago.
humans in being more robust; having a larger cranial vol- •• Present-day humans succeeded the Cro-Magnons (AMH),
ume; and having a long, low skull with heavy brow ridges. having spread throughout the world as well as setting foot
Neanderthals also made specialized tools and weapons, on the Moon.
apparently took care of their injured, and buried their dead.
Important Terms
anthropoid, p. 388 hominin, p. 390 primate, p. 387
australopithecine, p. 390 hominoid, p. 390 prosimian, p. 387
Cro-Magnon, p. 399 Homo, p. 395
hominid, p. 390 Neanderthal, p. 397
Review Questions
1. When did primates evolve? 5. The human lineage began with the evolution of which
a. Paleocene; b. Eocene; c. Oligocene; species?
d. Miocene; e. Pliocene. a. Orrorin tugenensis; b. Ardipithecus ramidus;
2. Which of the following evolutionary trends characterize c. Sahelanthropus tchadensis; d. Homo habilis;
primates? e. Australopithecus boisei.
a. Change in overall skeletal structure; b. 6. What major evolutionary trends characterize the pri-
Grasping hand with opposable thumb; c. Increase mates and set them apart from the other orders of mam-
in brain size; d. Stereoscopic vision; e. All of mals?
the previous answers. 7. Discuss what is currently known about the evolutionary
3. Which is the oldest primate lineage? history of hominins.
a. Anthropoids; b. Prosimians; c. Insec- 8. Discuss how climate changes that began in the Miocene
tivores; d. Omnivores; e. Hominids. might have influenced the evolution of hominins.
4. Which of the following features distinguish hominins 9. Discuss the merits of the “out of Africa” and “multire-
from other hominoids? gional” views in regard to the transition between Homo
a. A large and internally reorganized brain; b. erectus and Homo sapiens.
A reduced face and reduced canine teeth; c. Biped- 10. What factors might influence the future course of human
alism; d. Use of sophisticated tools; e. All of evolution? Do you think it will be possible to control the
the previous answers. direction that evolution takes? Explain.
Review Questions 401
Wendy Connett/Robert Harding World Imagery/Getty Images
Overpopulation is considered one of the greatest environmental problems facing the world today. Not only are we covering the land with
our structures, as seen in this photo of Mexico City, Mexico, a city of more than nine million people, but we are also contributing to the
pollution of the atmosphere and possibly influencing climate change.
Epilogue
Outline
Introduction
Acid Rain
Global Warming
A Final Word
402
Introduction responsible manner, based on sound scientific knowledge
and judgment, so that future generations will inherit a
Throughout this book, we have emphasized that Earth is habitable environment. An understanding of geology, and
a complex, dynamic planet that has changed continuously science in general, is therefore of paramount importance if
since its origin some 4.6 billion years ago. These changes, we are to be good stewards of Earth.
and the present-day features we observe, are the result of One of the most important objectives of this book, as
interactions between the various interrelated internal and well as much of your secondary education, is to develop
external Earth systems, subsystems, and cycles. In addi- your critical thinking skills. As opposed to simple dis-
tion, these interactions have influenced the evolution of the agreement, critical thinking involves evaluating the sup-
biosphere, as is obvious from an examination of the fossil porting evidence for a particular point of view. Although
record. Perhaps the most important lesson to be learned your exposure to geology might still be considered some-
from the study of historical geology is that Earth is a what limited, having read this book, you certainly have
dynamic and changing planet in which continual change is the necessary fundamental knowledge needed to appraise
taking place, albeit not always at rates that we can readily why geologists accept plate tectonic theory, why they think
appreciate from a human lifetime or perspective. that Earth is 4.6 billion years old, and why scientists are
The rock cycle (see Figure 2.8), with its recycling of convinced that the theory of evolution is well supported
Earth materials to form the three major rock groups, by evidence. Your abilities as a critical thinker will help
illustrates the interrelationships between Earth’s internal you more effectively evaluate the arguments about global
and external processes. The hydrologic cycle explains the warming, groundwater contamination, and many other
continuous recycling of water from the oceans, to the geologic- and environmental-related issues.
atmosphere, to the land, and eventually back again to When such environmental issues as hydraulic fracturing
the oceans. Changes within this cycle can have profound (see Chapter 10), acid rain, and the greenhouse effect and
effects on Earth’s topography as well as its biota. For exam- global warming (see Chapter 4) are discussed and debated,
ple, a rise in global temperature will cause the ice caps to it is important to remember that they are not isolated topics
melt, contributing to rising sea level, which will greatly but are part of a larger system that involves the entire planet
affect coastal areas, where many of the world’s large popu- (see Figure 1.1). In addition, it is important to remember
lation centers are presently located (see Chapter 17). We that Earth goes through cycles of much longer duration
have seen the effect of changing sea level on continents in than the human perspective of time (see Figure 1.16).
the past, which resulted in large-scale transgressions and Although they may have serious consequences for the human
regressions (see Chapters 10, 11, and 14). Some of these species, global warming and cooling are part of a larger cycle
were caused by expanding and shrinking continental ice that has resulted in numerous glacial advances and retreats
caps resulting from landmasses moving over the South during the past 2.6 million years (see Chapter 17).
Pole (see Chapters 10 and 11). For this very reason—the long periods of time
On a larger scale, the movement of plates has had a pro- involved in such issues—geologists can make important
found effect on the formation of landscapes, the distribution contributions to the debate on global warming because of
of mineral resources, and atmospheric and oceanic circulation their geologic perspective. Long-term trends can be stud-
patterns, as well as the evolution and diversification of life. ied by analyzing deep-sea sediments, ice cores, changes in
The 1957 launching of Sputnik 1, the world’s first arti- sea level during the geologic past, and the distribution of
ficial satellite, ushered in a new worldwide consciousness plants and animals through time (see Figure 4.14).
in terms of how we view Earth and our place in the global Interestingly, most of the major environmental issues
ecosystem. Satellites and manned space missions have pro- currently being discussed and debated, such as acid rain and
vided us with the ability to view not only the beauty of our global warming, for example, seemingly have as a common
planet, but also the fragility of Earth’s biosphere and the denominator—human actions and their contribution to these
role humans play in shaping and modifying the environ- global problems (see chapter opening photo). The role that
ment. The pollution of the atmosphere, oceans, and many humans play in many of these issues, as well as the degree to
of our lakes and streams; the denudation of huge areas of which they play that role, is being examined and debated not
tropical forests; the scars from strip mining, are all visible only by scientists, but by economists, sociologists, and politi-
in the satellite images beamed back from space and attest cians, to name a few. It is, therefore, more important than
to the impact humans have had on the world’s ecosystem ever that citizens become versed in what science is, and what
(see Chapter 4 Perspective). it can and cannot do, as well as becoming critical thinkers in
Accordingly, we must understand that the changes the arguments regarding the impact of humans on the global
we make in the global ecosystem can have wide-ranging ecosystem (see Chapter 4 Perspective).
effects that we may not even be aware. Furthermore, we Recognizing that humans are part of the global eco-
must also remember that humans are part of the global system, as well as one species of an evolving biota, we will
ecosystem, and, like all other life-forms, our presence now examine two interrelated topics—acid rain and global
alone will have an effect. We must therefore act in a warming—from the perspective of historical geology.
Introduction 403
Acid Rain pH scale ( Figure E.2a). A pH value of 7 is neutral, whereas
▼
acidic conditions correspond to values less than 7, and
One result of industrialization is atmospheric pollution, values greater than 7 denote alkaline, or basic, conditions.
which causes smog, possible disruption of the ozone layer, Normal rain has a pH value of slightly less than 6.0. Some
global warming, and acid rain ( Figure E.1). Acidity, a areas experience acid snow and even acid fog with a pH as
▼
measure of hydrogen ion concentration, is measured on the low as 1.7.
Figure E.1 The Causes and Effects of Acid Rain

▼
(a) Pollution from

the smoke stacks of
steel mills in Pitts-
burgh, Pennsylvania,
during the 1970s
contributed to the
formation of acid rain
in the eastern United
States and Canada.
Yoram Lehman/Science Source

(b) The effects of acid
rain can be seen in
these dead trees in
Grayson Highlands
State Park, Virginia.
© Mary Terriberry/Shutterstock.com
404 Epilogue
Figure E.2 Acid Rain
▼
14
13 Lye
12 Lime
11 Ammonia
Alkaline
(basic) 10
9
Baking soda
8
Neutral 7 Distilled water
6
Natural rain
5
Acid rain
4
Acidic Apples
3
Vinegar
2
1 Battery acid
0
(a) Values less than 7 on the

pH scale indicate acidic con-
ditions, whereas those greater Sensitive soils/ Areas of air pollution: Current problem areas
than 7 are alkaline. The pH potential problem areas emissions leading to acid rain (including lakes and rivers)
scale is a logarithmic scale,
so a decrease of one unit is a
10-fold increase in acidity. (b) Areas where acid rain is now a problem and areas where the problem may develop.
Several natural processes, including soil-bacteria in some cases, all life-forms eventually die. However, as
metabolism and volcanism, release gases into the atmo- discussed in Chapter 7, some organisms are able to adapt
sphere that contribute to acid rain. Human activities also to new, and seemingly hostile, conditions, such as certain
produce added atmospheric stress, especially the burning plants that have adapted to contaminated soils caused by
of fossil fuels, which release carbon dioxide and nitrogen coal-mining operations.
oxide from internal combustion engines into the atmo- Acid rain also causes increased chemical weathering of
sphere. Both of these gases add to acid rain, but the great- limestone and marble and, to a lesser degree, sandstone.
est culprit is sulfur dioxide, released mostly by burning The effects are especially evident on buildings, monu-
coal. Coal contains sulfur, which oxidizes to form sulfur ments, and tombstones, as in Gettysburg National Mili-
dioxide (SO2). As sulfur dioxide rises into the atmosphere, tary Park in Pennsylvania.
it reacts with oxygen and water droplets to form sulfuric The devastation caused by sulfur gases on vegetation
acid (H2SO4), the main component of acid rain. near coal-burning power plants is apparent, and many
Robert Angus Smith first recognized acid rain in forests in the eastern United States show signs of stress
England in 1872, but it was not until 1961 that it become that cannot be attributed to other causes (Figure E.1b).
an environmental concern. At that time, scientists realized Although millions of tons of sulfur dioxide are still
that acid rain is corrosive and irritating, kills vegetation, released yearly into the atmosphere in the United States,
and has a detrimental effect on surface waters. Since then, the amount of sulfur dioxide emissions has been declin-
the effects of acid rain are apparent in Europe (especially ing, due to the Clean Air Act, and its subsequent amend-
in Eastern Europe) and the eastern part of North America, ments. Although significant progress has been made in
where the problem became worse until it no longer could reducing the emissions from coal-burning power plants,
be ignored (Figure E.2b). acid rain still remains a significant long-term issue in the
The areas affected by acid rain invariably lie down- United States and especially elsewhere in the world, where
wind from plants that emit sulfur gases, but the effects of coal is still a cheap source of energy.
acid rain in these areas may be modified by local condi- Acid rain, like global warming, is a worldwide problem
tions. For instance, if the area is underlain by limestone or that knows no national boundaries. Wind may blow pol-
alkaline soils, acid rain tends to be neutralized; however, lutants from the source in one country to another where
granite has little or no modifying effect. Small lakes lose the effects are felt. For instance, much of the acid rain in
their ability to neutralize acid rain and become more and eastern Canada actually comes from sources in the United
more acidic until some types of organisms disappear, and States, though that has been declining in recent years.
Acid Rain 405
Global Warming simulations, the fourth Intergovernmental Panel on Cli-
mate Change (IPCC) report, issued in 2007, showed a pre-
As discussed throughout this book, global warming and dicted increase in global average temperature from year
cooling are part of a larger cycle that has resulted in numer- 2000 to year 2100 of 1 to 3°C under the best conditions,
ous glacial advances and retreats, as well as rises and drops to a 2.5 to 6.5°C rise under “business-as-usual” conditions
in sea level, throughout Earth history (see Figure 1.16). ( Figure E.4).
▼
However, from a human perspective, one of the concerns These predicted increases in temperatures are based
is the role that humans have played in contributing to the on various scenarios that explore different global devel-
greenhouse effect. The issue is not whether we have a green- opment pathways. They are grouped into four scenario
house effect, because we do, but to what degree human families (A1, A2, B1, and B2) that cover a wide range of
activity, such as the burning of fossil fuels, has contributed economic, technological, and demographic possibilities
to global warming. and their resultant greenhouse gas emissions. The A1FI
Carbon dioxide is produced as a by-product of res- scenario (Figure E.4a) is based on a “business-as-usual”
piration and the burning of organic material. As such, it outlook in which the world experiences very rapid eco-
is a component of the global ecosystem and is constantly nomic growth, global population peaks in the mid-century
being recycled as part of the carbon cycle. The recycling with declines thereafter, and the world continues a fos-
of carbon dioxide between the crust and atmosphere is an sil-fuel intensive energy consumption strategy. At the
important climatic regulator because carbon dioxide—as opposite end of the scenario spectrum is the B1 scenario
well as other gases such as methane, nitrous oxide, chlo- (Figure E.4a), which also assumes a global population peak-
rofluorocarbons, and water vapor—allow sunlight to pass ing in mid-century and declining thereafter, a shift toward
through them but trap the heat reflected back from Earth’s a service and information economy, and an emphasis on
surface. This retention of heat is called the greenhouse reducing materials usage with the introduction of clean
effect ( Figure E.3). It results in an increase in the tempera- and resource-efficient technologies. The A1B combina-
▼
ture of Earth’s surface and, more importantly, its atmo- tion (Figure E.4a) is the “middle-of-the-road” scenario in
sphere, thus producing global warming. which global population trends follow that for the A1FI
Because of the increase in human-produced green- and B1 scenarios, but there is a balance across all energy
house gases during the last 200 years, many scientists sources and technologies used.
worry that a global warming trend has already begun and Regardless of which scenario is followed, the global
will result in severe global climatic shifts. Presently, most temperature change will be uneven, with the greatest
climate researchers use a range of scenarios for green- warming occurring in the higher latitudes of the north-
house gas emissions when making predictions for future ern hemisphere. Furthermore, there will be greater
warming rates. Based on state-of-the-art climate model warming for the continents than for the oceanic regions
Figure E.3 The Greenhouse Effect and Global Warming

▼
(a) aShort-wavelength
Short-wavelengthradiation
radiationfrom b (b)
Earth’s surface
Earth’s radiates
surface heat
radiates in the
heat form
in the form of c (c)
Increased concentrations
Increased concentrationsof greenhouse
of greenhouse
the from
Sun the
thatSun that
is not is not back into
reflected oflong-wavelength
long-wavelength radiation
radiation back
back into
into the
the atmo- gases
gasestrap
trapmore
moreheat
heatnear
nearEarth’s
Earth’s surface,
surface,
reflected
space back the
penetrates intoatmosphere
space and atmosphere,
sphere, wherewhere
some some
of itofescapes
it escapes
into into
space. causing
causinga ageneral
generalincrease
increaseininsurface
surfaceand
and
penetrates
warms the atmosphere
Earth’s surface. space. Theisrest
The rest is absorbed
absorbed by greenhouse
by greenhouse gases and atmospheric
atmospherictemperatures,
temperatures,which
whichleads
leadstoto
and warms Earth’s surface. gases
waterand water
vapor andvapor and reradiated
reradiated back towardbackEarth. global
globalwarming.
warming.
toward Earth.
406 Epilogue
Figure E.4 Estimated Temperature Rises From 2000 to 2100 and Projected Surface Temperature Changes for Early and Late 21st Century Reprinted from
▼
Figure 3.2 in Climate Change 2007: Synthesis Report. Also known as the IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (AR4). Published by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Adopted at IPCC Plenary XXVII, Valencia, Spain,
November 12–17, 2007.
(a) Solid lines are multimodel global averages of surface warming (relative (b) Projected surface temperature changes for the early
to 1980–1999) for the 2000 IPCC Special Report on Emissions Scenarios and late 21st century relative to the period 1980–1999.
(SRES) A2, A1B, and B1, shown as continuations of the 20th century simula- The panels show the multi-AOGCM average projections
tions. The orange line is for the experiment where concentrations were held for the A2 (top), A1B (middle), and B1 (bottom) SRES
constant at year 2000 values. The bars in the middle of the figure indicate scenarios averaged over decades 2020–2029 (left) and
the best estimate (solid line within each bar) and the likely range assessed 2090–2099 (right).
for the six SRES marker scenarios at 2090–2099 relative to 1980–1999.
The assessment of the best estimate and likely ranges in the bars includes
the Atmosphere-Ocean General Circulation Models (AOGCMs) in the left part
of the figure, as well as results from a hierarchy of independent models and
observational constraints.
because land areas tend to heat and cool more rapidly a general global warming occurs during the next hundred
than oceans. Thus, there will be greater warming in the years, what the ultimate impact on Earth’s biota will be,
more land-dominated northern hemisphere than in the and whether the dire predictions made by proponents of
ocean-dominated southern hemisphere (Figure E.4b). As global warming will even come true.
a consequence of this warming, rainfall patterns will shift It must also be pointed out that the IPCC’s Fifth Assess-
dramatically. This change in rainfall patterns will have a ment Report, issued in April, 2014 tones down some of its
major effect on the largest grain-producing areas of the claims made in its 2007 report, and is more cautious in its
world, such as the American Midwest. Drier and hotter predictions for the future. For example, during the period
conditions will intensify the severity and frequency of between 1998 and 2013, there has been a slowdown in the
droughts, leading to more crop failures and higher food rate of warming as compared to the previous 50 years, and
prices ( Figure E.5). With such shifts in climate, Earth what was predicted by various climate model simulations.
▼
may experience an increase in the expansion of deserts, In addition, the report predicts a more modest global tem-
which will remove valuable crop and grazing lands. perature increase of 1-1.5°C through 2035. Gone too are
We cannot leave the subject of global warming with- earlier claims of millions of “climate refugees” that would
out pointing out that some scientists are still not con- be displaced by droughts and extreme weather events.
vinced that the global warming trend is the direct result To be fair, the report’s authors note, as do its critics, that
of increased human activity related to industrialization or future predictions of climate change are based on complex
exactly how much of the amount of temperature increase models, which are only as good as their design and the
can be attributed directly to human cause or input. quality of the data.
They say that although the level of greenhouse gases has Earth, as we know, is a remarkably complex system,
increased, we are still uncertain about their rate of gen- with many feedback mechanisms and interconnections
eration and rate of removal, and about whether the rise throughout its various subsystems. It is very difficult to
in global temperatures during the past century resulted predict all of the consequences that global warming will
from normal climatic variations through time or from have for atmospheric and oceanic circulation patterns and
human activity. Furthermore, they conclude that even if its ultimate effect on Earth’s biota.
Global Warming 407
▼ Figure E.5 Withered Corn Crop as a Result of Drought Conditions industrialized countries. Whether these climate changes
are part of a natural global cycle taking place over thou-
sands or hundreds of thousands of years—that is, on a geo-
logic time scale—or are driven, in part, by human activities
is immaterial. The bottom line is that we already are, or
eventually will be, affected in some way, be it economic or
social, by the climate changes that are taking place.
The debate concerning human’s role in climate change
must therefore be addressed using sound scientific meth-
ods, and not become politicized, as it seemingly has in the
past few years.
A Final Word
In conclusion, the most important lesson to be learned from
the study of historical geology is that Earth is an extremely
complex and ever-changing planet. Interactions between its
various systems and subsystems have resulted in changes in
the atmosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere through time.
By studying how Earth has evolved in the past, we can better
understand how the different Earth systems and subsystems
Copyright and Photograph by Dr. Parvinder S. Sethi
work and interact with one another and, more importantly,

how our actions affect the delicate balance between these
various components.
We tend to view our planet from the perspective of
a human lifetime and commonly overlook the fact that
Earth has changed markedly in the context of geologic
time and that it continues to do so. As you now realize and
can appreciate, historical geology is not a static science,
but one like the dynamic Earth that it seeks to understand,
is constantly evolving as new information and methods
It is important to remember, however, that everyone of investigation become available. It is thus incumbent
is vulnerable to weather-related disasters—and that large- on all of us to apply the geologic lessons we have learned
scale changes brought about by climate change will impact to make Earth a more sustainable planet for both current
people in poor countries more than those in the more and future generations.
408 Epilogue
Appendix A
English-Metric Conversion Chart
English Unit Conversion Factor Metric Unit Conversion Factor English Unit
Length
Inches (in) 2.54 Centimeters (cm) 0.39 Inches (in)
Feet (ft) 0.305 Meters (m) 3.28 Feet (ft)
Miles (mi) 1.61 Kilometers (km) 0.62 Miles (mi)
Area
Square inches (in2) 6.45 Square centimeters (cm2) 0.16 Square inches (in2)
Square feet (ft2) 0.093 Square meters (m2) 10.8 Square feet (ft2)
Square miles (mi2) 2.59 Square kilometers (km2) 0.39 Square miles (mi2)
Volume
Cubic inches (in3) 16.4 Cubic centimeters (cm3) 0.061 Cubic inches (in3)
Cubic feet (ft3) 0.028 Cubic meters (m3) 35.3 Cubic feet (ft3)
Cubic miles (mi3) 4.17 Cubic kilometers (km3) 0.24 Cubic miles (mi3)
Weight
Ounces (oz) 28.3 Grams (g) 0.035 Ounces (oz)
Pounds (lb) 0.45 Kilograms (kg) 2.20 Pounds (lb)
Short tons (st) 0.91 Metric tons (t) 1.10 Short tons (st)
Temperature
Degrees Fahrenheit (°F) −32° × 0.56 Degrees Centigrade × 1.80 + 32° Degrees Fahrenheit (°F)
(Celsius) (°C)
Examples: 10 inches = 25.4 centimeters; 10 centimeters = 3.9 inches

100 square feet = 9.3 square meters; 100 square meters = 1,080 square feet
50°F = 10.08°C; 50°C = 122°F
Appendix A English-Metric Conversion Chart 409
Appendix B
Classification of Organisms
Any classification is an attempt to make order out of dis- Phylum Pyrrophyta—Dinoflagellates (Silurian?,
order and to group similar items into the same categories. Permian–Recent)
All classifications are schemes that attempt to relate items Phylum Rhodophyta—Red algae (Proterozoic–
to each other based on current knowledge and therefore are Recent)
progress reports on the current state of knowledge for the Phylum Xanthophyta—Yellow-green algae
items classified. Because classifications are to some extent (Miocene–Recent)
subjective, classification of organisms may vary among dif-
ferent texts. We have not attempted to include all known
life-forms, but rather the major categories of both living and
fossil groups. Kingdom Fungi
Phylum Zygomycota—Fungi that lack cross walls
(Proterozoic–Recent)
Kingdom Monera Phylum Basidiomycota—Mushrooms (Pennsylvanian–
Recent)
Prokaryotes Phylum Ascomycota—Yeasts, bread molds, morels
Phylum Archaebacteria—(Archean–Recent) (Mississippian–Recent)
Phylum Cyanobacteria—Blue-green algae or blue-
green bacteria (Archean–Recent)
Kingdom Plantae
Kingdom Protoctista Photosynthetic eukaryotes
Solitary or colonial unicellular eukaryotes Division* Bryophyta—Liverworts, mosses, hornworts
Phylum Acritarcha—Organic-walled unicellular algae (Devonian–Recent)
of unknown affinity (Proterozoic–Recent) Division Psilophyta—Small, primitive vascular plants
Phylum Bacillariophyta—Diatoms (Jurassic–Recent) with no true roots or leaves (Silurian–Recent)
Phylum Charophyta—Stoneworts (Silurian–Recent) Division Lycopodophyta—Club mosses, simple
Phylum Chlorophyta—Green algae (Proterozoic– vascular systems, true roots and small leaves,
Recent) including scale trees of Paleozoic Era (lycopsids)
Phylum Chrysophyta—Golden-brown algae, silicofla- (Devonian–Recent)
gellates and coccolithophorids (Jurassic–Recent) Division Sphenophyta—Horsetails (scouring rushes)
Phylum Euglenophyta—Euglenids (Cretaceous–Recent) and sphenopsids such as the Carboniferous
Phylum Myxomycophyta—Slime molds Calamites (Devonian–Recent)
(Proterozoic–Recent) Division Pteridophyta—Ferns (Devonian–Recent)
Phylum Phaeophyta—Brown algae, multicellular, Division Pteridospermophyta—Seed ferns
kelp, seaweed (Proterozoic–Recent) (Devonian–Jurassic)
Phylum Protozoa—Unicellular heterotrophs Division Coniferophyta—Conifers or cone-bearing
(Cambrian–Recent) gymnosperms (Carboniferous–Recent)
Class Sarcodina—Forms with pseudopodia for Division Cycadophyta—Cycads (Triassic–Recent)
locomotion (Cambrian–Recent) Division Ginkgophyta—Maidenhair tree (Triassic–
Order Foraminifera—Benthonic Recent)
and planktonic sarcodinids most Division Angiospermophyta—Flowering plants and
commonly with calcareous tests trees (Cretaceous–Recent)
(Cambrian–Recent)
Order Radiolaria—Planktonic
sarcodinids with siliceous tests
(Cambrian–Recent) *In botany, division is the equivalent to phylum.
410 Appendix B Classifications of Organisms
Kingdom Animalia Class Gastropoda—Single-shelled, generally
coiled crawling forms. Found in marine,
Nonphotosynthetic multicellular eukaryotes (Proterozoic– brackish, and fresh water as well as terres-
Recent) trial environments (Cambrian–Recent)
Phylum Porifera—Sponges (Cambrian–Recent) Class Bivalvia—Mollusks with two valves that
Order Stromatoporoida—Extinct are mirror images of each other. Typically
group of reef-building organisms known as clams and oysters (Cambrian–
(Cambrian–Oligocene) Recent)
Phylum Archaeocyatha—Extinct spongelike organisms Class Cephalopoda—Highly evolved swim-
(Cambrian) ming animals. Includes shelled sutured
Phylum Cnidaria—Hydrozoans, jellyfish, sea anemones, forms as well as non-shelled types such as
corals (Cambrian–Recent) octopus and squid (Cambrian–Recent)
Class Hydrozoa—Hydrozoans (Cambrian– Order Nautiloidea—Forms in which
Recent) the chamber partitions are con-
Class Scyphozoa—Jellyfish (Proterozoic– nected to the wall along simple,
Recent) slightly curved lines (Cambrian–
Class Anthozoa—Sea anemones and corals Recent)
(Cambrian–Recent) Order Ammonoidea—Forms in
Order Tabulata—Exclusively which the chamber partitions are
colonial corals with reduced to connected to the wall along wavy
nonexistent septa (Ordovician– lines (Devonian–Cretaceous)
Permian) Order Coleoidea—Forms in which
Order Rugosa—Solitary and colonial the shell is reduced or lacking.
corals with fourfold symmetry Includes octopus, squid, and
(Ordovician–Permian) the extinct belemnoids
Order Scleractinia—Solitary and (Mississippian–Recent)
colonial corals with sixfold sym- Phylum Annelida—Segmented worms. Responsible for
metry. Most colonial forms have many of the Phanerozoic burrows and trail trace
symbiotic dinoflagellates in their fossils (Proterozoic–Recent)
tissues. Important reef builders Phylum Arthropoda—The largest invertebrate group,
today (Triassic–Recent) comprising about 80 percent of all known animals.
Phylum Bryozoa—Exclusively colonial suspension- Characterized by a segmented body and jointed
feeding marine animals that are useful for appendages (Cambrian–Recent)
correlation and ecological interpretations Class Trilobita—Earliest appearing arthropod
(Ordovician–Recent) class. Trilobites had a head, body, and
Phylum Brachiopoda—Marine suspension-feeding tail and were bilaterally symmetrical
animals with two unequal-sized valves. Each valve (Cambrian–Permian)
is bilaterally symmetrical (Cambrian–Recent) Class Crustacea—Diverse class characterized
Class Inarticulata—Primitive chitinophos- by a fused head and body and an abdomen.
phatic or calcareous brachiopods that lack Included are barnacles, copepods, crabs,
a hinging structure. They open and close ostracodes, and shrimp (Cambrian–Recent)
their valves by means of complex muscles Class Insecta—Most diverse and common of
(Cambrian–Recent) all living invertebrates, but rare as fossils
Class Articulata—Advanced brachiopods (Silurian–Recent)
with calcareous valves that are hinged Class Merostomata—Characterized by four
(Cambrian–Recent) pairs of appendages and a more flexible
Phylum Mollusca—A highly diverse group of inverte- exoskeleton than crustaceans. Includes the
brates (Cambrian–Recent) extinct eurypterids, horseshoe crabs, scor-
Class Monoplacophora—Segmented, bilater- pions, and spiders (Cambrian–Recent)
ally symmetrical crawling animals with Phylum Echinodermata—Exclusively marine animals
cap-shaped shells (Cambrian–Recent) with fivefold radial symmetry and a unique water
Class Amphineura—Chitons. Marine crawling vascular system (Cambrian–Recent)
forms, typically with eight separate calcare- Subphylum Crinozoa—Forms attached by a cal-
ous plates (Cambrian–Recent) careous jointed stem (Cambrian–Recent)
Class Scaphopoda—Curved, tusk-shaped Class Crinoidea—Most important class of
shells that are open at both ends Paleozoic echinoderms. Suspension-
(Ordovician–Recent) feeding forms that are either free-living or
Appendix B Classifications of Organisms 411
attached to seafloor by a stem Class Agnatha—Jawless fish. Includes the
(Cambrian–Recent) living lampreys and hagfish as well as
Class Blastoidea—Small class of Paleozoic extinct armored ostracoderms (Cambrian–
suspension-feeding, sessile forms with Recent)
short stems (Ordovician–Permian) Class Acanthodii—Primitive jawed fish with
Class Cystoidea—Globular to pear-shaped numerous spiny fins (Silurian–Permian)
suspension-feeding, benthonic, sessile Class Placodermii—Primitive armored jawed
forms with very short stems (Ordovician– fish (Silurian–Permian)
Devonian) Class Chondrichthyes—Cartilaginous fish
Subphylum Homalozoa—A small group with flat- such as sharks and rays (Devonian–
tened, asymmetrical bodies with no stems. Also Recent)
called carpoids (Cambrian–Devonian) Class Osteichthyes—Bony fish (Devonian–
Subphylum Echinozoa—Globose, predominantly Recent)
benthonic mobile echinoderms (Cambrian– Subclass Actinopterygii—Ray-finned fish
Recent) (Devonian–Recent)
Class Helioplacophora—Benthonic, mobile Subclass Sarcopterygii—Lobe-finned, air-
forms, shaped like a top with plates breathing fish (Devonian–Recent)
arranged in a helical spiral (Early Cam- Order Coelacanthimorpha—Lobe-
brian) finned fish Latimeria (Devonian–
Class Edrioasteroidea—Benthonic, sessile or Recent)
mobile, discoidal, globular or cylindrical Order Crossoptergii—Lobe-finned
forms with five straight or curved feeding fish that were ancestral to
areas shaped like a starfish (Cambrian– amphibians (Devonian–Permian)
Pennsylvanian) Order Dipnoi—Lungfish (Devonian–
Class Holothuroidea—Sea cucumbers. Sedi- Recent)
ment feeders having calcareous spicules Class Amphibia—Amphibians. The first ter-
embedded in a tough skin (Ordovician– restrial vertebrates (Devonian–Recent)
Recent) Subclass Labyrinthodontia—Earliest
Class Echinoidea—Largest group of echi- amphibians. Solid skulls and complex
noderms. Globe- or disk-shaped, with tooth pattern (Devonian–Triassic)
movable spines. Predominantly grazers or Subclass Salientia—Frogs, toads, and their
sediment feeders. Epifaunal and infaunal relatives (Triassic–Recent)
(Ordovician–Recent) Subclass Condata—Salamanders and
Subphylum Asterozoa—Stemless, benthonic, their relatives (Triassic–Recent)
mobile forms (Ordovician–Recent) Class Reptilia—Reptiles. A large and varied
Class Asteroidea—Starfish. Arms merge into vertebrate group characterized by having
body (Ordovician–Recent) scales and laying an amniote egg (Missis-
Class Ophiuroidea—Brittle star. Distinct cen- sippian–Recent)
tral body (Ordovician–Recent) Subclass Anapsida—Reptiles whose skull
Phylum Hemichordata—Characterized by a notochord has a solid roof with no openings (Mis-
sometime during their life history. Modern acorn sissippian–Recent)
worms and extinct graptolites (Cambrian–Recent) Order Cotylosauria—One of the ear-
Class Graptolithina—Colonial marine hemi- liest reptile groups
chordates having a chitinous exoskeleton. (Pennsylvanian–Triassic)
Predominantly planktonic (Cambrian– Order Chelonia—Turtles (Triassic–
Mississippian) Recent)
Phylum Chordata—Animals with notochord, hollow Subclass Euryapsida—Reptiles with one
dorsal nerve cord, and pharyngeal pouches during opening high on the side of the skull
at least part of their life cycle (Cambrian–Recent) behind the eye. Mostly marine
Subphylum Urochordata—Sea squirts, tunicates. (Permian–Cretaceous)
Larval forms with notochord in tail region Order Protorosauria—Land-living
(Cambrian–Recent) ancestral euryapsids (Permian–
Subphylum Cephalochordata—Small marine ani- Cretaceous)
mals with notochords and small fishlike bodies Order Placodontia—Placodonts.
(Cambrian–Recent) Bulky, paddle-limbed marine
Subphylum Vertebrata—Animals with a backbone reptiles with rounded teeth for
of vertebrae (Cambrian–Recent) crushing mollusks (Triassic)
Order Ichthyosauria—Ichthyosaurs. thickened bones of the skull
Dolphin-shaped swimming rep- roof (Cretaceous)
tiles (Triassic–Cretaceous) Suborder Ceratopsia—
Subclass Diapsida—Most diverse reptile class. Quadrupedal herbivores,
Characterized by two openings in the skull typically with horns or a
behind the eye. Includes lizards, snakes, bony frill over the top of the
crocodiles, thecodonts, dinosaurs, and neck (Cretaceous)
pterosaurs (Permian–Recent) Suborder Ankylosauria—
Infraclass Lepidosauria—Primitive diap- Heavily armored quadrupe-
sids including snakes, lizards, and the dal herbivores (Cretaceous)
mosasaurs, a large Cretaceous marine Subclass Synapsida—Mammal-like
reptile group (Permian–Recent) reptiles with one opening low on the
Order Mosasauria—Mosasaurs side of the skull behind the eye
(Cretaceous) (Pennsylvanian–Triassic)
Order Plesiosauria—Plesiosaurs Order Pelycosauria—Early mammal-
(Triassic–Cretaceous) like reptiles including those forms
Order Squamata—Lizards and snakes in which the vertebral spines
(Triassic–Recent) were extended to support a “sail”
Order Rhynchocephalia—The living (Pennsylvanian–Permian)
tuatara Sphenodon and its extinct Order Therapsida—Advanced
relatives (Jurassic–Recent) mammal-like reptiles with legs
Infraclass Archosauria—Advanced diap- positioned beneath the body and
sids (Triassic–Recent) the lower jaw formed largely of a
Order Thecodontia—Thecodontians single bone. Many therapsids
were a diverse group that was may have been endothermic
ancestral to the crocodilians, (Permian–Triassic)
pterosaurs, and dinosaurs Class Aves—Birds. Endothermic and feathered
(Permian–Triassic) (Jurassic–Recent)
Order Crocodilia—Crocodiles, alliga- Class Mammalia—Mammals. Endothermic ani-
tors, and gavials (Triassic–Recent) mals with hair (Triassic–Recent)
Order Pterosauria—Flying and glid- Subclass Prototheria—Egg-laying mam-
ing reptiles called pterosaurs mals (Triassic–Recent)
(Triassic–Cretaceous) Order Docodonta—Small, primitive
Infraclass Dinosauria—Dinosaurs mammals (Triassic)
(Triassic–Cretaceous) Order Triconodonta—Small, primi-
Order Saurischia—Lizard-hipped tive mammals with specialized
dinosaurs (Triassic–Cretaceous) teeth (Triassic–Cretaceous)
Suborder Theropoda—Bipedal Order Monotremata—Duck-billed
carnivores (Triassic– platypus, spiny anteater
Cretaceous) (Cretaceous–Recent)
Suborder Sauropoda—Quadru- Subclass Allotheria—Small, extinct early
pedal herbivores, including mammals with complex teeth
the largest known land ani- (Jurassic–Eocene)
mals (Jurassic–Cretaceous) Order Multituberculata—The first
Order Ornithischia—Bird-hipped mammalian herbivores and the
dinosaurs (Triassic–Cretaceous) most diverse of Mesozoic mam-
Suborder Ornithopoda—Bipedal mals (Jurassic–Eocene)
herbivores, including the Subclass Theria—Mammals that give
duck-billed dinosaurs birth to live young (Jurassic–Recent)
(Triassic–Cretaceous) Order Symmetrodonta—Small, primi-
Suborder Stegosauria— tive Mesozoic therian mammals
Quadrupedal herbivores (Jurassic–Cretaceous)
with bony spikes on their Order Upantotheria—Trituberculates
tails and bony plates on their (Jurassic–Cretaceous)
backs (Jurassic–Cretaceous) Order Creodonta—Extinct ancient
Suborder Pachycephalosauria— carnivores (Cretaceous–
Bipedal herbivores with Paleocene)
Appendix B Classifications of Organisms 413
Order Condylartha—Extinct ances- Order Edentata—Anteater, sloth,
tral hoofed placentals (ungulates) armadillo, glyptodont
(Cretaceous–Oligocene) (Paleocene–Recent)
Order Marsupialia—Pouched mam- Order Carnivora—Modern car-
mals. Opossum, kangaroo, koala nivorous placentals. Dog, cat,
(Cretaceous–Recent) bear, skunk, seal, weasel, hyena,
Order Insectivora—Primitive insect- raccoon, panda, sea lion, walrus
eating mammals. Shrew, mole, (Paleocene–Recent)
hedgehog (Cretaceous–Recent) Order Pyrotheria—Large mam-
Order Xenungulata—Large South mals with long bodies and short,
American mammals that broadly columnar limbs (Eocene–
resemble pantodonts and uin- Oligocene)
tatheres (Paleocene) Order Chiroptera—Bats (Eocene–
Order Taeniodonta—Includes some Recent)
of the most highly specialized Order Dermoptera—Flying lemur
terrestrial placentals of the Late (Eocene–Recent)
Paleocene and Early Eocene Order Cetacea—Whale, dolphin,
(Paleocene–Eocene) porpoise (Eocene–Recent)
Order Tillodontia—Large, massive Order Tubulidentata—Aardvark
placentals with clawed, five-toed (Eocene–Recent)
feet (Paleocene–Eocene) Order Perissodactyla—Odd-toed
Order Dinocerata—Uintatheres; large ungulates (hoofed placentals).
herbivores with bony protuber- Horse, rhinoceros, tapir, titanothere,
ances on the skull and greatly chalicothere (Eocene–Recent)
elongated canine teeth Order Artiodactyla—Even-toed
(Paleocene–Eocene) ungulates. Pig, hippo, camel, deer,
Order Pantodonta—North American elk, bison, cattle, sheep, antelope,
forms are the size of large sheep to entelodont, oreodont (Eocene–
rhinoceroses; Asian forms are as Recent)
small as a rat (Paleocene–Eocene) Order Proboscidea—Elephant, mam-
Order Astropotheria—Large placental moth, mastodon (Eocene–Recent)
mammals with slender rear legs, Order Sirenia—Sea cow, manatee,
stout forelimbs, and elongate dugong (Eocene–Recent)
canine teeth (Paleocene–Miocene) Order Embrithopodoa—Known
Order Notoungulata—Largest assem- primarily from a single locality in
blage of South American Ungu- Egypt. Large mammals with two
lates, with a wide range of body gigantic bony processes arising
forms (Paleocene–Pleistocene) from the nose area (Oligocene)
Order Liptoterna—Extinct South Order Desmostyla—Amphibious or
American hoofed mammals seal-like in habit. Front and hind
(Paleocene–Pleistocene) limbs well developed, but hands
Order Rodentia—Squirrel, mouse, and feet somewhat specialized as
rat, beaver, porcupine, gopher paddles (Oligocene–Miocene)
(Paleocene–Recent) Order Hyracoidea—Hyrax
Order Lagomorpha—Hare, rabbit, (Oligocene–Recent)
pika (Paleocene–Recent) Order Pholidota—Scaly anteater
Order Primate—Lemur, tarsier, loris, (Oligocene–Recent)
tree shrew, monkey, ape, human
(Paleocene–Recent)
Appendix C
Mineral Identification
To identify most common minerals, geologists use physical is arranged with minerals in order of increasing hardness.
properties such as color, luster, crystal form, hardness, cleav- Thus, if you have a nonmetallic mineral with a hardness of
age, specific gravity, and several others (Tables C.1 and C.2). 6, it must be augite, hornblende, plagioclase, or one of the
Notice that the Mineral Identification Table (C.3) is arranged two potassium feldspars (orthoclase or microcline). If this
with minerals having a metallic luster grouped separately hypothetical mineral is dark green or black, it must be augite
from those with a nonmetallic luster. After determining lus- or hornblende. Use other properties to make a final deter-
ter, ascertain hardness and note that each part of the table mination.
Table C.1 Physical Properties Used to Table C.2 Moh’s Hardness Scale

Identify Minerals
Austrian geologist Frederich Mohs devised this relative hardness
Mineral Property Comment scale for ten minerals. He assigned a value of 10 to diamond, the
hardest mineral known, and lesser values to the other minerals.
Luster Appearance in reflected light; if a mineral You can determine the relative hardness of minerals by scratching
has the appearance of a metal, the luster one mineral with another or by using objects of known hardness.
is metallic; those with a nonmetallic luster
do not look like metals
Hardness of Some
Hardness Mineral Common Objects
Color Rather constant in minerals with metallic
luster; varies in minerals with nonmetallic 10 Diamond
luster
9 Corundum
Streak Powdered mineral on an unglazed porce-
8 Topaz
lain plate (streak plate) is more typical of a
mineral’s true color 7 Quartz
Crystal form Useful if crystals visible (see Figure 2.5) Steel file (6.5)
Cleavage Minerals with cleavage tend to break along 6 Orthoclase
a smooth plane or planes of weakness
Glass (5.5–6)
Hardness A mineral’s resistance to abrasion (see
5 Apatite
Table C2)
4 Fluorite
Specific gravity Ratio of a mineral’s weight to an equal vol-
ume of water 3 Calcite Copper penny (3)
Fingernail (2.5)
Reaction with HCl Calcite reacts vigorously, but dolomite re-
(hydrochloric acid) acts only when powdered 2 Gypsum
Other properties Talc has a soapy feel; graphite writes on 1 Talc
paper; magnetite is magnetic; closely
spaced, parallel lines visible on plagio-
clase; halite tastes salty
Appendix C Mineral Identification 415
Table C.3 Mineral Identification Tables
Metallic Luster
Hardness
Chemical Specific
Mineral Composition Color Gravity Other Features Comments
Graphite C Black 1–2 Greasy feel; Used for pencil “leads.”
2.09–2.33 writes on paper; Mostly in metamorphic rocks.
one direction of cleavage
Galena PbS Lead gray 2.5 Cubic crystals; three cleav- The ore of lead. Mostly in hydro-
7.6 ages at right angles thermal rocks.
Chalcopyrite CuFeS2 Brassy yellow 3.5–4 Usually massive; The most common copper min-
4.1–4.3 greenish black streak; eral. Mostly in hydrothermal
iridescent tarnish rocks.
Magnetite Fe3O4 Black 5.5–6.5 Strong magnetism An ore of iron. An accessory min-
5.2 eral in many rocks.
Hematite Fe2O3 Red brown 6 Usually granular or mas- Important iron ore.
4.8–5.3 sive; reddish brown streak An accessory mineral in many
rocks.
Pyrite FeS2 Brassy yellow 6.5 Cubic and octahedral Found in some igneous and hydro-
5.0 crystals thermal rocks and in sedimentary
rocks associated with coal.
Nonmetallic Luster
Hardness
Chemical Specific
Talc Mg3Si4O10(OH)2 White, green 1 One cleavage direction; Formed by the alteration of mag-
2.82 usually in compact masses; nesium silicates. Mostly in meta-
soapy feel morphic rocks.
Clay minerals Varies Gray, buff, 1–2 Earthy masses; particles Found in soils, mudrocks, slate,
white 2.5–2.9 too small to observe prop- phyllite.
erties
Chlorite (Mg,Fe)3(Si,Al)4O10 Green 2 One cleavage; occurs in Common in low-grade metamor-
(Mg,Fe)3(OH)6 2.6–3.4 scaly masses phic rocks such as slate.
Gypsum CaSO4.2H2O Colorless, 2 Elongate crystals; fibrous The most common sulfate min-
white 2.32 and earthy masses eral. Found mostly in evaporite
deposits.
Muscovite KAl2Si3O10(OH)2 Colorless 2–2.5 One direction of cleavage; Common in felsic igneous rocks,
(Mica) 2.7–2.9 cleaves into thin sheets metamorphic rocks, and some
sedimentary rocks.
Biotite (Mica) K(Mg,Fe)3AlSi3O10 Black, brown 2.5 One cleavage direction; Occurs in both felsic and mafic
(OH)2 2.9–3.4 cleaves into thin sheets igneous rocks, in metamorphic
rocks, and in some sedimentary
rocks.
Calcite CaCO3 Colorless, 3 Three cleavages at oblique The most common carbonate
white 2.71 angles; cleaves into rhombs; mineral. Main component of
reacts with dilute HCl limestone and marble.
Anhydrite CaSO4 White, gray 3.5 Crystals with two cleav- Found in limestones, evaporite
2.9–3.0 ages; usually in granular deposits, and the cap rock of salt
masses domes.
416 Appendix C Mineral Identification
Table C.3 Mineral Identification Tables (continued )
Nonmetallic Luster
Hardness
Chemical Specific
Halite NaCl Colorless, 3–4 Three cleavages at right Occurs in evaporite deposits.
white 2.2 angles; cleaves into cubes;
cubic crystals; salty taste
Dolomite CaMg(CO3)2 White, 3.5–4 Cleavage as in calcite; re- The main constituent of
yellow, gray, 2.85 acts with dilute hydrochlo- dolostone. Also found associated
pink ric acid when powdered with calcite in some limestones
and marble.
Fluorite CaF2 Colorless, 4 Four cleavage directions; Occurs mostly in hydrothermal
purple, 3.18 cubic and octahedral rocks and in some limestones
green, brown crystals and dolostones.
Augite Ca(Mg,Fe,Al) Black, dark 6 Short eight-sided crystals; The most common pyroxene
(Al,Si)2O6 green 3.25–3.55 two cleavages; cleavages mineral. Found mostly in mafic
nearly at right angles igneous rocks.
Hornblende NaCa2(Mg,Fe,Al)5 Green, black 6 Elongate, six-sided crystals; A common rock-forming
(Si,Al)8O22(OH)2 3.0–3.4 two cleavages intersecting amphibole mineral in igneous
at 56° and 124° and metamorphic rocks.
Plagioclase Varies from White, gray, 6 Two cleavages at right Common in igneous rocks and
feldspars CaAl2Si2O8 to brown 2.56 angles a variety of metamorphic rocks.
NaAlSi3O8 Also in some arkoses.
Microcline KAlSi3O8 White, pink, 6 Two cleavages at right Common in felsic igneous rocks,
Potassium
feldspars
green 2.56 angles some metamorphic rocks, and

arkoses.
Orthoclase KAlSi3O8 White, pink 6 Two cleavages at right
2.56 angles
Olivine (Fe,Mg)2SiO4 Olive green 6.5 Small mineral grains Common in mafic igneous rocks.
3.3–3.6 in granular masses;
conchoidal fracture
Quartz SiO2 Colorless, 7 Six-sided crystals; no A common rock-forming
white, gray, 2.67 cleavage; conchoidal mineral in all rock groups and
pink, green fracture hydrothermal rocks.
Also occurs in varieties known
as chert, flint, agate, and
chalcedony.
Garnet Fe3Al2(SiO4)3 Dark red, 7–7.5 Twelve-sided crystals Found mostly in gneiss and
green 4.32 common; uneven fracture schist.
Zircon Zr2SiO4 Brown, gray 7.5 Four-sided, elongate Most common as an accessory in
3.9–4.7 crystals granitic rocks.
Topaz Al2SiO4(OH,F) Colorless, 8 High specific gravity; one Found in pegmatites, granites,
white, yellow, 3.5–3.6 cleavage direction and hydrothermal rocks.
blue
Corundum Al2O3 Gray, blue, 9 Six-sided crystals and great An accessory mineral in some
pink, brown 4.0 hardness are distinctive igneous and metamorphic rocks.
Appendix C Mineral Identification 417
Appendix D
A Refresher on Structural Geology

The term deformation refers to any change in the shape or orientation of deformed rock layers, geologists use the
volume of rocks as the result of applied forces such as com- concept of strike and dip. Strike is a line formed by the
pression, tension, and shearing. In compression, rocks are intersection of a horizontal plane with an inclined plane,
squeezed by forces operating toward one another along the and dip is the deviation of an inclined plane from horizon-
same line, whereas tension results when forces operate along tal ( Figure D.1a). Notice in Figure D.1b that a long line
▼
the same line but in opposite directions. In shearing, forces showing strike direction and a shorter one showing direc-
are parallel to one another but in opposite directions, result- tion of dip appear on geologic maps, as well as a number
ing in deformation along closely spaced planes. The type indicating the degree of dip.
of rock undergoing deformation is irrelevant, although the Rock layers may be deformed into simple flexures
effects are most obvious in sedimentary rock layers and lay- called monoclines (Figure D.1b), into up-arched (convex
ered igneous rocks. upward) anticlines, or down-arched (concave downward)
Sediments are deposited or accumulate in nearly hori- synclines. In a surface view, anticlines and synclines look
zontal layers, and yet we see many examples of rock layers much alike, but you can easily differentiate them based
that have been crumpled into folds or fractured, or both, on strike and dip and the relative ages of the folded layers.
or what geologists call geologic structures. To define the Notice in Figure D.2 that all strata dip outward or away
▼
Figure D.1 Strike and Dip and a Monocline

▼
NE
E
RIK
ST
SW
40 °
Co Sa Sh Sa
ng nd ale nd (a) Strike is the line formed by the
lom sto sto
Sa era ne ne intersection of an inclined plane by a
Co nd te
ng sto 40° horizontal plane. Dip is the maximum
lom ne
era angular deviation of the inclined plane
te from horizontal. Notice the symbol that
shows strike and dip.
35
(b) A monocline. Notice the strike and

dip symbol and the circled cross, which
is the symbol for horizontal layers.
418 Appendix D A Refresher on Structural Geology
Oldest Youngest Figure D.2 Geologists identify eroded
▼
exposed exposed anticlines and synclines by strike and dip
rock unit rock unit and the relative ages of the folded rock
layers.
50 50 50
50 50 50
from the central part of an anticline, and that the oldest are identified just as anticlines and synclines are ( Figure D.4).
▼
exposed rocks are found in the center of the fold. Just That is, in a dome, all strata dip outward from a central
the opposite holds for synclines. Anticlines and synclines point and the oldest exposed rocks are at the center, and
result from compression. just the opposite applies to a basin. Unfortunately, the terms
Anticlines and synclines may be upright, meaning dome and basin are also used to denote high and low areas
that a plane that bisects the fold is vertical. However, it is on Earth’s surface, but as in the case of all folds, they do not
common for this plane to be inclined (inclined fold), over- necessarily correspond to mountains and valleys, only to
turned (overturned fold), or even horizontal (recumbent the configuration of the folded rock layers.
fold) ( Figure D.3a, b, c). To complicate matters further, In addition to folding, rock layers may also be
▼
folds may be nonplunging (Figure D.2), or, more com- deformed by fracturing. Fractures that simply penetrate
monly, plunging. If the fold axes, a line formed where a rocks but show no offset of the rocks on opposite sides of
plane bisecting the fold intersects the folded layers, is hor- the fracture are called joints. They are very common, vary-
izontal, the fold is nonplunging. If this line deviates from ing from tiny fractures to those of regional extent, and can
horizontal, though, the fold is plunging, as in the plunging result from any deforming force (compression, tension, or
anticline and plunging syncline in Figure D.3d. shearing). There are, however, fractures along which rocks
Anticlines and synclines are long, narrow structures, on opposite sides have moved up, down, or laterally, in
whereas domes and basins are nearly circular, but otherwise which case they are faults ( Figure D.5).
▼
Figure D.3 Inclined, Overturned, and Recumbent and Plunging Folds

▼
Axis
Axial plane Axial plane
20 75 25 75 25
55
Inclined Overturned
(a) An inclined fold. The axial plane is not vertical, and the (b) Overturned folds. Both fold limbs dip in the same direc-
fold limbs dip at different angles. tion, but one limb is inverted. Notice the special strike-and-
dip symbol to indicate overturned beds.
Appendix D A Refresher on Structural Geology 419
▼ Figure D.3 Inclined, Overturned, and Recumbent and Plunging Geologists recognize three basic types of faults:
Folds (continued ) normal, reverse (thrust), and strike-slip. First,
Oldest though, notice in Figure D.5a that the block of rock
rocks overlying a fault is called the hanging wall block,
whereas the block underlying a fault is the footwall
block. Normal and reverse (thrust) faults are further
Youngest characterized as dip-slip faults, because all move-
rocks
ment is up or down the dip of the fault. On a nor-
mal fault the footwall block moves down relative to
the hanging wall block (Figure D.5a), whereas on a
reverse fault the footwall block moves up relative to
the hanging wall block (Figure D.5b). A thrust fault
is simply a reverse fault that dips less than 45°. Nor-
mal faults are produced by tension, whereas reverse
Axial fault are caused by compression.
plane Shearing forces yield strike-slip faults along
Recumbent
which all movement is horizontal and along the
(c) The axial planes of recumbent folds are horizontal.
strike of the fault. However, depending on the
apparent offset of the rocks on opposite sides of the
Youngest exposed rocks fault they are characterized as right-lateral or left-
lateral (Figure D.5c). A few faults show a combina-
Oldest tion of dip-slip and strike-slip movement and thus
exposed
rocks are oblique-slip faults.
Folds, joints, and faults are very common geo-
logic structures that figure importantly in any dis-
cussion of historical geology. Geologic structures
are especially common in mountains that formed at
convergent plate boundaries, or in areas that expe-
rienced mountain building long ago such as the
Canadian Shield. Furthermore, their recognition is
essential in many geologic and engineering endeav-
ors such as choosing sites for and construction of
Plunging Plunging Plunging
dams, highways, and power plants, as well as in the
anticline syncline anticline search for and recovery of many natural resources.
(d) Surface and cross-sectional views of plunging folds. The long arrow is And of course, their recognition is vital to those
the geologic symbol for a plunging fold; it shows the direction of plunge. charged with developing zoning regulations and
building codes in tectonically active areas.
Figure D.4 Domes and Basins

▼
Oldest Youngest
exposed rocks exposed rocks
Dome Basin
(a) Notice that in a dome, the oldest exposed rocks are in the (b) In a basin, the youngest exposed rocks are in the center and
center and all rocks dip outward from a central point. all rocks dip inward toward a central point.
420 Appendix D A Refresher on Structural Geology
Figure D.5 Dip-Slip and Strike-Slip Faults
▼
(overhang collapses
into rubble)
Fault scarp
HW
FW
HW
FW
(a) Normal fault—hanging wall block (HW) (b) Reverse fault—hanging wall block moves
moves down relative to the footwall block (FW) up relative to the footwall block.
(c) All movement on strike-slip faults is horizontal. Is this a

right-lateral or left-lateral strike-slip fault?
Appendix D A Refresher on Structural Geology 421
Glossary
abiogenesis The origin of life from non- anthropoid Any member of the primate of chert and iron minerals, mostly the
living matter. suborder Anthropoidea; includes New iron oxides hematite and magnetite.
Absaroka Sequence A widespread suc- World and Old World monkeys, apes, barrier island A long sand body more or
cession of Pennsylvanian and Permian and humans. less parallel with a shoreline but sepa-
sedimentary rocks bounded above and Antler orogeny A Late Devonian to rated from it by a lagoon.
below by unconformities; deposited dur- Mississippian episode of mountain build- Basin and Range Province An area of
ing a transgressive–regressive cycle of ing that affected the Cordilleran mobile Cenozoic block-faulting centered on
the Absaroka Sea. belt from Nevada to Alberta, Canada. Nevada but extending into adjacent
Acadian orogeny A Devonian episode Appalachian mobile belt A long, nar- states and northern Mexico.
of mountain building in the northern row region of tectonic activity along the benthos All bottom-dwelling marine
Appalachian mobile belt resulting from a eastern margin of the North American organisms that live on the seafloor or
collision of Baltica with Laurentia. craton extending from Newfoundland within seafloor sediments.
Alleghenian orogeny Pennsylvanian to Georgia; probably continuous to the Big Bang A theory for the evolution of
to Permian mountain building in the southwest with the Ouachita mobile belt. the universe from a dense, hot state
Appalachian mobile belt from New York Archaeopteryx The oldest positively followed by expansion, cooling, and a
to Alabama. identified fossil bird; it had feathers but less dense state.
allele A variant form of a single gene. (See retained many reptile characteristics; biogenic sedimentary structure Any
gene.) from Jurassic-age rocks in Germany. feature such as tracks, trails, and bur-
allopatric speciation Model for the origin archosaur A term referring to the ruling rows in sedimentary rocks produced by
of a new species from a small popula- reptiles—dinosaurs, pterosaurs, croco- the activities of organisms. (See trace
tion that became isolated from its parent diles, and birds. fossil.)
population. artificial selection The practice of selec- biogeography The study of the geo-
alluvial fan A cone-shaped accumula- tively breeding plants and animals with graphic distribution of organisms and
tion of mostly sand and gravel where desirable traits. communities of organisms.
a stream flows from a mountain valley Artiodactyla The mammalian order biostratigraphic unit A unit of sedimentary
onto an adjacent lowland. whose members have two or four toes; rock defined solely by its fossil content.
Alpine–Himalayan orogenic belt A lin- the even-toed hoofed mammals such as bioturbation The churning of sediment
ear zone of deformation extending from deer, goats, sheep, antelope, bison, swine, by organisms that burrow through it.
the Atlantic eastward across southern and camels. biozone A general term referring to all
Europe and North Africa, through the asthenosphere Part of the upper mantle biostratigraphic units such as range
Middle East and into Southeast Asia. over which the lithosphere moves; it zones and concurrent range zones.
(See circum-Pacific orogenic belt.) behaves as a plastic and flows. bipedal Walking on two legs as a means
Alpine orogeny A Late Mesozoic–Early Atlantic Coastal Plain The broad, low- of locomotion, as in birds and humans.
Cenozoic episode of mountain building relief area of eastern North America (See quadrupedal.)
affecting southern Europe and North extending from the Appalachian black smoker A submarine hydrothermal
Africa. Mountains to the Atlantic shoreline. vent that emits a plume of black water
amniote Any vertebrate animal that pro- atom The smallest unit of matter that colored by dissolved minerals. (See sub-
duces amniote eggs; includes reptiles, retains the characteristics of an element. marine hydrothermal vent.)
birds, and mammals. atomic mass number The total number of body fossil The shells, teeth, bones, or
amniote egg An egg in which an embryo protons and neutrons in an atom’s nucleus. (rarely) the soft parts of organisms pre-
develops in a liquid-filled cavity (the atomic number The number of protons served in the fossil record. (See fossil and
amnion); a waste sac is present as well as in an atom’s nucleus. trace fossil.)
a yolk sac for nourishment. australopithecine A collective term bonding The processes whereby atoms
anaerobic Refers to organisms that do not for all species of the extinct genus join with other atoms.
depend on oxygen for respiration. Australopithecus that existed in South bony fish Members of the class
analogous structure Body parts, such as Africa during the Pliocene and Pleistocene. Osteichthyes that evolved during the
wings of insects and birds, that serve the autotrophic Describes organisms that syn- Devonian; characterized by a bony inter-
same function but differ in structure and thesize their organic nutrients from inor- nal skeleton; includes the ray-finned
development. (See homologous structure.) ganic raw materials; photosynthesizing fishes and the lobe-finned fishes.
Ancestral Rockies Late Paleozoic uplift bacteria and plants are autotrophs. (See braided stream A stream with an intricate
in the southwestern part of the North heterotrophic and primary producer.) network of dividing and rejoining
American craton. channels.
angiosperm Vascular plants having flow- Baltica One of six major Paleozoic con- browser An animal that eats tender
ers and seeds; the flowering plants. tinents; composed of Russia west of the shoots, twigs, and leaves. (See grazer.)
angular unconformity An unconformity Ural Mountains, Scandinavia, Poland,
below which strata dip at a steeper angle and northern Germany. Caledonian orogeny A Silurian–
than those above. (See disconformity, banded iron formation (BIF) Sedimentary Devonian episode of mountain building
nonconformity, and unconformity.) rocks made up of alternating thin layers that took place along the northwestern
422 Glossary
margin of Baltica, resulting from the col- the basis of derived versus primitive shelf and continental rise or an oceanic
lision of Baltica with Laurentia. characteristics. trench.
Canadian Shield The Precambrian shield cladogram A diagram showing the relation- convergent evolution The origin of simi-
in North America; mostly in Canada but ships among members of a clade, includ- lar features in distantly related organ-
also exposed in Minnesota, Wisconsin, ing their most recent common ancestor. isms as they adapt in comparable ways,
Michigan, and New York. clastic wedge An extensive accumulation such as ichthyosaurs and porpoises. (See
carbon-14 dating A numerical dat- of mostly detrital sedimentary rocks parallel evolution.)
ing technique relying on the ratio of eroded from, and deposited adjacent to, convergent plate boundary The bound-
C14 to C12 in organic substances; useful an area of uplift, as in the Catskill Delta ary between two plates that move toward
back to about 70,000 years ago. or Queenston Delta. one another. (See continental–continental
carbonate mineral Any mineral with Colorado Plateau A vast upland area plate boundary, oceanic–continental plate
the negatively charged carbonate ion in Colorado, Utah, Arizona, and New boundary, and oceanic–oceanic plate
(CO3)−2 (e.g., calcite [CaCO3] and dolo- Mexico with only slightly deformed boundary.)
mite [CaMg(CO3)2]). Phanerozoic rocks, deep canyons, and Cordilleran mobile belt An area of
carbonate rock Any rock composed volcanic mountains. extensive deformation in western North
mostly of carbonate minerals (such as compound A substance made up of dif- America bounded by the Pacific Ocean
limestone and dolostone). ferent atoms bonded together (such as and the Great Plains; it extends north–
carnassials A pair of specialized shearing water [H2O] and quartz [SiO2]). south from Alaska into central Mexico.
teeth in members of the mammal order concurrent range zone A biozone estab- Cordilleran orogeny A period of defor-
Carnivora. lished by plotting the overlapping geo- mation affecting the western part of
Carnivora An order of mammals consist- logic ranges of fossils. North America from Jurassic to Early
ing of meat eaters such as dogs, cats, conformable Refers to a sequence of sedi- Cenozoic time; divided into three phases
bears, weasels, and seals. mentary rocks deposited one after the known as the Nevadan, Sevier, and
carnivore-scavenger Any animal that eats other with no discontinuities, or only Laramide orogenies.
other animals, living or dead, as a source minor ones. core The inner part of Earth from a depth
of nutrients. contact metamorphism Metamorphism of about 2,900 km, consisting of a liquid
cartilaginous fish Fish, such as sharks taking place adjacent to a body of outer part and a solid inner part; proba-
and their living and extinct relatives, that magma (a pluton) or beneath a lava flow bly composed mostly of iron and nickel.
have an internal skeleton of cartilage. from heat and chemically active fluids. correlation Demonstration of the physical
Cascade Range A mountain range made continental accretion The process continuity of stratigraphic units over an
up of volcanic rock stretching from whereby continents grow by additions of area; also refers to matching up time-
northern California through Oregon and Earth materials along their margins. equivalent events in different areas.
Washington and into British Columbia, continental–continental plate boundary craton Name applied to a stable
Canada. A convergent plate boundary along nucleus of a continent, consisting of a
Catskill Delta A Devonian clastic wedge which two continental lithospheric Precambrian shield and a platform of
deposited adjacent to the highlands that plates collide, such as the collision of buried ancient rocks.
formed during the Acadian orogeny. India with Asia. (See convergent plate cratonic sequence A widespread asso-
Cetacea The mammal order that includes boundary, oceanic–continental plate ciation of sedimentary rocks bounded
whales, porpoises, and dolphins. boundary, and oceanic–oceanic plate above and below by unconformities that
chemical sedimentary rock Rock formed boundary.) were deposited during a transgressive–
of minerals derived from materials dis- continental drift The hypothesis pro- regressive cycle of an epeiric sea; for
solved during weathering. posed by Alfred Wegener that all con- example, the Sauk Sequence.
China One of six major Paleozoic conti- tinents were once joined into a single Cretaceous Interior Seaway A Late
nents; composed of all of Southeast Asia, landmass that broke apart, with the vari- Cretaceous arm of the sea that effec-
including China, Indochina, part of ous fragments (continents) moving with tively divided North America into two
Thailand, and the Malay Peninsula. respect to one another. large landmasses.
chordate Any member of the phylum continental glacier A glacier covering Cro-Magnon A race of Homo sapiens that
Chordata, all of which have a notochord, at least 50,000 km2 and unconfined by lived mostly in Europe from 35,000 to
dorsal hollow nerve cord, and pharyn- topography. Also called an ice sheet. 10,000 years ago.
geal pouches at some time during their continental interior An area in North cross-bedding A type of bedding in
life cycle. America made up of the Great Plains which individual layers are deposited at
chromosome Complex, double-stranded, and the Central Lowlands, bounded by an angle to the surface on which they
helical molecule of deoxyribonucleic the Rocky Mountains, the Canadian accumulate, as in sand dunes.
acid (DNA); specific segments of chro- Shield, the Appalachian Mountains, and crossopterygian A specific type of lobe-
mosome are genes. parts of the Gulf Coastal Plain. finned fish that had lungs.
circum-Pacific orogenic belt One of continental red bed Red-colored rock, crust The upper part of Earth’s litho-
two major Mesozoic–Cenozoic areas especially mudrock and sandstone, on sphere, which is separated from the
of large-scale deformation and the ori- the continents; iron oxides account for mantle by the Moho; consists of con-
gin of mountains; includes orogens in their color. tinental crust with an overall granitic
South and Central America, the North continental rise The gently sloping part composition and thinner, denser
American Cordillera, and the Aleutian, of the seafloor lying between the base oceanic crust made up of basalt and
Japanese, and Philippine arcs. (See of the continental slope and the deep gabbro.
Alpine–Himalayan orogenic belt.) seafloor. crystalline solid A solid with its atoms
cirque A steep-walled, bowl-shaped continental shelf The area where the arranged in a regular three-dimensional
depression formed on a mountainside seafloor slopes gently seaward between a framework.
by glacial erosion. shoreline and the continental slope. Curie point The temperature at which
cladistics A type of analysis of organisms continental slope The relatively steep part iron-bearing minerals in a cooling
in which they are grouped together on of the seafloor between the continental magma attain their magnetism.
Glossary 423
cyclothem A sequence of cyclically epeiric sea A broad, shallow sea that covers Africa, Australia, India, and parts of
repeated sedimentary rocks resulting part of a continent; six epeiric seas were Southern Europe, Arabia, and Florida.
from alternating periods of marine and present in North America during the graded bedding A sediment layer in
nonmarine deposition; commonly con- Phanerozoic Eon, such as the Sauk Sea. which grain size decreases from the bot-
tains a coal bed. eukaryotic cell A cell with an internal, tom up.
cynodont A type of therapsid (advanced membrane-bounded nucleus, contain- granite-gneiss complex One of the two
mammal-like reptile); ancestors of mam- ing chromosomes and other internal main rock associations found in areas of
mals are among the cynodonts. structures such as mitochondria, that Archean rocks.
are not present in prokaryotic cells. (See grazer An animal that eats low-growing
delta A deposit of sediment where a stream prokaryotic cell.) vegetation, especially grasses. (See browser.)
or river enters a lake or the ocean. evaporite Sedimentary rock formed by Great Oxygenation Event An episode in
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) The chem- inorganic chemical precipitation from Earth history that began about 2.4 bil-
ical substance of which chromosomes evaporating water (for example, rock salt lion years ago when free oxygen began
are composed. and rock gypsum). accumulating in the atmosphere.
depositional environment Any area extrusive igneous rock An igneous rock greenstone belt A linear or podlike asso-
where sediment is deposited; a deposi- that forms as lava cools and crystallizes ciation of rocks particularly common in
tional site where physical, chemical, and or when pyroclastic materials are con- Archaen terranes; typically synclinal and
biological processes operate to yield a solidated. (See volcanic rock.) consists of lower and middle volcanic
distinctive kind of deposit. units and an upper sedimentary unit.
detrital sedimentary rock Rock made up Farallon plate A Late Mesozoic–Cenozoic Grenville orogeny An episode of defor-
of the solid particles derived from preex- oceanic plate that was largely subducted mation that took place in the eastern
isting rocks, as in sandstone. beneath North America; the Cocos and United States and Canada during the
dinosaur Any of the Mesozoic reptiles Juan de Fuca plates are remnants. Neoproterozoic.
belonging to the orders Saurischia and fission-track dating The dating process in guide fossil Any easily identified fossil
Ornithischia. which small linear tracks (fission tracks) with a wide geographic distribution and
disconformity A type of unconformity resulting from alpha decay are counted short geologic range; useful for determin-
above and below which the strata are in mineral crystals. ing relative ages of strata in different areas.
parallel. (See angular unconformity, fluvial Relating to streams and rivers and Gulf Coastal Plain The broad, low-relief
nonconformity, and unconformity.) their deposits. area along the Gulf Coast of the United
divergent evolution The diversification of formation The basic lithostratigraphic States.
a species into two or more descendant unit; a mappable unit of strata with dis- gymnosperm A flowerless, seed-bearing
species. tinctive upper and lower boundaries. plant.
divergent plate boundary The boundary fossil Remains or traces of prehistoric
between two plates that move apart; char- organisms preserved in rocks. (See body half-life The time necessary for one-half
acterized by seismicity, volcanism, and fossil and trace fossil.) of the original number of radioactive
the origin of new oceanic lithosphere. atoms of an element to decay to a stable
drift A collective term for all sediment gene A specific segment of a chromosome daughter product; for example, the half-
deposited by glacial activity; includes till constituting the basic unit of heredity. life of potassium 40 is 1.3 billion years.
deposited directly by ice, and outwash (See allele.) herbivore An animal dependent on veg-
deposited by streams discharging from geologic column A diagram showing a etation as a source of nutrients.
glaciers. (See outwash.) composite column of rocks arranged Hercynian (Variscan)–Alleghenian
dynamic metamorphism Metamorphism with the oldest at the bottom, followed orogeny Pennsylvanian to Permian
in fault zones where rocks are subjected upward by progressively younger rocks. deformation in the Hercynian mobile
to high differential pressure. (See geologic time scale.) belt of Europe, and the Appalachian and
geologic record The record of prehistoric Ouachita mobile belts of North America.
economic geology Any aspect of geology physical and biologic events preserved heterotrophic Organism such as an ani-
involved in the search for and recovery in rocks. mal that depends on preformed organic
of minerals and rocks of economic value. geologic time scale A chart arranged so molecules from its environment for
ectotherm A cold-blooded vertebrate, that the designation for the earliest part nutrients. (See autotrophic and primary
such as an amphibian or reptile, that of geologic time appears at the bottom, producer.)
depends on external heat to regulate followed upward by progressively younger Himalayan orogeny A Cenozoic episode
body temperature. (See endotherm.) time designations. (See geologic column.) of mountain building that began 50 to
Ediacaran fauna Name for all Late geology The science concerned with the 40 million years ago (Eocene) when the
Proterozoic faunas with animal fossils study of Earth; includes the study of Indian plate collided with Asia.
similar to those of the Ediacara fauna of Earth materials, internal and surface hominid Abbreviated term for members
Australia. processes, and Earth and life history. of the subfamily Homininae, which
element A substance composed of only glacial stage A time of extensive glacia- includes the gorillas, chimpanzees,
one kind of atom (such as calcium [Ca] tion that occurred several times dur- humans, and their extinct ancestors.
or silicon [Si]). ing the Pleistocene, especially on the (See hominin and hominoid.)
end moraine A pile or ridge of rubble Northern Hemisphere continents. hominin Abbreviated term for members
deposited at the terminus of a glacier. glacier A mass of ice on land that moves of the tribe Hominini, which includes
endosymbiosis A type of mutually ben- by plastic flow and basal slip. humans and their extinct ancestors such
eficial symbiosis in which one symbiont Glossopteris flora A Late Paleozoic associa- as Sahelanthropus, Orrorin, Ardipithecus,
lives within the other. tion of plants found only on the Southern Australopithecus, and Homo. (See hominid
endotherm A warm-blooded vertebrate, Hemisphere continents and India; named and hominoid.)
such as a bird or mammal, that maintains after its best-known genus, Glossopteris. hominoid Abbreviated term for
its body temperature, within narrow lim- Gondwana One of six major Paleozoic Hominoidea, the superfamily that
its, by internal processes. (See ectotherm.) continents; composed of South America, includes apes and humans. (See hominid.)
424 Glossary
Homo The genus of hominids consisting compounds such as methane and ammo- mantle The inner part of Earth surround-
of Homo sapiens and their ancestors, nia. (See terrestrial planet.) ing the core, accounting for about
Homo erectus and Homo habilis. 85 percent of the planet’s volume; prob-
homologous structure Body part in Kaskaskia Sequence A widespread asso- ably composed of peridotite.
different organisms that has a similar ciation of Devonian and Mississippian marine regression Withdrawal of the sea
structure, similar relationships to other sedimentary rocks bounded above and from a continent or coastal area caused
organs, and similar development, but below by unconformities; deposited dur- by emergence of the land with a result-
does not necessarily serve the same ing a transgressive–regressive cycle of ing seaward migration of the shoreline.
function, such as forelimbs in whales, the Kaskaskia Sea. marine transgression Invasion of a
bats, and dogs. (See analogous structure.) Kazakhstania One of six major Paleozoic coastal area or much of a continent by
hot spot Localized zone of melting below continents; a triangular-shaped continent the sea as sea level rises, resulting in a
the lithosphere; detected by volcanism at centered on Kazakhstan. landward migration of the shoreline.
the surface. marsupial mammal The pouched mam-
hypothesis A provisional explanation for labyrinthodont Any of the Devonian to mals, such as wombats and kangaroos,
observations that is subject to continual Triassic amphibians characterized by com- that give birth to their young in a very
testing and modification if necessary; if plex folding in the enamel of the teeth. immature state.
well supported by evidence, hypotheses Laramide orogeny Late Cretaceous to mass extinction Greatly accelerated
may become theories. Early Paleogene phase of the Cordilleran extinction rates resulting in marked
Hyracotherium A small Early Eocene mam- orogeny; responsible for many of the decrease in biodiversity, such as the mass
mal that was ancestral to today’s horses. structural features in the present-day extinction at the end of the Cretaceous.
Rocky Mountains. meandering stream A stream with a
Iapetus Ocean A Paleozoic ocean Laurasia A Late Paleozoic, Northern single, sinuous channel with broadly
between North America and Europe; it Hemisphere continent made up of North looping curves.
eventually closed as North America and America, Greenland, Europe, and Asia. meiosis Cell division yielding sex cells
Europe moved toward one another and Laurentia A Proterozoic continent com- (sperm and eggs in animals, and pollen
collided during the Late Paleozoic. posed mostly of North America and and ovules in plants), in which the num-
ice cap A dome-shaped mass of glacial ice Greenland, parts of Scotland, and perhaps ber of chromosomes is reduced by half.
covering less than 50,000 km2. parts of the Baltic shield of Scandinavia. (See mitosis.)
ice-scoured plain An area eroded by lava Magma that reaches the surface. metamorphic rock Any rock altered in
glaciers resulting in low-relief, extensive lithification The process of converting the solid state from preexisting rocks by
bedrock exposures with glacial polish, sediment into sedimentary rock. any combination of heat, pressure, and
striations, and little soil. lithosphere The outer, rigid part of Earth, chemically active fluids.
ichthyosaur Any of the porpoise-like, consisting of the upper mantle, oceanic microevolution Evolutionary changes
Mesozoic marine reptiles. crust, and continental crust; lies above within a species. (See macroevolution.)
igneous rock Rock formed when magma the asthenosphere. Midcontinent Rift A Mesoproterozoic
or lava cools and crystallizes and when lithostratigraphic unit A body of intracontinental rift in Lauentia in
pyroclastic materials become consolidated. sedimentary rock, such as a formation, which volcanic and sedimentary rocks
inheritance of acquired characteristics defined solely by its physical attributes. accumulated.
Jean-Baptiste de Lamarck’s mechanism Little Ice Age An interval from about Milankovitch theory A theory that
for evolution; holds that characteristics 1500 to the mid- to late-1800s during explains cyclic variations in climate and
acquired during an individual’s lifetime which glaciers expanded to their greatest the onset of glacial episodes triggered by
can be inherited by descendants. historic extent. irregularities in Earth’s rotation and orbit.
interglacial stage A time of warmer living fossil An existing organism that has mineral A naturally occurring, inorganic,
temperatures between episodes of wide- descended from ancient ancestors with crystalline solid having characteristic
spread glaciation. little apparent change. physical properties and a narrowly
intrusive igneous rock Igneous rock lobe-finned fish Fish with limbs contain- defined chemical composition.
that cools and crystallizes from magma ing a fleshy shaft and a series of articu- mitosis Cell division resulting in two cells
intruded into or formed within the lating bones; one of the two main groups with the same number of chromosomes
crust. (See plutonic rock.) of bony fish. as the parent cell; takes place in all cells
iridium anomaly The occurence of a except sex cells. (See meiosis.)
higher than usual concentration of the macroevolution Evolutionary changes that mobile belt Elongated area of deforma-
element iridium at the Cretaceous– account for the origin of new species, gen- tion generally at the margins of a craton,
Palogene boundary. era, orders, and so on. (See microevolution.) such as the Appalachian mobile belt.
isostasy The concept of Earth’s crust magma Molten rock material below the modern synthesis A combination of ideas
“floating” on the more dense underlying surface. of various scientists yielding a view of evo-
mantle. As a result of isostasy, thicker, magnetic anomaly Any change, such as the lution that includes the chromosome the-
less dense continental crust stands average strength, in Earth’s magnetic field. ory of inheritance, mutations as a source
higher than oceanic crust. magnetic field The area in which mag- of variation, and gradualism; it also rejects
isostatic rebound The phenomenon in netic substances are affected by lines of inheritance of acquired characteristics.
which unloading of the crust causes it magnetic force emanating from Earth. molar Any of a mammal’s teeth that are
to rise, as when extensive glaciers melt, magnetic reversal The phenomenon used for grinding and chewing.
until it attains equilibrium. involving the complete reversal of the molarization An evolutionary trend in
north and south magnetic poles. hoofed mammals in which the premolars
Jovian planet Any planet with a low mean magnetism A physical phenomenon become more like molars, giving the ani-
density that resembles Jupiter (Jupiter, resulting from moving electricity and mals a continuous series of grinding teeth.
Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune); the Jovian the spin of electrons in some solids, in monomer A comparatively simple organic
planets, or gas giants, are composed which magnetic substances are attracted molecule, such as an amino acid, that
largely of hydrogen, helium, and frozen toward one another. can link with other monomers to form
Glossary 425
more complex polymers such as pro- (See continental–continental plate bound- Pannotia A supercontinent that existed
teins. (See polymer.) ary, convergent plate boundary, and during the Neoproterozoic.
monotremes The egg-laying mammals; oceanic–oceanic plate boundary.) Panthalassa Ocean A Late Paleozoic
includes only the platypus and spiny oceanic–oceanic plate boundary A ocean that surrounded Pangaea.
anteater of the Australian region. convergent plate boundary along parallel evolution Evolution of similar fea-
moraine A ridge or mound of unsorted, which oceanic lithosphere collides tures in two separate but closely related
unstratified debris deposited by a glacier. with oceanic lithosphere; characterized lines of descent as a result of comparable
mosaic evolution The concept that not all by subduction of one of the oceanic adaptations. (See convergent evolution.)
parts of an organism evolve at the same plates, seismicity, and volcanism. (See pelycosaur Pennsylvanian to Permian
rate, thus accounting for organisms with continental–continental plate boundary, reptile that possessed some mammal
features retained from the ancestral con- convergent plate boundary, and oceanic– characteristics; many species had large
dition as well as more recently evolved continental plate boundary.) fins on their back.
features. Old Red Sandstone A Devonian-age clas- period The fundamental unit in the hier-
mosasaur A term referring to a group of tic wedge that grew eastward from the archy of time units; part of geologic time
Mesozoic marine lizards. Caledonian highlands onto the Baltica during which the rocks of a system were
mud crack A crack in clay-rich sediment craton. deposited.
that forms in response to drying and organic evolution See theory of evolution. Perissodactyla The order of odd-toed
shrinkage. organic reef A wave-resistant limestone hoofed mammals; consists of present-
multicelled organism An organism made structure with a framework of animal day horses, tapirs, and rhinoceroses.
up of many cells as opposed to a single skeletons, such as a coral reef or stro- photochemical dissociation A process
cell; possesses cells specialized to per- matoporoid reef. whereby water molecules in the upper
form specific functions. Ornithischia One of the two orders of atmosphere are disrupted by ultraviolet
mutation Any change in the genes of dinosaurs; characterized by a birdlike radiation, yielding oxygen (O2) and
organisms; yields some of the variation pelvis; includes ornithopods, stegosaurs, hydrogen (H).
on which natural selection acts. ankylosaurs, pachycephalosaurs, and photosynthesis The metabolic process in
ceratopsians. (See Saurischia.) which organic molecules are synthesized
natural selection A mechanism account- orogen A linear part of Earth’s crust that from water and carbon dioxide (CO2)
ing for differential survival and repro- was or is being deformed during an using the radiant energy of the Sun as it is
duction among members of a species; orogeny; part of an orogenic belt. captured by chlorophyll-containing cells.
the mechanism proposed by Charles orogeny An episode of mountain building phyletic gradualism The concept that a
Darwin and Alfred Wallace to account involving deformation, usually accompa- species evolves gradually and continu-
for evolution. nied by igneous activity, metamorphism, ously as it gives rise to new species. (See
Neanderthal A type of human that inhab- and crustal thickening. punctuated equilibrium.)
ited the Near East and Europe from ostracoderm The “bony-skinned” fish, placental mammal All mammals with
200,000 to 30,000 years ago; may be a characterized by bony armor but no a well-developed placenta to nourish
subspecies (Homo sapiens neandertha- jaws or teeth; appeared during the Late the developing embryo, as opposed to
lensis) of Homo or a separate species Cambrian, making them the oldest egg-laying mammals (monotremes) and
(Homo neanderthalensis). known vertebrates. pouched mammals (marsupials), which
nekton Actively swimming organisms such Ouachita mobile belt An area of defor- have a less efficient placenta.
as fish, whales, and squid. (See plankton.) mation along the southern margin of placoderm Late Silurian through Permian
neoglaciation An episode in Earth history the North American craton; probably “plate-skinned” fish with jaws and bony
from about 6,000 years ago until the mid continuous to the northeast with the armor, especially in the head-shoulder
to late 1800s during which three periods Appalachian mobile belt. region.
of glacial expansion took place. Ouachita orogeny A period of mountain plankton Animals and plants that float
Nevadan orogeny Late Jurassic to building that took place in the Ouachita passively, such as phytoplankton and
Cretaceous phase of the Cordilleran mobile belt during the Pennsylvanian zooplankton. (See nekton.)
orogeny; most strongly affected the west- and Permian periods. plate A segment of Earth’s crust and
ern part of the Cordilleran mobile belt. outgassing The process whereby gases upper mantle (lithosphere) varying from
nonconformity An unconformity in released from Earth’s interior by volca- 50 to 250 km thick.
which stratified sedimentary rocks overlie nism formed an atmosphere. plate tectonic theory Theory holding that
an erosion surface cut into igneous or outwash All sediment deposited by streams lithospheric plates move with respect to
metamorphic rocks. (See angular uncon- that issue from glaciers. (See drift.) one another at divergent, convergent,
formity, disconformity, and unconformity.) and transform plate boundaries.
North American Cordillera A complex Pacific–Farallon Ridge A spreading platform The buried extension of a
mountainous region in western North ridge that was located off the coast of Precambrian shield, which together with
America extending from Alaska into western North America during part of the shield makes up a craton.
central Mexico. the Cenozoic Era. playa lake A temporary lake in an arid
numerical dating Assigning an age Paleocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum A region.
in years to geologic events before the warming trend that began abruptly plesiosaur A type of Mesozoic marine
present; numerical dates are determined about 55 million years ago. reptile; both short-necked and long-
by radioactive-decay dating techniques. paleogeography The study of Earth’s necked plesiosaurs existed.
(See relative dating.) ancient geography on a global as well as plutonic rock Igneous rock that cools and
a regional scale. crystallizes from magma intruded into or
oceanic–continental plate boundary A paleontology The use of fossils to study life formed within the crust. (See igneous rock.)
convergent plate boundary along which history and relationships among organisms. pluvial lake Any lake that formed in non-
oceanic and continental lithosphere col- Pangaea Alfred Wegener’s name for a Late glaciated areas during the Pleistocene as
lide; characterized by subduction of the Paleozoic supercontinent made up of a result of increased precipitation and
oceanic plate, seismicity, and volcanism. most of Earth’s landmasses. reduced evaporation rates during that time.
426 Glossary
pollen analysis Identification and statisti- plastids; the cells of bacteria and archaea rocks to be important for their identifi-
cal analysis of pollen from sedimentary are prokaryotic. (See eukaryotic cell.) cation and classification.
rocks; provides information about prosimian A subgroup of the order Rodinia The name of a Neoproterozoic
ancient floras and climates. Primates, including tree shrews, lemurs, supercontinent.
polymer A comparatively complex lorises, and tarsiers. rounding The process involving abra-
organic molecule, such as nucleic acids protorothyrid A loosely grouped category sion of sedimentary particles during
and proteins, formed by monomers link- of small, lizardlike reptiles. transport so that their sharp edges and
ing together. (See monomer.) pterosaur Any of the Mesozoic flying corners are smoothed off.
Precambrian shield An area in which a reptiles that had a long finger to support ruminant Any cud-chewing placental
continent’s ancient craton is exposed, as a wing. mammal with a complex three- or four-
in the Canadian Shield. punctuated equilibrium A concept holding chambered stomach, such as deer, cattle,
premolar Any of a mammal’s teeth that new species evolve rapidly, in perhaps antelope, and camels.
between the canines and the molars; a few thousand years, then remain much
premolars and molars together are a the same during their several million years San Andreas transform fault A major
mammal’s chewing teeth. of existence. (See phyletic gradualism.) transform fault extending from the Gulf
primary producer Organism in a food pyroclastic materials Fragmental materi- of Mexico through part of California to
chain, such as bacteria and green plants, als, such as ash, explosively erupted from its termination in the Pacific Ocean off
that manufacture their own organic mol- volcanoes. the northern coast of California. (See
ecules and on which all other members transform fault.)
of the food chain depend for sustenance. quadrupedal A term referring to locomo- sand dune A ridge or mound of wind-
(See autotrophic.) tion on all four limbs, as in dogs and deposited sand.
Primates The order of mammals that horses. (See bipedal.) sandstone-carbonate-shale assemblage
includes prosimians (lemurs and tarsi- Queenston Delta A clastic wedge result- An association of sedimentary rocks
ers), and anthropoids (monkeys, apes, ing from deposition of sediment eroded typically found on passive continental
and humans). from the highland formed during the margins.
principle of cross-cutting relation- Taconic orogeny. Sauk Sequence A widespread association
ships A principle holding that an igne- of sedimentary rocks bounded above
ous intrusion or fault must be younger radioactive decay The spontaneous change and below by unconformities, depos-
than the rocks it intrudes or cuts across. in an atom by emission of a particle from ited during a Neoproterozoic to Early
principle of fossil succession A principle its nucleus (alpha and beta decay) or by Ordovician transgressive–regressive
holding that fossils, especially groups electron capture, thus changing the atom cycle of the Sauk Sea.
or assemblages of fossils, succeed one to a different element. Saurischia An order of dinosaurs; char-
another through time in a regular and range zone A biostratigraphic unit defined acterized by a lizardlike pelvis; includes
determinable order. by the occurrence of a single type of theropods, prosauropods, and sauro-
principle of inclusions A principle hold- organism such as a species or a genus. pods. (See Ornithischia.)
ing that inclusions or fragments in a regional metamorphism Metamorphism scientific method A logical, orderly
rock unit are older than the rock itself— taking place over a large but usually approach involving data gathering,
for example, granite inclusions in sand- elongated area resulting from heat, pres- formulating and testing hypotheses,
stone are older than the sandstone. sure, and chemically active fluids. and proposing theories.
principle of lateral continuity A principle relative dating The process of placing seafloor spreading The phenomenon
holding that rock layers extend outward geologic events in their proper chrono- involving the origin of new oceanic crust
in all directions until they terminate. logical order with no regard to when the at spreading ridges that then moves away
principle of original horizontality A events took place in terms of the number from ridges and is eventually consumed
principle holding that sediments are of years ago. (See numerical dating.) at subduction zones.
deposited in horizontal or nearly hori- relative geologic time scale The geologic sedimentary facies Any aspect of sedi-
zontal layers. time scale as deduced from the geologic ment or sedimentary rocks that makes
principle of superposition A principle column, showing only relative time; that them recognizably different from adja-
holding that sedimentary rocks in a is, Silurian rocks are younger than those cent rocks of about the same age, such as
vertical sequence formed one on top of of the Ordovician but older than those a sandstone facies.
the other so that the oldest layer is at designated Devonian. sedimentary rock Any rock composed
the bottom of the sequence whereas the Rio Grande Rift A linear depression made of (1) particles of preexisting rocks,
youngest is at the top. up of several interconnected basins (2) minerals derived from solution by
principle of uniformitarianism A princi- extending from Colorado into Mexico. inorganic chemical processes or by the
ple holding that we can interpret past events ripple mark Wavelike structure on a bed- activities of organisms, or (3) masses of
by understanding present-day processes, ding plane, especially in sand, formed altered organic matter as in coal.
based on the idea that natural processes by (1) unidirectional flow of air or water sedimentary structure All features in
have always operated as they do now. currents or (2) by oscillating currents as sedimentary rocks, such as ripple marks,
Proboscidea The order of mammals that in waves. cross-beds, and burrows, that formed as a
includes elephants and their extinct rock An aggregate of one or more minerals, result of physical or biologic processes that
relatives. as in granite (feldspars and quartz) and operated in a depositional environment.
proglacial lake A lake formed of meltwa- limestone (calcite), but also includes rock- sediment-desposit feeder Animal that
ter accumulating along the margin of a like materials such as natural glass (obsid- ingests sediment and extracts nutrients
glacier. ian) and altered organic material (coal). from it.
progradation The seaward (or lakeward) rock cycle A sequence of processes through seedless vascular plant Plant with spe-
migration of a shoreline as a result of which Earth materials may pass as they are cialized tissues for transporting fluids
nearshore sedimentation. transformed from one rock type to another. and nutrients and that reproduces by
prokaryotic cell A cell lacking a nucleus rock-forming mineral Any of about two spores rather than seeds, such as ferns
and organelles such as mitochondria and dozen minerals common enough in and horsetail rushes.
Glossary 427
sequence stratigraphy The study of rock the atmosphere, hydrosphere, and transform fault A type of fault that
relationships within a time-stratigraphic biosphere, as well as the lithosphere, changes one kind of motion between
framework of related facies bounded by mantle, and core. plates into another type of motion; rec-
widespread unconformities. ognized on land as a strike-slip fault.
Sevier orogeny Cretaceous phase of the Taconic orogeny An Ordovician episode (See San Andreas transform fault.)
Cordilleran orogeny that affected the of mountain building resulting in defor- transform plate boundary Plate bound-
continental shelf and slope areas of mation of the Appalachian mobile belt. ary along which adjacent plates slide
the Cordilleran mobile belt. Tejas epeiric sea A Cenozoic sea largely past one another and crust is neither
Siberia One of six major Paleozoic con- restricted to the Gulf and Atlantic produced nor destroyed.
tinents; composed of Russia east of Coastal Plains, coastal California, and tree-ring dating The process of determin-
the Ural Mountains and Asia north of the Mississippi Valley. ing the age of a tree or wood in a struc-
Kazakhstan and south of Mongolia. terrane A small, lithospheric block with ture by counting the number of annual
silicate A mineral containing silica, a characteristics quite different from those growth rings.
combination of silicon and oxygen, and of surrounding rocks; probably consists
usually one or more other elements. of seamounts, oceanic rises, and other unconformity A break or gap in the geo-
snowball Earth A proposed episode seafloor features accreted to continents logic record resulting from erosion or
during the Neoproterozoic when all of during orogenies. nondeposition or both; the surface sepa-
Earth’s landmasses were covered by gla- terrestrial planet Any of the four small rating younger from older rocks where
ciers and the seas were frozen. inner planets (Mercury, Venus, Earth, and a break in the geologic record is present.
solar nebula theory An explanation for Mars) similar to Earth (Terra); all have (See angular unconformity, nonconfor-
the origin and evolution of the solar high mean densities, indicating they are mity, and disconformity.)
system from a rotating cloud of gases. composed of rock. (See Jovian planet.) ungulate An informal term referring to
Sonoma orogeny A Permian–Triassic theory An explanation for some natural a variety of mammals but especially
orogeny caused by the collision of an phenomenon with a large body of sup- the hoofed mammals of the orders
island arc with the southwestern margin porting evidence; theories must be test- Artiodactyla and Perissodactyla.
of North America. able by experiments and/or observations, underplating A process whereby rising
sorting The process whereby sedimentary as is the case with plate tectonic theory. magma from a subducted plate or man-
particles are selected by size during theory of evolution The theory holding tle plume is added beneath or within a
transport; deposits are poorly sorted to that all living things are related and that continent.
well sorted, depending on the range of they descended with modification from U-shaped glacial trough A valley with steep
particle sizes present. organisms that lived during the past. or nearly vertical walls and a broad, con-
species A population of similar individu- therapsid Permian to Triassic mammal- cave, or rather flat floor; formed by move-
als that in nature can interbreed and like reptiles; the ancestors of mammals ment of a glacier through a stream valley.
produce fertile offspring. are among one group of therapsids
stratigraphy The branch of geology con- known as cynodonts. valley glacier A glacier confined to a
cerned with the composition, origin, thermal convection cell A type of cir- mountain valley.
areal extent, and age relationships of culation of material in the astheno- varve A dark-light couplet of sedimen-
stratified (layered) rocks; concerned sphere during which hot material rises, tary laminations representing an annual
with all rock types but especially sedi- moves laterally, cools and sinks, then is deposit in a glacial lake.
ments and sedimentary rocks. reheated and continues the cycle. vascular plant A plant with specialized
stratification (bedding) The layering in tidal flat A broad, extensive area along a tissues for transporting fluids.
sedimentary rocks; layers less than 1 cm coastline that is alternately water-covered vertebrate Any animal possessing a seg-
thick are laminations, whereas beds are at high tide and exposed at low tide. mented vertebral column, as in fish,
thicker. till Sediment deposited directly by glacial amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals;
stromatolite A biogenic sedimentary struc- ice, as in an end moraine. members of the subphylum Vertebrata.
ture, especially in limestone, produced by time-stratigraphic unit A body of strata vestigial structure Any structure in an
entrapment of sediment grains on sticky that was deposited during a specific organism that no longer serves any
mats of photosynthesizing bacteria. interval of geologic time; for example, the function or serves only a limited or dif-
submarine hydrothermal vent A crack or Devonian System, a time-stratigraphic unit, ferent function; examples are dewclaws
fissure in the seafloor through which super- was deposited during that part of geologic in dogs, wisdom teeth in humans, and
heated water issues. (See black smoker.) time designated the Devonian Period. middle ear bones in mammals.
Sundance Sea A wide seaway that existed time unit Any of the units such as eon, volcanic rock An igneous rock that forms
in western North America during the era, period, epoch, and age referring to as lava cools and crystallizes or when
Middle Jurassic Period. specific intervals of geologic time. pyroclastic materials are consolidated.
supercontinent A landmass consisting Tippecanoe Sequence A widespread body (See extrusive igneous rock.)
of most of Earth’s continents (such as of sedimentary rocks bounded above
Pangaea). and below by unconformities; deposited Walther’s law A concept holding that
supercontinent cycle Refers to the assem- during an Ordovician to Early Devonian the facies in a conformable vertical
bly of supercontinents followed by their transgressive–regressive cycle of the sequence will be found laterally to one
breakup and reassembly. Tippecanoe Sea. another.
suspension feeder Animal that consumes trace fossil Any indication of prehistoric Wilson cycle The relationship between
microscopic plants and animals or dis- organic activity such as tracks, trails, mountain building (orogeny) and the
solved nutrients from water. burrows, and nests. (See biogenic sedi- opening and closing of ocean basins.
system The fundamental unit in the hier- mentary structure, body fossil, and fossil.)
archy of time-stratigraphic units, such as Transcontinental Arch Area extending from Zuni epeiric sea A widespread sea that
the Devonian System; also a combination Minnesota to New Mexico that stood above was present in North America mostly
of related parts that interact in an orga- sea level as several large islands during the during the Cretaceous, but persisted into
nized manner; Earth’s systems include Cambrian transgression of the Sauk Sea. the Paleogene.
428 Glossary
Answers to Multiple-Choice
Review Questions
Chapter 1 Chapter 11
1. b; 2. d; 3. b; 4. e; 5. c. 1. b; 2. e; 3. c; 4. a; 5. d.
1. c; 2. b; 3. a; 4. b; 5. d. 1. e; 2. c; 3. b; 4. e; 5. c.
1. d; 2. e; 3. a; 4. c; 6. c. 1. e; 2. b; 3. c; 4. a; 5. d.
1. b; 2. e; 3. b; 4. d; 5. b. 1. e; 2. a; 3. d; 4. e; 5. e.
1. b; 2. a; 3. d; 4. b; 5. a. 1. a; 2. d; 3. c; 4. c; 5. e.
1. e; 2. a; 3. c; 4. e; 5. c. 1. a; 2. e; 3. d; 4. c; 5. a.
1. b; 2. c; 3. e; 4. e; 5. a. 1. a; 2. c, 3. d; 4. b; 5. a.
1. b; 2. e; 3. a; 4. c; 5. c. 1. b; 2. a; 3. c; 4. c; 5. a.
1. b; 2. c; 3. e; 4. a; 5. b. 1. a; 2. e; 3. b; 4. e; 5. d.
Chapter 10
1. b; 2. b; 3. e; 4. d; 5. b.
Answers to Multiple-Choice Review Questions 429
Index
Aardonyx, 310 Ardipithecus, 390–393 Black smokers, 165, 166, 168 invertebrates, 364–366
Abiogenesis, 163–164 kadabba, 390 Body fossils, 92–94 Laramide orogeny, 291
Absaroka Sea, 227 ramidus, 390, 392 Bonding, 20–21 mammals, 368–383
Absaroka Sequence, 223–227, 284 Argillite, 158 Bony fish, 262, 303 mineral resources, 341–342, 361
Acadian orogeny, 215, 218, 232 Argon, 75–77 Borax, 361 North America during, 329–336
Acanthodians, 260 Argon-argon dating, 78 Bovidae, 376 orogenic belts, 325–328
Acanthostega, 265 Aristotle, 132 Brachiopods, 242, 243, 246, 248, 249, 250 Persian Gulf, 60–61
Acasta Gneiss, 153, 157, 170 Arkose, 28 Brachiosaurus, 307 plants, 366–367
Accessory minerals, 23 Artificial selection, 134 Braided streams, 116–117 plate tectonics, 324–325, 345–346
Accretion of terranes, 297–298 Artiodactyla, 375–377 Bretz, J Harlen, 358 rocks, 324, 338
Acritarchs, 183, 219, 248, 249f, 250, 253 Aseismic ridges, 55 Bright Angel Shale, 198–199 volcanism, 332, 346–348
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 167 Ashfall Fossil Beds State Historical Park, Brongniart, Alexander, 95 Central Lowlands, 336
Aegyptopithecus, 388–389 Nebraska, 364, 373 Browsers, 376 Cephalopods, 301–302, 366
Afonin, S. A., 274 Asia Bryce Canyon National Park, Utah, 72, 99 Cercopithecoidea, 388–389
Africa Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt, 326–327 Bryozoans, 364, 366 Cetacea, 379
Archean rocks, 156 circum-Pacific orogenic belt, 327–328 Buffon, Georges Louis de, 67 Chaleuria cirrosa, 271–272
continental drift, 39–43 intercontinental migrations, 383 Bullard, Edward, 41 Chalicotheres, 372, 377–378
East African Rift Valley, 48, 50–52, 386 plate tectonics, 324, 345–346 Burgess Shale biota, 238, 239, 246–248 Chemical sedimentary rocks, 27–29
Ediacaran fauna, 185, 186 Asthenosphere, 11 Bushveld Complex, 187 Chert, 28–29, 31
greenstone belts, 158, 170 Atavism, 146, 148 Chesapeake Bay, 341
hominids, 390–397 Atlantic Coastal Plain, 338, 340–341 Calcite, 22, 23, 27, 28, 32 Chimpanzees, 389–390
hominins, 390–397 Atlantic continental margin, 341 Caledonian orogeny, 208, 231 China (Paleozoic continent), 195–197
hominoids, 389 Atlantic Ocean, 12, 40, 41, 42, 281, 285, 324 Calvert Cliffs, Maryland, 341 Chinle Formation, 292, 294–295
human origins, 395, 397 Atlas Mountains, 326 Cambrian explosion, 239–240 Chordates, 258–259
intercontinental migrations, 383 Atmosphere, 2, 160, 162, 163, 181 Cambrian Period Chrome, 168
African plate, 46, 47, 57, 324, 326 Atomic mass number, 20, 73–74, 79 invertebrates, 242–248 Chromium, 187
Agassiz, Louis, 345 Atomic number, 20, 73–74, 79 North America during, 198–199 Chromosomes, 136–137, 138, 145
Ages, 101 Atoms, 20–21, 73–75 paleogeography, 195, 199 Chronostratigraphic units, 100–101
Agnatha, 259 ATP (adenosine triphosphate), 167 plate tectonics, 197 Circum-Pacific orogenic belt, 325–328
Alleghenian orogeny, 232–233, 284 Australia, 154, 166–167, 170, 281, 283, 383 rocks of the Grand Canyon, 202 Cirques, 352
Alleles, 135–136 Australopithecines, 390–395 summary of geologic and evolutionary Clack, Jennifer, 265
Allopatric speciation, 138–139 Australopithecus, 390, 391 events, 211, 256, 277 Clade, 142, 145
Alluvial fans, 117 Australopithecus afarensis, 391, 393–395 time-transgressive facies, 203 Cladistics, 141–143
Alpha decay, 73–74, 78 Australopithecus africanus, 391, 394, 395 Cambrian System, 95–96 Cladograms, 141–143
Alpine-Himalayan orogenic belt, 325–327 Australopithecus anamensis, 391 Camels, 138, 140, 376 Clams, 115–116
Alpine orogeny, 326 Australopithecus boisei, 391, 394 Canada Clastic wedge, 208
Alps, 326 Australopithecus robustus, 391, 394 Cordilleran igneous activity, 331–333 Clasts, 28
Altered remains, 92, 94 Australopithecus sediba, 395 Ediacaran fauna, 185, 186 Claystone, 28
AMH (Anatomically Modern Humans), 399 Autotrophic organisms, 167, 241 eukaryotes found in, 182 Cliff House Sandstone, Mesa Verde
Ammonites, 301–302 Avalonia, 195, 197, 233 glaciation, 179, 352, 354 National Park, Colorado, 99–100
Ammonoids, 250, 252 Avian dinosaurs, 313, 368 greenstone belt, 158 Cliff Palace, Mesa Verde National Park,
Amniote egg, 266–267 Axial tilt, 359 isostatic rebound, 356, 356 Colorado, 99
Amniotes, 304, 306f mineral resources, 108, 167–168, 186, 234 Climate, 283–284, 317–318, 349–351,
Amphibians, 263–266, 304 Back-arc basin, 54, 159, 328 oldest known rock in, 153 366–367
Anaerobic organisms, 167 Background extinction, 143 Proterozoic rocks, 172, 173, 176, 183 Climate change
Analogous structures, 146 Bacteria, 163, 164, 165–166 reef development, 218, 220 Cenozoic Era, 349–351
Anatomically Modern Humans (AMH), 399 Baltica, 195–197, 215 Canadian Shield, 156–160 and geologic time, 79–81
Ancestral Rockies, 227–228 Banded iron formation (BIF), 108, 158, Canadian Rockies, Front Range, 84 hypothesis, 381
Andes Mountains, 54, 55, 61, 328 168, 175, 181, 188, 298 Cape Cod, Massachusetts, 354, 356 Paleozoic Era, 254
Andesite, 25–26 Bangiomorpha, 183 Capitol Reef National Park, Utah, 98 Pangaea breakup effects, 283–284
Angiosperms, 304–305 Barrier islands, 119 Carbon-14 dating, 78–79 and Permian mass extinction, 254
Angular unconformity, 86–87, 89 Barrier reefs, 202–203 Carbon atoms, 20 Pleistocene Epoch, 358–360, 381
Ankylosaurus, 311 Basal slip, 345 Carbon dioxide, 68–69, 180, 181, 254, 353, present day, 360
Ankylosaurs, 311 Basalt, 12, 25, 26 358, 408 Clinton Formation, 210
Anning, Mary, 314 Basement rock, 172 Carbonate depositional environments, 123, Closed system, 75
Antarctic plate, 46–47 Basilosaurus, 379–380 124, 339 Coal
Antarctica, 179, 281, 283, 351, 360 Basin and Range Province, 333–334 Carbonate minerals, 22–23 bituminous coal, 31, 234
Anthracite, 32, 34, 235 Bats, 142, 143, 372–374 Carbonate rocks, 28, 220, 223 Cenozoic Era, 342
Anthropocene Epoch, 68–69 Bearpaw Formation, Saskatchewan, Carboniferous Period disadvantages of, 214
Anthropoids, 387, 388–391 Canada, 103–104 invertebrates, 251–252 distribution of deposits in the U.S., 235
Antler orogeny, 215, 230 Bedding, 109 paleogeography, 215 formation, 29, 214, 272–273
Apatosaurus, 307 Bedding planes, 86, 109 plants, 272–273 Glossopteris flora in, 40, 42
Aphanitic texture, 25 Beds, 98 summary of geologic and evolutionary Mesozoic Era, 298
Aphelion, 359 Benthos, 241 events, 236, 256, 277 mining, 213–214
Appalachian mobile belt, 194, 206–208, Bering land bridge, 356 Carboniferous System, 96, 97 seam, 214
231–233 Beta decay, 73–74, 79 Carnassials, 374 swamp, 267, 272–273
Appalachian Mountains, 156, 338–339 Big Bang, 4–6 Carnivora, 374–375 transportation of, 192–193
Arboreal, 387 Biochemical sedimentary rocks, 28 Carnivore-scavenger, 241 uses for, 108, 214
Archaeocyathids, 202, 242, 246 Biogenic sedimentary structures, 110–111 Cartilaginous fish, 262, 303 Coccolithophores, 302
Archaeopteryx, 315 Biogeography, 146–147 Cascade Range, 333, 348, 370 Coelacanths, 263
Archaeotherium, 363 Biosphere, 2 Casts, 93, 94 Coevolution, 304
Archaic mammals, 371 Biostratigraphic units, 98 Cats, 374 Coleoids, 302
Archean Eon, 155–160 Biotic provinces, 60 Catskill Delta, 232 Coelophysis, 307
atmosphere, 160, 162 Bioturbation, 111, 113, 117 Ceboidea, 388–389 Colorado Plateau, 334–335
continental foundations, 155–156 Biozone, 98, 102 Cementation, 27 Columbia Plateau, 331
geologic and biologic events summary, Bipedal, 305 Cenozoic Era, 322–385 Columbia River Basin, Washington, 332
170 Birds, 139, 140, 142, 143, 313, 315, 364, 368 birds, 368 Columbus, Christopher, 131
hydrosphere, 162–163 Bivalves, 301–302, 366 climate, 349–351, 366–367 Compaction, 27
mineral resources, 167–168 Black Canyon of the Gunnison National fossil record, 364 Compounds, 20–21
origin of life, 163–167 Park, Colorado, 172–173 geologic time scale, 323 Concurrent range zones, 102
rocks, 156–157, 172 Black Hills, South Dakota, 189, 336 intercontinental migrations during, 383 Conformable strata, 86
Archosaurs, 305 Black shales, 218–221 introduction, 323–324 Conglomerate, 28–29, 109, 114
430 Index
Conifers, 304 Deposition rates, 67 Elements, 20, 73 Neoproterozoic, 189
Conodonts, 249–250 Depositional environments, 108, 116–125 Elephant birds, 368, 380 palynology, 274–275
Consumers, 241 continental environments, 116–117 Elephants, 379–380, 383 Pleistocene, 382
Contact metamorphism, 30 defined, 116 Ellesmere orogeny, 215 Proterozoic Eon, 182–183, 186
Continental interpretation, 124–125 Elongate geometry, 115 and sedimentary rocks, 115–116
accretion, 159 marine environments, 119–124 EMH (Early Modern Humans), 399 shelly, 240
crust, 12, 153–155 summary of rocks and features in, 116 Emperor Seamount-Hawaiian Island telling time with, 95
environments, 116–117 transitional environments, 117–119 chain, 55–57 Foster, C. B., 274
glaciers, 345, 346, 351 Descartes, René, 6 End moraines, 354 Fracking, 221–223
interior, 284, 336 Desert environments, 117 Endosymbiosis, 184–185 Fragmental texture, 27
islands, 147 Detrital marine environments, 119–121 Endotherms, 268, 311 Franciscan Complex, California, 290
red beds, 175, 181 Detrital sedimentary rocks, 27–29, 109 England, geologic mapping, 193 Franklin mobile belt, 194
rifting, 50, 52 Devils Tower, Wyoming, 337 Eocene Epoch, 253, 323–324, 367, 369, 371 Frogs, 304
rise, 121–122 Devonian Period Eon, 101 Fungi, 138, 163, 184
shelf, 119, 122 amphibians, 265 Eonothem, 101 Fusulinids, 252–253
slope, 121–122 invertebrates, 250–251 Eoraptor, 305–306
Continental drift, 39–43, 57 Kaskaskia Sequence, 218–223 Epeiric seas, 194 Gabbro, 12, 25, 26
continental fit, 41 marine reef community, 251f Epifauna, 241 Galápagos Islands, 131–133, 147
evidence, 41–43 mass extinctions, 252–254 Epiflora, 241 Ganges-Brahmaputra delta, 121
fossil evidence, 42–43 Old Red Sandstone, 232 Epoch, 101 Garden of the Gods, Colorado, 227
glacial evidence, 41 paleogeography, 215, 219f Era, 101 Gastropods, 366
hypothesis, 40–43 plants, 270–271 Erathem, 101 Gemstones, 19
mountain range similarity, 41 marine scene, 261–262 Eukaryotic cells, 165, 182–185 Genes, 133–137
rock sequences similarity, 41, 43 summary of geologic and evolutionary Eurasian plate, 46–47 Genetic drift, 137–138
Continental–continental plate boundary, events, 236, 256, 277 Eurypterids, 250 Genetics, 135–136
52–54 Devonian System, 96, 101, 232 Evaporites Geographic distribution of organisms, 147
Continents, 155–156, 193–197. Diamonds, 298 defined, 29 Geologic column, 96–97
Convection cells, 11, 57–58 Diatomite, 342 depositional environments, 123–124 Geologic record, 84–106
Convergent evolution, 139, 141 Diatoms, 302–303, 365 Early Paleozoic Era, 204–205 correlation, 101–103
Convergent plate boundaries, 52–55 Differential pressure, 30, 31 Late Paleozoic Era, 227, 234 defined, 19, 85
Cooksonia, 270 Dinochicken, building, 148 Mesozoic Era, 283–284, 286 fossils and fossilization, 91–95
Copper, 61–62, 299 Dinoflagellates, 302–303 sedimentation, 208 introduction, 85–86
Coral reefs, 302, 366 Dinosaurs, 115, 124, 125, 143, 300, 301, Even-toed hoofed mammals, 375–377 numerical ages, 103–104
Corals, 115–116, 201–202, 248, 249, 366 304–315, 318–319 Evolution, 130–150 relative geologic time scale, 13, 95–97,
Cordilleran mobile belt, 194, 227, 230, Diorite, 25–26 Darwin’s theory of, 12–13, 131–134, 103–104
288–290, 292–293 Diplodocus, 307 143–144 stratigraphy, 86–91, 97–98
Cordilleran orogeny, 284, 289–291, 329 Dipolar magnetic field, 44 defined, 131–132 Geologic time
Core, 2, 11 Disconformity, 86–87, 89 early Homo, 396–397 and climate change, 79–81
Correlation, 101–103 Divergent evolution, 139–140 evidence supporting, 143–147 early concepts, 67, 69–70
Cosmology, 4–6 Divergent plate boundaries, 48, 50, 52 genetics, 135–136 introduction, 66
Covalent bonding, 21 Dmanisi, Georgia, 396–397 human, 386–400 measurement of, 66–67, 95–97
Cratonic sequences, 197–206, 218–227, 284 DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), 136–137 introduction, 131, 387 numerical dating methods, 66–67, 72–79
Cratonic uplift, 227 Dogs, 142–143, 374 Lamarck’s contributions, 133 relative dating methods, 66, 71–72
Cratons Dolomite, 22–23, 28, 32–33 modern view, 136–143 Geologic time scale
continental architecture and, 193–194 Dolostone, 28, 32, 109, 123 natural selection, 13, 130, 134–135, Cenozoic Era, 323
defined, 155, 193 Doppler effect, 5 137, 141 defined, 13–14
major structures, 194 Drift, 117 of placental and marsupial mammals, 318 example, 67
origin of, 158–160 Dropstones, 117 and plate tectonics, 59–60 Precambrian, 152–153
Proterozoic Eon, 173 Dryopithecines, 389–390 predictions, 144 Quaternary Period, 323, 350
Creodonts, 374 Du Toit, Alexander, 40–42, 60 primate, 386–400 recognition of, 70
Cretaceous Interior Seaway, 296–297 Dunkleosteus, 261 Evolutionary novelties, 142 relative geologic time scale, 13, 66, 71,
Cretaceous Period Dunton pegmatite, Maine, 189 Exit Glacier, Alaska, 120 95–97, 103–104
climate, 318 Dynamic metamorphism, 32 Exoplanets, 8–9 24-hour clock representation, 152
Cordilleran orogeny, 289–291 Exoskeleton, 241, 244 Geology
invertebrates, 302–303 Early Modern Humans (EMH), 399 Expanding universe, 5–6 crisis in, 71
marine invertebrates, 301–303 Early Paleozoic, 192–212 Extinctions, 143, 252–254, 318–319 defined, 4
North America during, 283, 286 continental architecture, 193–194 Extrusive igneous rocks, 24–25 Geometry, 115
paleogeography, 283, 288 introduction, 193 Ginkgo Petrified Forest State Park,
sea level, 91 mineral resources, 208–210 Facies, 88–90 Washington, 369
sedimentation, 296–297 North America during, 197–208 Faint Young Sun Paradox, 155 Ginkgos, 304
summary of geologic events, 301 paleogeography, 194–197 Farallon plate, 329–330, 335 Glacial Lake Missoula, 357–358
Cro-Magnon, 399–400 summary of geologic and evolutionary Faunal succession, principle or law of, 95 Glacial stages, 347
Crocodiles, 312–313 events, 211 Felsic magma, 24 Glaciation
Cross-bedding, 110, 112, 125 Earth Fermentation, 167 continental drift evidence for, 41–42
Cross-cutting relationships, 71–72 age of, 67, 69–70 Ferromagnesian silicates, 22–23 effects, 351–358
Crossopterygians, 263, 264, 303 atmosphere, 2, 160, 162–163, 181 Fish, 259–264, 303 Late Paleozoic, 215, 220, 224
Crust, 12, 153–155 characteristics of, 11 Fishapod, 148 Ordovician Period, 250
Crutzen, Paul, 68–69 formation, 3, 10–12, 152–154 Fissile, 28 Pleistocene Epoch, 345, 351–360
Cryosphere, 345 hydrosphere, 2, 162–163 Fission-track dating, 78 Proterozoic Eon, 177–179
Crystalline solids, 19, 21 layers, 10–11 Five Kingdom Classification System, 184 and sea level changes, 91
Curie, Marie and Pierre, 72 orbit change as Ice Age cause, 358–359 Fixity of species, 131 sediment deposits, 117, 120
Curie point, 44, 45 in solar system, 10 Flooding, 119–121, 146 Glacier National Park, Montana, 171, 351,
Current ripple marks, 110, 112 surface waters, 162–163 Florida, 339–340 353, 354
Cutin, 270 Earthquakes Florissant Fossil Beds National Glacier Peak, Washington, 353
Cuvier, Georges, 132 Haiti (2010), 39, 49 Monument, Colorado, 94, 365 Glaciers, 345, 351–360
Cycads, 304 Japan (2011), 39, 49–50, 327–328 Fluid activity, 30 Glassy texture, 26
Cyclothems, 225–227 New Zealand (2011), 39, 49–50 Fluvial systems, 116, 118 Glauconite, 75–76, 103
Cynodonts, 315–316 Pakistan (2005), 326 Flying reptiles, 312 Global warming, 13–14, 254, 353–354
Sichuan, China (2008), 327 Foliated metamorphic rocks, 32–33 Glossopteris flora, 40, 42, 43, 273
Dakota Sandstone, 114–115 East African Rift Valley, 48, 50–52, 386 Food web, 241, 243 Gneiss, 32, 33
Darwin, Charles, 12, 13, 130–136, 143–144, Eastern Coastal Region of North America, Foraminifera, 241, 252, 301–302, 347–348, Gold, 167, 281, 299, 342, 361
148, 239 284–286 364–367 Gondwana breakup of, 281
Darwinopterus, 312 Echinoderms, 258–259 Formation, 98 continental drift hypothesis, 40, 57
Dating methods, 66–67, 71-79, 103–104 Echinoids, 302, 364, 366 Fossil forest, 369–370 defined, 40
Daughter elements, 75–77 Economic geology, 34 Fossil record, 92, 94, 143–145, 147, 364 Early Paleozoic, 195–197
da Vinci, Leonardo, 147 Ectotherms, 311 Fossil succession, principle of, 71–72, 95–96 Gondwanaland, 40
Deadwood Formation, Wyoming, 259 Ediacaran fauna, 185–187, 240 Fossils, 91–95 Late Paleozoic, 215, 227, 231, 233
Death Valley, California, 345, 357, 361 Einstein’s Theory of Relativity, 5 Archean Eon, 167 Gorillas, 389–391
Deep time, 152 Electromagnetic force, 6 continental drift evidence, 42–43 Gosse, Philip Henry, 85–86, 92
Deinonychus, 300, 307 Electron capture, 73–74 defined, 13, 92 Graded bedding, 109, 111
Deltas, 115–121 Electron shells, 20, 21 as evidence for evolution, 143–149 Grand Canyon, Arizona, 65, 66, 88–90, 99,
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), 136–137 Electrons, 20–21, 73 formation, 92–94 184, 198–201
Index 431
Grand Junction Canal, England, 192 Indian Ocean tsunami (2004), 39 North America during, 218–227 introduction, 281
Granite, 19, 25–26 Indian plate, 46–47, 324–327 paleogeography, 214–218 invertebrates, 301–303
Granite-gneiss complexes, 156–159 Infauna, 241 summary of geologic and evolutionary mammals, 315–317
Graptolites, 249–250 Insectivores, 372–374 events, 236 mass extinctions, 253, 318–319
Gravel, 28, 108–109, 208, 361 Intercontinental migrations, 383 terranes and microplates, 233 mineral resources, 298–299
Gravity, 6 Interglacial stages, 347 Lateral continuity, principle of, 71–72, 88–89 North America during, 284–299
Graywacke, 158 Intermediate magma, 24–25 Lateral gene transfer, 137 Pangaea breakup, 281–284
Grazers, 376 Interval zones, 102 Lateral gradation, 88–89 Persian Gulf, 60–61
Great American Interchange, 383 Intrusive igneous rocks, 24 Laurasia, 40, 215, 227, 231–232 plants, 301, 304
Great Lakes, 357–359 Invertebrates, 238–256 Laurentia, 173–175, 195–197, 207–209, 215 reptiles, 301, 304–313
Great Oxygenation Event, 181 Cambrian explosion, 239–240 Lava, 23–24, 44–45 sedimentation, 292–293, 296–297
Great Plains, 336, 338f Cambrian Period, 242–248 Lead, 210, 234 summary of evolutionary and climatic
Great Salt Lake, Utah, 357 Carboniferous Period, 251–252 Leakey, Louis, 395 events, 321
Great Valley Group, California, 290 Cenozoic Era, 364–366 Leakey, Mary, 393–395 summary of geologic events, 301
Green algae, 269 Devonian Period, 250–252 Leakey, Meave, 391 tectonics, 288–291
Green River Formation, Wyoming, 374 introduction, 239 Leaves, 270 Metallic resources, 61, 234, 298
Greenland major groups and stratigraphic ranges, Liaconodon, 315 Metamorphic rocks, 29–34, 108
glaciers, 351, 354, 360 243 Limestone, 28, 109, 119, 123–124, 208 causes, 30–32
Isua greenstone belt, 158, 170 mass extinctions, 252–254 Linnaeus, Carolus, 144–145 classification, 32–34
Old Red Sandstone, 232, 265 Mesozoic Era, 301–303 Lithification, 27 foliated, 32–33
origin of life evidence, 163 Ordovician Period, 248–250 Lithosphere, 2, 11–12, 46, 48 nonfoliated, 33–34
separation from Pangaea, 283 Permian Period, 251–252 Lithostatic pressure, 30 Meteorite impact hypothesis, 319
Greenstone, 33 shelly fauna, emergence of, 240–241 Lithostratigraphic correlation, 101 Methane hydrates, 342
Greenstone belts, 156–159, 170 Silurian Period, 250–252 Lithostratigraphic units, 97–98 Miacids, 374
Grenville orogeny, 175–176 Ionic bonding, 21 Little Ice Age, 351, 353, 358, 360 Michigan Basin, 203–205, 207
Gressly, Armanz, 88, 90 Iridium anomaly, 319 Living fossils, 141–142 Microevolution, 138–139, 146
Groundmass, 25 Irish elk, 381f Living-nonliving distinction, 163–164 Microfossils, 116, 183–184
Group, 98 Islands, 117, 119, 144, 147 Lizards, 313 Microorganisms, 302
Guadalupe Mountains, 227, 230 Isostasy, 355–356 Llamas, 138 Microplates, 233
Guide fossils, 102 Isostatic rebound, 351, 356 Lobe-finned fish, 263, 265, 303 Microspheres, 164–165
Gulf Coast Region of North America, Isotopes, 20, 72–73, 76–77 Louann Salt, 298 Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 48, 50–51, 56, 57
286–287, 340 Isthmus of Panama, 60 Lovejoy, Owen, 393 Midcontinent Rift, 176–177, 187
Gulf Coastal Plain, 338–340 Isua Greenstone Belt, Greenland, 158 Lungfish, 263, 303 Middle ear, evolution of, 315–316
Gulf of California, 50, 55–56 Lycopsids, 272 Migmatites, 33
Gulf of Mexico, 281, 283–288, 296 Japan, 39, 49–50, 327 Lyell, Charles, 70, 72 Milankovitch, Milutin, 358
Gymnosperms, 271–273, 304 Jaws, evolution of, 259, 261, 313–314, 316 Lysenko, Trofim Denisovich, 133 Milankovitch theory, 358–360
Gypsum, 22 Joggins Formation, Nova Scotia, Canada, Milky Way Galaxy, 6, 8
267 Macroevolution, 138 Miller, Stanley, 164
Hadean Eon, 153–155 John Day Fossil Beds National Monument, Madagascar, 147 Minamisanriku, Japan, 50
Hadrosaurs, 310 Oregon, 365, 369 Mafic magma, 24–25 Minerals, 21–23
Haiti earthquake (2010), 39, 49 Johnson, Donald, 393 Magma, 11, 23–24 Archean Eon, 167–168
Half-life, 73–75 Joly, John, 69 Magnetic anomalies, 46–47 Cenozoic Era, 341–342
Harney Peak Granite, South Dakota, 189 Jormua ophiolite, Finland, 177–178 Magnetic field, 44–45 composition and structure, 21–22
Hemicyclaspis, 259 Jovian planets, 6–10 Magnetic reversals, 45–46 defined, 19
Herbivores, 241 Jupiter, 6–8 Magnetism, 44 Early Paleozoic, 208–210
Hercynian (Variscan)–Alleghenian Jura Mountains, Switzerland, 88 Magnetosphere, 160 groups, 22–23
orogeny, 232–233 Jurassic Park, 301, 307 Maiasaura, 310 importance, 19
Herringbone cross-bedding, 119 Jurassic Period Malthus, Thomas, 134 industrial, 35
Hess, Harry, 45–46 Absaroka Sequence, 223–227 Mammals Late Paleozoic, 233–235
Heterospory, 271 climate, 318 Cenozoic Era, 368–383 Mesozoic Era, 298–299
Heterotrophic organisms, 167 Cordilleran orogeny, 289–290 characteristic changes during transition Proterozoic Eon, 186–189
Himalayan orogeny, 326–327 formations in the Western U.S., 295 from reptiles to, 317 Quaternary Period, 361
Himalayas, 53–55, 326–327 marine invertebrates, 302 convergent evolution, 139, 141 Miocene Epoch, 323, 324, 369, 372
Historical geology, 4, 14–15 North America during, 282–286 diversification of, 371 “Missing links,” 148
HMS Beagle, 131–133 paleogeography, 287 hoofed, evolutionary trends in, 375 Mississippi River delta, 119, 121
Holocene Epoch, 323, 345–347, 349–351 plants, 304 Ice Age, 380–381 Mississippian Period
Hominids, 390–400 reptiles, 307, 313 intercontinental migrations, 383 carbonate deposition, 220, 223
Hominins, 390–400 sedimentation, 292–293, 296 origin and evolution of, 60, 315–317 Cordilleran mobile belt, 227, 230
Hominoids, 389 summary of geologic events, 301 types, 317, 370–372 Hercynian (Variscan)–Alleghenian
Homo, 395 Mammoths, 378 orogeny, 232–233
Homo erectus, 396–398 Kasha-Katuwe Tent Rocks National Mantell, Gideon and Mary Ann, 310 plants, 272
Homo habilis, 395–397 Monument, New Mexico, 322 Mantle, 2, 11 reptiles, 267
Homo sapiens, 397 Kaskaskia Sea, 218, 220 Mantle plumes, 55, 58–59 summary of geologic and evolutionary
Homologous structures, 145 Kaskaskia Sequence, 218–222 Marathon Mountains, Texas, 231 events, 236, 256, 277
Hornfels, 32, 34 Kaskawulsh Glacier, Yukon Territory, Marble, 32–33 Mitosis, 136–137
Horses, 136, 138, 140, 149, 377–378 Canada, 361 Margulis, Lynn, 184 Moas, 368, 380, 382
Hot spots, 55, 57 Kayenta Formation, 293 Marine diversity, 254 Mobile belts, 194, 227–233
House sparrows, 138 Kazakhstania, 195–197, 215 Marine ecosystems, 241–252 Modern synthesis, 136–143
Hox genes, 240 Kelvin, Lord, 71 Marine environments, 116–124 Moenkopi Formation, 292, 295
Hubble, Edwin, 5 Kepler space telescope, 9 Marine organisms, 241–252. Molarization, 376
Humans, 68–69, 391f, 395, 397–400 Kerogen, 341 Marine regressions, 88–91 Molars, 370
Hutton, James, 70, 72 Kimberella, 186, 189 Marine reptiles, 312–313 Molds, 93–94
Hydraulic fracturing, 221–223 Koch, Albert, 380 Marine transgressions, 88–91 Mollusks, 301
Hydraulic fracturing sands, 210 Komatiites, 158 Mars, 6, 7, 161–162 Monkeys, 388–389
Hydrocarbons, 234, 298, 342 Marsupial mammals, 317–318, 370, 383 Monomers, 164–165
Hydrosphere, 2, 162–163 La Brea Tar Pits, Southern California, Mass extinctions, 143, 252–254, 318–319 Monotremes, 317, 370
Hylonomus, 267 93–94, 381–382 Mastodons, 378 Monterey Formation, Newport Lagoon,
Hypotheses, defined, 4 Labyrinthodonts, 264, 266, 304 Matter, 20–21 California, 365
Hyracotherium, 377 Lake Bonneville, 357 Mazatzal orogen, 173–174 Moon, 7, 153–154, 158, 161, 170
Lake Missoula, 357 Meandering streams, 116 Moraines, 117, 352, 355
Iapetus Ocean, 207, 215, 232 Lakes, 116, 356–358, 361 Meiosis, 136–137 Morrison Formation, Utah, 296
Iberia-Armorica, 233 Lamarck, Jean-Baptiste de, 133, 137 Mélange, 54 Mosaic evolution, 140–141, 270
Ice caps, 346, 351 Laminations, 109 Mendel, Gregor, 135–136 Mosasaurs, 313
Ice rafting, 121 Lapilli, 27 Mercury, 6, 7, 10, 161–162 Mount Haynes, Yellowstone National
Ice sheets, 345 Lapworth, Charles, 96 Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, 99–100 Park, Wyoming, 107
Ice-scoured plains, 352 Laramide orogeny, 291, 329–331 Mesoproterozoic Era, 175–177, 182 Mount Rainier, Washington, 353
Ichthyosaurs, 312–314 Lassen Peak, California, 333, 346, 348 Mesosaurus, 42–43 Mount St. Helens, Washington, 94, 333,
Ichthyostega, 265 Late Heavy Bombardment, 153 Mesozoic Era, 280–321 346, 348, 352, 369
Igneous rocks, 23–27, 54, 75–77, 108, 175 Late Paleozoic, 213–237 accretion of terranes, 297–298 Mount Shasta, California, 94, 333, 353
Illinois Basin, 220, 225, 234 introduction, 214 birds, 313, 315 Mount Sinabung eruption, 39
Inclusions, principle of, 71–72, 86 mineral resources, 233–235 climate, 283–284, 317–318 Mount Vesuvius, Italy, 326
India, 281, 283, 327 mobile belts, 227–233 fish, 303 Mountain building, 59
432 Index
Muav Limestone, 198–199 Ordovician Period Pangaea Platinum, 168, 186–187
Mud cracks, 110, 113 Caledonian orogeny, 231 breakup of, 281–285, 324 Playa lakes, 117, 119
Mudrocks, 28, 32 invertebrates, 248–250 defined, 40 Pleistocene Epoch
Mudstone, 28 mass extinctions, 250 formation of, 215–218, 233 climate, 349–351
Multicelled organisms, 184–186 paleogeography, 195–197, 204 Wegener’s continental drift hypothesis, duration, 323, 345
Murchison, Roderick Impey, 95–96 plants, 269–270 40–43 fauna, 380–383
Mushroom Rock State Park, Kansas, 114–115 summary of geologic and evolutionary Pannotia, 178, 193–194 geologic time scale, 323
Mutagens, 138 events, 211, 256, 277 Panthalassa Ocean, 215, 283 glaciation, 345, 349, 351–360
Mutations, 137 Tippecanoe Sequence, 201–206 Parallel evolution, 139, 141 lakes, 357
Ordovician System, 96–97 Parent element, 73–75 mass extinctions, 253, 381–383
Natural gas, 222, 234, 298 Organic evolution, 12–13 Peat, 361 sea level, 91
Natural resources, distribution of, 60–61 Organic reefs, 202–205, 220, 250 Pegmatite, 168, 189 stratigraphy, 347–348
Natural selection, 13, 130, 134–135, Organisms Pelagic clay, 121 tectonics, 345–347
137, 141 classification, 144 Pelagic organisms, 241 Plesiosaurs, 312–313
Nautiloids, 302 multicelled organisms, 184–185 Pelycosaurs, 267, 268 Pliocene Epoch, 323
Navajo Sandstone, Utah, 124–125, oldest, 165–167 Pennsylvanian Period Plutons, 24, 54
293, 296 The Origin of Continents and Oceans Absaroka Sequence, 223–227 Pluvial lakes, 356–358, 361
Nazca plate, 46, 54, 61 (Wegener), 40 coal formation, 214 Point bar deposits, 116
Neanderthals, 397–399 Origin of life, 163–167 Hercynian (Variscan)–Alleghenian Point mutation, 137
Negaunee Iron Formation, Michigan, Original horizontality, principle of, 71–72 orogeny, 232–233 Pollen analysis, 274–275, 350–351
182–183, 188 Ornithischia, 305–306, 310 plants, 272 Polymers, 164–165
Nekton, 241 Orogenies summary of geologic and evolutionary Polyploidy, 139
Neogene Period, 322–343 Cenozoic Era, 325–328 events, 236, 256, 277 Porphyritic texture, 25
geologic time scale, 323 defined, 59 Penzias, Arno, 5–6 Porphyry, 25
mammals, 372–380 Early Paleozoic Era, 206–208 Peridotite, 11 Porphyry copper, 299
mineral resources, 341–342 Late Paleozoic Era, 215, 231–233 Perihelion, 359 Potassium-argon method, 77, 78
North America during, 329–336 Mesozoic Era, 284, 288–291 Period, 101 Powell, John Wesley, 65–66, 200
orogenic belts, 325–328 Precambrian, 173–176 Perissodactyla, 375, 377–378 Precambrian Earth, 151–170
plate tectonics, 324–325 Orogens, 173, 325 Permafrost, 345 defined, 152
Neoglaciation, 351 Orrorin tugenensis, 390 Permian Period geologic time scale, 152–153
Neoproterozoic Era, 176, 179–181, Ostracoderms, 259–260, 263 Absaroka Sea, 227 Hadean, 152–155
185–186, 231 Ouachita mobile belt, 194, 231 Hercynian (Variscan)–Alleghenian introduction, 152–153
Neptune, 6–8 Ouachita Mountains, 231 orogeny, 232–233 rock distribution, 156
Neutrons, 20, 73 Ouachita orogeny, 231 invertebrates, 251–253 Precambrian shield, 155
Nevadan orogeny, 290 Our Wandering Continents (du Toit), 40 mass extinctions, 254 Precession of the equinoxes, 359
New World monkeys, 388–389 Outgassing, 160, 162 paleography of North America, 229 Prehistoric-overkill hypothesis, 382
New Zealand earthquake (2011), 39, 49–50 Outwash, 117, 354 Pangaea, formation of, 215–218 Premolars, 370
Newark Group, 285 Oxygen, 160, 162, 181 plants, 273 Primary consumers, 241
Newberry National Volcanic Monument, Ozone, 160, 162, 181, 254 Sonoma orogeny, 289 Primary producers, 241
Oregon, 369 summary of geologic and evolutionary Primates, 374, 387–388
Nickel, 186 Pachycephalosaurs, 310 events, 236, 256, 277 Principle of cross-cutting relationships,
Nile delta, 121 Pacific Coast, 335–336 Permian System, 96–98 71–72
Niobrara Formation, 124, 126 Pacific-Farallon Ridge, 335 Persian Gulf, 60–61 Principle of fossil succession, 71–72, 95
Nisqually Glacier, Washington, 353 Pacific Ocean, 281, 289 Peru-Chile Trench, 54 Principle of inclusions, 71–72, 86
Non-avian dinosaurs, 315, 368 Pacific plate, 46–47, 50, 55–57, 60–61 Perunica, 233 Principle of lateral continuity, 71–72,
Nonconformity, 86–87, 89 Paleobiogeography, 317–318 Petrified Forest National Park, Arizona, 88–89
Nonferromagnesian silicates, 22–23 Paleocastor, 373 94, 294–295, 369 Principle of original horizontality, 71–72
Nonfoliated metamorphic rocks, 33–34 Paleocene-Eocene Thermal Maximum, Petroleum, 60–61, 233–234, 298 Principle of superposition, 71–72, 86
Nonliving-living distinction, 163–164 80–81, 367 Phaneritic texture, 25 Principle of uniformitarianism, 14, 70
Nonvascular plants, 269 Paleocene Epoch, 323, 367, 371 Phanerozoic Eon, 318 Principles of Geology (Lyell), 70
North America Paleogene Period, 322–343 Phenocrysts, 25 Proboscidea, 378
Archean rocks, 156–157 geologic time scale, 323 Phosphate rock, 108 Proconsul, 389
Canadian Shield, 156–158, 160 mammals, 372–380 Photochemical dissociation, 162 Producers, 241
Cenozoic Era, 329–336 mineral resources, 341–342 Photosynthesis, 162, 167 Productids, 252
Early Paleozoic, 197–208 North America during, 329–336 Phyletic gradualism, 139 Proglacial lakes, 356–358
glacial stages, 347 orogenic belts, 325–328 Phyllite, 32 Progradation, 118
greenstone belts, 157–158, 170 plate tectonics, 324–325 Phylogenetic trees, 142 Prokaryotic cells, 165, 167, 182–183
intercontinental migrations, 383 Paleogeography Phylogeny, 141, 145 Prosimians, 387–388
Late Paleozoic, 218–227 Cenozoic Era, 325 Physical geology, 4 Proterozoic Eon, 171–191
Mesozoic Era, 281, 284–299 defined, 125 Phytoplankton, 241, 248, 274, 302, 364–366 animals, 185–186
North American Commission on Early Paleozoic, 194–197 Pillow lavas, 48, 50, 52 atmosphere, 181
Stratigraphic Nomenclature, 152 Eocene and Miocene epochs, 325 Pinnacle reefs, 203 eukaryotic cells, 182–184
North American Cordillera, 329–336 Late Paleozoic, 214–218 Placenta, 370 glaciation, 179–181
North American plate, 46, 47, 49–50, maps, 127 Placental mammals, 317, 318, 370–372 introduction, 172
55–57, 61 Mesozoic, 282–283 Placers, 342 Laurentia, 172–175
Nuclear force, 6 North America, 224–225 Placoderms, 261–262, 263 microfossils, 183–184
Nucleus, 73 Paleontology, 131, 314 Planetesimals, 7 minerals, 186–189
Numerical dating, 66–67, 72–79 Paleoproterozoic Era Plankton, 241 multicelled organisms, 184–185
Nuna, 177–178 banded iron formation (BIF), 181–182 Plants, 60, 269–275, 301, 304, 366–367 rocks, 172
fossil record, 181–182, 184 Plastic flow, 345 summary of geologic and biologic
Obsidian, 25 glaciation, 179 Plate tectonics, 38–64 events, 190
Occipital condyle, 316 Laurentia, 173–175 Archean Eon, 158–160 supercontinents, 177–179
Oceanic–continental plate boundary, minerals, 186–189 Cenozoic Era, 324–325 Protoavis, 315
52–54, 207 plate tectonics, 177 continental drift, 39–43, 57 Protobionts, 164
Oceanic crust, 12 rocks of the Great Lakes region, 176 definition of, 12, 46–48 Protons, 73
Oceanic islands, 144, 147 stromatolites, 181 and distribution of life, 59–60 Protorothyrids, 267
Oceanic–oceanic plate boundary, 52–54 supercontinents, 177 and distribution of natural resources, Pteranodon, 312
Oceans, 69, 162–163, 284, 349–350 Paleozoic Era, 192–212 60–62 Pteraspis, 259
Odd-toed hoofed mammals, 375–378 continents during, 195 driving mechanism, 57–59 Pterosaurs, 312
Oil shale, 341 cratonic sequences, 197–206, 218–227 Earth’s magnetic field, 44–45 Pumice, 25–27
Old Red Sandstone, 232–233, 265 invertebrates, 238–256 and the Himalayan Orogen, 327 Punctuated equilibrium, 139
Old World monkeys, 388–389 mineral resources, 208–210, 233–235 hot spots, 55, 57 Pyroclastic materials, 24, 26–27
Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, Africa, 386 mobile belts, 194, 227–233 introduction, 39
Oligocene Epoch, 323, 370, 371 North America during, 197–208, 218–227 mantle plumes, 55, 58–59 Quadrupedal, 305
On the Origin of Species (Darwin), 13, 133, paleogeography, 194–197, 214–218 and mountain building, 59 Quartz, 18–19, 21, 108–109
135, 145, 239 plants, 269–275 plate boundaries, 49–55 Quartz sandstone, 28, 32–33
Ooids, 123 summaries of geologic and evolutionary plate movement and motion, 55–56 Quartzite, 32–33
Oolitic limestone, 123 events, 211, 236, 256, 277 and rock cycle, 34 Quaternary Period, 323, 344–362
Ooze, 121 terranes and microplates, 233 and terrestrial planets, 161–162 geologic time scale, 323, 350
Ophiolites, 54, 159, 177 vertebrates, 258–268 theory, 46–48 introduction, 345
Orbit, Earth’s, 358–359 Palisades sill, 285, 289 Plates, 11, 46–48, 50 mineral resources, 361
Orbital eccentricity, 359 Palynology, 274–275 Platforms, 155–156, 194 stratigraphy, 347–348
Index 433
Quaternary Period (continued) Sediment-deposit feeders, 241 Steppe environments, 367 Trona, 341
tectonism, 345–346 Sediment transport, 27 Stillwater Complex, Montana, 168 Trophic levels, 241
volcanism, 346–347 Sedimentary breccia, 28–29 Stone Mountain, North Carolina, 18 Tsunami, Indian Ocean (2004), 39
Queen Charlotte transform fault, 336 Sedimentary facies, 88–90 Stoppani, Antonio, 68 Tuff, 26–27
Queenston Delta, 208–209 Sedimentary rocks, 27–29, 107–129 Strategic mineral reserve, 34, 342 Turbidity currents, 109, 111
Archean Eon, 156–157 Strategic petroleum reserve, 34, 342 Turtles, 313
Rabbits, 372–374 classification, 27–29 Stratification, 109 Tylosaurus, 313
Radioactive decay, 73–75 composition and texture, 109 Stratigraphic traps, 342 Tyrannosaurus, 311
Radioactive isotope pairs, 77–78 depositional environments, 116–125 Stratigraphy, 86–91
Radiocarbon dating, 78–79 introduction, 108 defined, 86 U-shaped glacial troughs, 352
Radiometric dating, 66, 71, 76–77, 103–104 lithification, 27 lateral relationships, 86, 88 Ultramafic magma, 24–25
Range zone, 102 numerical ages, determining, 104 marine transgressions, 88–91 Unaltered remains, 92–94
Ray-finned fish, 263, 303 properties, 108–116 Pleistocene Epoch, 347–348 Unconformities, 70, 86–88
Recrystallization, 30 Proterozoic Eon, 172–173, 176, 181 sequence, 198 Underplating, 159
Red Sea, 50–52, 61 radiometric dating, 76–77 terminology, 97–101 Ungulates, 375–380
Reefs relative dating, 71–72 vertical relationships, 86–88 Uniformitarianism, 14, 70–71, 85
of Absaroka Sea, 227 Sedimentary structures, 109–113 Stratotype, 100 Universe, origin of, 4–6
Carboniferous Period, 252 Sedimentation, of Mesozoic Era, 292–297 Streams, 116–117 Uranium, 73, 74, 76, 298
Cenozoic Era, 366 Seedless vascular plants, 269–271, 304 Striations, 41, 43 Uranium-lead dating, 77
coral, 302, 366 Sequence stratigraphy, 198 Strike-slip fault, 49–50 Uranium-thorium dating, 78
Cretaceous Period, 286 Sevier orogeny, 291 Stromatolites, 165, 181 Uranus, 6–7
Devonian Period, 250 Sex cells, 136–137 Stromatoporoids, 248, 250, 252 Ussher, James, 67
Mesozoic Period, 302 Sexual selection, 130, 135 Structural traps, 342 Utatsusaurus, 312
Ordovician Period, 248–249 Shale, 28, 32, 218–223 Subduction complex, 52–54
organic reefs, 202–205, 220, 252 Sharks, 262, 303 Submarine hydrothermal vents, 165–166 Valley glaciers, 345–346, 351
Permian Period, 230, 252 Sheet geometry, 115 Subsystems of Earth, 2–3 Variscan orogeny, 233–234
Silurian Period, 250 Shelly fauna, 240–241 Sudbury Basin, Ontario, Canada, 186 Varve, 117, 357
in western Canada, 218 Shermer, Michael, 144 Suess, Edward, 39, 40, 60 Vascular plants, 269–272
Regional metamorphism, 32 Shields, 194 Sun, 155 Venus, 6–7, 161–162
Reichert, Karl, 316 Shinarump Conglomerate, 292 Sundance Sea, 293 Vertebrates
Relative dating, 66, 71–72 Shoestring geometry, 115 Supercontinents, 177–179, 193–194 amphibians, 263–266, 304
Relative geologic time scale, 13, 66, 71, Siberia (Paleozoic continent), 195–197, 215 Supergroups, 98 birds, 139, 140, 313, 315, 366–367
95–97, 103–104 Siberian Traps, 254 Superposition, principle of, 71–72, 86 defined, 258
Reptiles, 266–268, 301, 304–313 Siccar Point, Scotland, 70 Suspension feeders, 241 fish, 259–264, 303
characteristic changes during transition Sierra Nevada, California, 280 Mesozoic Era, 303–304
from mammals to, 317 Silica, 22, 23, 208, 233–234 Taconic orogeny, 206–208, 232 Paleozoic Era, 258–268
Rhinoceroses, 149, 377–378 Silica tetrahedron, 22 Tapeats Sandstone, 198 reptiles, 266–268, 301, 304–313
Rhipidistians, 263 Silicates, 22–23 Tapirs, 149 Vesicles, 25, 27
Rhyolite, 25–26 Siltstone, 28 Taylor, Frank, 40 Vestigial structures, 146, 148
Ridge-push process, 58–59 Silurian Period Tectonics, 161, 289–291, 345–346. Viruses, 164
Rifting, identification of, 50–52 Acadian orogeny, 232 See also Cratons; Orogenies; Plate Volcanic breccia, 27
Rio Grande Rift, 322, 335 brackish water community, 251 tectonics Volcanic island arcs, 54
Ripple marks, 110 invertebrates, 250–252 Teeth, 315–316, 370, 374 Volcanic rocks, 24
RNA (ribonucleic acid), 164 paleogeography, 195–197 Tejas epeiric sea, 338 Volcanism
Rock City, Kansas, 114–115 plants, 270 Terranes, 59, 233, 297–298 Alaska, 328
Rock cycle, 23–24, 34, 404 reefs, 203–206 Terrestrial planets, 6–7, 8–9, 66, 153, 158, Archean Eon, 160
Rock-forming minerals, 23 summary of geologic and evolutionary 161–162 Cenozoic Era, 328–333, 335
Rock gypsum, 28–29, 31, 108–109, 123, 210 events, 211, 256, 277 Tertiary consumers, 241 and climate change, 360
Rock salt, 28–29, 108–109, 123, 210 Silurian System, 95–97 Tethys Sea, 281–284, 324–326, 349, 366 Great Plains, 336
Rocks Simian, 387 Teton Range, Wyoming, 151 Lassen Peak, 333, 346, 348
defined, 19 Sinosauropteryx, 308 Tetrapods, 257–258, 263 Late Permian Period, 254
igneous, 23–27, 54, 75–77, 108, 175 Sivapithecids, 389 Texture, 109 Mount St. Helens, 333, 346, 348
metamorphic, 29–34, 108 Slab-pull process, 58–59 Thelon orogen, 173–174 Mount Sinabung, Indonesia, 39
relative ages of, 92, 95 Slate, 32–33 Theory, defined, 4 Mount Vesuvius, Italy, 326
sedimentary, 27–29 Smith Rock, Smith Rock State Park, Theory of evolution, 13, 131–132, 143–147 North American Cordillera, 329–333
Rocky Mountains, 156, 176, 228, 281, 284, Oregon, 333 Therapsids, 268, 315 Quaternary Period, 346–348
291, 329–331 Smith, William, 4, 95, 192–193, 214 Thermal convection cells, 46, 58
Rodents, 372–374 Snake River Plain, Idaho, 331–332 Thermal proteins, 164–165 Walcott, Charles, 165, 239, 246
Rodinia, 175, 178, 179, 193 Snakes, 313 Theropods, 307–308, 311, 315 Wallace, Alfred Russel, 130, 133–136
Roosevelt, Theodore, 200 Solar nebula, 6 Thorium-lead dating, 77 Walther’s law, 90
Roots, 270 Solar nebula theory, 6–7, 10 Tidal flats, 119 Water gaps, 338
Rounding, 109–110 Solar radiation, 359–360 Tiktaalik roseae, 265–266 Wave-formed ripple marks, 110, 113
Rubidium-strontium pair, 77 Solar system, origin and evolution of, Till, 41, 117 Wegener, Alfred, 40–42, 60
Rudists, 287, 302 6–10, 153 Tillites, 179 Welded tuff, 27
Ruminants, 377 Sonoma orogeny, 284, 289–290 Time-stratigraphic correlation, 101 Well cuttings, 116
Sordes pilosus, 312 Time-stratigraphic units, 100–101 West Texas Permian basins and reefs, 229
Sahelanthropus tchadensis, 390, 392 Sorting, 109, 110 Time transgressive, 90 Western Region of North America, 287–297
Salamanders, 304 South Africa Time units, 101 Whales, 379–380
Salt domes, 281, 286, 298, 340 chromium, 187 Tippecanoe Sea, 203–206 Why Darwin Matters (Shermer), 144
Samarium-neodymium dating, 78 diamonds, 298 Tippecanoe Sequence, 201–206, 248 Wilson cycle, 59, 173, 175
San Andreas transform fault, 55–56, 336 gold, 167 Titanis walleri, 368 Wilson, Robert, 5–6
San Francisco volcanic field, AZ, 331, 333 greenstone belts, 158, 170 Titanotheres, 371, 377–378 Wind gaps, 338
Sand, 108–109, 208, 361 hominin discoveries, 394–395 Trace fossils, 92–94, 111 Wingate Sandstone, 293
Sand dunes, 117 stromatolites, 165 Trans-Hudson orogen, 173 Wisconsinan glacial stage, 357
Sandstone, 27–29, 109, 114–115 tillites, 179 Transcontinental Arch, 198 Wonderful Life: The Burgess Shale and the
Sandstone-carbonate-shale assemblage, 173 South America Transform faults, 55–56 Nature of History (Gould), 15
Saturn, 6, 7 Cenozoic Era, 60–61, 383 Transform plate boundaries, 55–56 Woodward, John, 147
Sauk Sea, 198, 199, 201, 207, 227, 246 continental drift, 39–43 Transitional environments, 116–119 Wopmay orogen, 173, 175
Sauk Sequence, 198–199 intercontinental migrations, 383 Tree-ring dating, 79
Saurischia, 305–307, 310 Mesozoic Era, 281, 283–284, 286, 318 Triassic fault basins, 52 Yavapai orogen, 173–174
Sauropods, 307–312 South American plate, 46–47, 61, 345–346 Triassic Period Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, 107,
Savannahs, 367 South Sawyer Glacier, Alaska, 344 climate, 317–318 347, 349, 370
Schist, 32–33 Speciation, 138–140 formations in the Western U.S., 295 Yellowstone Plateau, 331
Scientific method, 4 Species, 138, 140, 145 invertebrates, 301–302 Yinlong, 311
Scleractinians, 302 Sphenopsids, 272–273 North America during, 284–286 Yunnanozoon, 259
Scoria, 25–27 Spores, palynological analysis, 274–275 paleogeography, 282, 286
Sea level, 89–91, 215, 218, 283–286, 296, Spreading ridges, 48, 50 plants, 304 Zagros Mountains, Iran, 38
354–355 Sprigg, R. C., 186 sedimentation, 292–293 Zinc, 210, 234
Sea of Japan, 54 Spriggina, 186 Sonoma orogeny, 289 Zion National Park, Utah, 124–125
Seafloor spreading, 45–46, 91, 296 St. Peter Sandstone, 201 summary of geologic events, 301 Zooplankton, 241
Secondary consumers, 241 Stegosaurus, 311 Triceratops, 310f, 311 Zuni epeiric sea, 336
Sedgwick, Adam, 95–96 Steno, Nicolas, 71–72, 86, 88, 92 Trilobites, 242–245, 248, 263 Zuni Sequence, 284
434 Index

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Figure 17.

14,000 Years Ago 9,000 Years Ago

Lake Chicago Lake

What Caused Pleistocene Glaciation? 359

July January Even though now considerably restricted, gla-

360 Chapter 17 Cenozoic Earth History

362 Chapter 17 Cenozoic Earth History

Life of the Cenozoic Era

many animals that, if they could be resurrected, would be

364 Chapter 18 Life of the Cenozoic Era

latitudinal temperature gradients during the Cenozoic

more provincial then it was during the Mesozoic Era.

mite rocks, made up of diatom shells, are present in several

(b) A pinnate diatom. (c) A centric diatom.

Marine Invertebrates and Phytoplankton 365

R. Paselk, Humboldt State University Natural History Museum

(a) The gastropod Busycon contrariuim from Pliocene rocks in Florida.

included some exceptionally large taxa that lived in the

R. Paselk, Humboldt State University Natural History Museum

Following the extinction of ammonites and belemnites

infaunal habitat and were very prolific during the Ceno-

366 Chapter 18 Life of the Cenozoic Era

Figure 18.5 Cenozoic Vegetation and Climate

Cenozoic Vegetation and Climate 367

368 Chapter 18 Life of the Cenozoic Era

Figure 1 Fossil Trees in Washington and Oregon

The Age of Mammals Begins 369

and eastern Oregon was well watered, Figure 2 Fossil Forest,

Viney, M. (2008). The Virtual Petrified Wood Museum

370 Chapter 18 Life of the Cenozoic Era

Proboscidea Mammals existed during the Mesozoic, but

The Age of Mammals Begins 371

small ones—rodents, rabbits, insectivores, and bats. And

addition to being small, bats are the only mammals capable

(a) This squirrel-sized animal is the Paleocene genus Ptilodus, a

372 Chapter 18 Life of the Cenozoic Era

Courtesy of the University of Nebraska State Museum

independently. Like rodents, rabbits are gnawing animals,

Paleogene and Neogene Mammals 373

A Brief History of the Primates

The Meat Eaters—Carnivorous

374 Chapter 18 Life of the Cenozoic Era

(a) Perissodactyls have one or three functional toes, whereas artio-

Paleogene and Neogene Mammals 375

376 Chapter 18 Life of the Cenozoic Era

bighorn sheep and mountain goats, but the most common

Paleogene and Neogene Mammals 377

378 Chapter 18 Life of the Cenozoic Era

Paleogene and Neogene Mammals 379

wombats the size of rhinoceroses.

380 Chapter 18 Life of the Cenozoic Era

Charles R. Knight/National Geographic Society/Corbis

Pleistocene Faunas 381

Erika Simons/Florida Museum of Natural History

(b) Restoration of a mammoth trapped in the sticky

residue at the La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles,

382 Chapter 18 Life of the Cenozoic Era

Atlantic tinents was possible. For

Intercontinental Migrations 383

384 Chapter 18 Life of the Cenozoic Era

Review Questions 385

Primate and Human Evolution

Perspective Discovery of a 1.8 Million-Year-Old Skull at

Table C.1 Physical Properties Used to Table C.2 Moh’s Hardness Scale