Stress-Strain

Reference Book: Physics of human body. (pages: 201-216)

 Different kinds of loading modes

 Tensile Force:Tension forces stretch a material by pulling its ends apart. Tensile strength
measures the largest tension force the material can withstand before failing.
 Compression: Is the name given to a force which tries to squash something together.
Axial Load(directed along the longitudinal axis of the system= Tensile or Compression
 Bending: asymmetric loading that produces tension on one side of a body’s longitudinal axis
and compression on the other side.
 Different kinds of loading modes

 Shear Force:Shear force acts parallel to a given area. Shearing forces are
unaligned forces pushing one part of a body in one specific direction, and another part of the
body in the opposite direction. This force wants to cut or tear an object.
 Torsion: load-producing twisting of a body around its longitudinal axis.
 Stress & Strain Relation

Cylinder of relaxed length 𝑳𝒐

 For elastic materials in the proportional or Hookean regime the stress–strain relation is linear
& obey Hookes law- 𝝈 = 𝒀𝜺
Stress Young’s Modulus Strain
 Stress-strain Relationship

Fig: Engineering stress-strain relationship

 Stress-strain Relationship
 There is elastic Hookean behavior up to the point P, the proportional limit. The slope up to this
stress is constant, the Young’s modulus. The higher the Y, the stiffer or more strength the
material.
 Up to the elastic limit, denoted by 𝐸𝐿 , the object returns to its initial length when the stress is
removed and there is no permanent deformation.
 For stresses beyond the elastic limit, there is permanent or plastic deformation and the length
and shape of the object are different after the stress is removed. The yield point or limit,
denoted by 𝑌𝑝 , is at a stress somewhat higher than the elastic limit; above it much elongation
can occur without much increase in the load.
 Because it is often difficult to determine, the yield point is usually estimated by the
intersection of the stress–strain curve with a line parallel to the linear part of the stress–strain
curve, but with an intercept set at a strain of 0.2% (or 0.002)
 Stress-strain Relationship
 For tension, the material remains intact for larger stresses until the ultimate tensile stress
(UTS), which is also called the tensile breaking strength (TBS).
 The larger the breaking strength, the stronger is the material.
 This stress leads to fracture at point F, which occurs at a strain called the ultimate strain or the
ultimate percent elongation (UPE.
 Why does stress decreases after UTS ?
 It is because of engineering stress: the actual type of stress being plotted is called the
engineering stress: It is the force divided by the initial area, which is the area before any force
is applied.
 Past the UTS, the engineering stress decreases as the material becomes narrower as it is
pulled apart and the actual area becomes progressively smaller than this initial area, which is
called “necking.” (This narrowing is much, much more than that expected from the lateral
strain, from Poisson’s ratio.)
 The true stress, which is the force divided by the actual area, increases after the UTS, due to
this necking.
 Bone acts like ceramic
.

Fig1: Stress–strain curves for different Fig2: Stress–strain curves under

types of materials under tension tension

 Figure 1 shows that the stress–strain relations look qualitatively different for ceramics, metals, and elastomers because of the
very different microscopic structures of these types of materials.
 Ceramics have a linear stress–strain relation with large slope. The fracture point appears only a little into the nonlinear elastic
regime, and for smaller values of strain <0.1.
 Figure 2 shows that there is a good correlation between these two data so bone is like a ceramic but much more composite in
nature.
 Anisotropic nature of bone
Bones are anisotropic, meaning that the properties are different along different
directions.

Anisotropic properties of cortical bone specimens from a human femoral

shaft tested under tension
 What is the strongest part of the body?
It is not bone and not dentin in the teeth, but hair.
The amount of mechanical stress created by a force is inversely related
to the size of the area over which the force is spread.
 Example problem
Suppose a tendon is modelled as a cylindrical structure (see the figure) of length L, a cross-sectional area
A, and a modulus of elasticity E, which is subject to equal and opposite axial loads of magnitude F. The
amount of the tendon extension under the load P is ΔL.
(a) What is the stiffness k of the tendon (the slope of the force-deflection curve) in terms of A, E, and L?
(b) For a given magnitude of P, how would the extension ΔL be affected if A is doubled? If E is doubled? If L is
doubled?
(c) Let the symbol W represent body weight in Newtons. Assume that the tendon cross-sectional area A is
proportional to 2W/3, the tendon length L is proportional to W/3, and the tendon modulus of elasticity E does not
vary with W. How would the tendon stiffness k then vary with W?
(a)
𝐹 ∆𝐿 𝐹 𝐴𝐸 𝐴𝐸
From Hooke's law: 𝜎 = 𝐸𝜀 ⇒ =𝐸 ⇒ = ∴ 𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 =
𝐴 𝐿 ∆𝐿 𝐿 𝐿
(b)
𝐹𝐿
For extension, ∆𝐿 =
𝐴𝐸
Therefore, if A is doubled the elongation will be half.
if E is doubled the elongation will be half.
if L is doubled the elongation will be doubled.
 Example problem
(c)
2𝑊 2𝑎𝑊
Given, 𝐴 ∝ ∴A= , a is proportionality constant
3 3
𝑊 𝑏𝑊
𝐿∝ ∴L= , b is proportionality constant
3 3
𝐴𝐸
Stiffness, k =
𝐿
2𝑎𝑊𝐸 3
⇒k= ×
3 𝑏𝑊
2𝑎𝐸 1
⇒k= ×
1 𝑏
2𝑎𝐸
⇒k=
𝑏
∴𝑘∝𝐸
tendon stiffness k does not vary with W
 Simple stress-strain related problems
Calculate the stress and strain in a typical femur while standing. Assume that the cross-sectional
area of the femur can be approximated by a circle with a diameter of 2.5 cm., the individual
weighs 150 pounds. The modulus of the elasticity of bone is about 17 GPa. Give your answer in
metric units.
Solution: we know, 1 pound= 1/ 2.205 kg
 Simple stress-strain related problems
In a biomedical laboratory, a 2-mm-thick rectangular plate (10 mm wide and 50 mm long) was
tested by pulling axially with a load of 1,000N. If the observed extension is 70µm,then:
(a) What are the axial stress and axial strain?
(b) What is the modulus of elasticity?
Solution:
 Simple stress-strain related problems
Consider a square bar with a cross-sectional area of 0.01 m2. Equal and opposite 100N forces are
applied. Determine the shear stress,τ and normal stress, 𝜎 acting on the planes defined by 𝜃 =
0°, 𝜃 = 45°, 𝜃 = 90°
Solution:
 Stress-strain of composite materials
Composite Materials:Most biological materials are made up of multiple components and can be
considered as composites, where different materials coexist as individual components but work
together to give unique material properties. For example-Bone is composite comprising of 30%
of polymer & nearly 70% of inorganic salts of calcium. The inorganic components provide
strength but polymeric compounds contribute to ductility.
Advantages-
Properties of components depends on-
 stiffer, stronger, tougher to
 The individual material properties
different loading conditions
 The amount i.e. volume fraction
 Possibility to take advantages of
 The geometrical arrangement of the
each components
constituents i.e. in a parallel or in a
 Composites are lighter than their
series arrangement.
constituent single component
Elastic properties can be calculated with the following assumptions:
 Hooke’s law is applicable (i.e., stresses are below the elastic limit)
 both phases are continuously in contact, and
 there is no slip between the two phases.
 Stress-strain of composite materials
Young’s Modulus of a Composite Material of Two Components in a Parallel Configuration. Given-
Characteristics Material 1 Material 2
Young’s modulus 𝒀𝟏 𝒀𝟐
Volume Fraction 𝝓𝟏 𝝓𝟐

Stress is not same but strain is same for no slip between the
components. 𝜎1 𝐴1 𝜎2 𝐴2
𝜎𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = +
𝜀1 = 𝜀2 = 𝜀𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
For material 1, axial stress,𝝈𝟏 = 𝒀𝟏 𝜺
𝑨 𝑳 𝑨
volume fraction, 𝝓𝟏 = 𝟏 = 𝟏 𝜎𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝜎1 𝝓𝟏 + 𝜎2 𝝓𝟐
𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑳 𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍
𝒀𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝜺 = 𝒀𝟏 𝜺𝝓𝟏 + 𝒀𝟐 𝜺𝝓𝟐
For material 2, axial stress,𝝈𝟐 = 𝒀𝟐 𝜺
𝑨𝟐 𝑳 𝑨𝟐
volume fraction, 𝝓𝟐 = = 𝒀𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝒀𝟏 𝝓𝟏 + 𝒀𝟐 𝝓𝟐
𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑳 𝑨𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍
For entire material,
𝐹𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝐹1 + 𝐹2
𝜎𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝜎1 𝐴1 + 𝜎2 𝐴2
 Stress-strain of composite materials
Young’s Modulus of a Composite Material of Two Components in a series Configuration. Given-
Characteristics Material 1 Material 2
Young’s modulus 𝒀𝟏 𝒀𝟐
Volume Fraction 𝝓𝟏 𝝓𝟐

Stress is same but strain is not same in series configuration.

𝜎1 = 𝜎2 = 𝜎𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝜎 𝜀1 𝐿1 𝜀2 𝐿2
𝜎 𝜀𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = +
For material 1, axial strain, 𝜀1 = 𝐿𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑌1
𝑨𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟏 𝜀𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝜀1 𝝓𝟏 + 𝜀2 𝝓𝟐
volume fraction, 𝝓𝟏 = = 𝝈𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝝈𝟏 𝝓𝟏 𝝈𝟐 𝝓𝟐
𝑨𝑳𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑳𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍
𝜎 = +
For material 2, axial stress, 𝜀2 = 𝒀𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒀𝟏 𝒀𝟐
𝑌2
𝑨𝑳𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝟏 𝝓𝟏 𝝓𝟐
volume fraction,𝝓𝟐 = = = +
𝑨𝑳𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑳𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒀𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝒀𝟏 𝒀𝟐
For entire material,
deformation𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = deformation1 + deformation2 𝒀𝟏 𝒀𝟐
𝒀𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 =
∆𝐿𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = ∆𝐿1 + ∆𝐿2 𝒀𝟐 𝝓𝟏 + 𝒀𝟏 𝝓𝟐
𝜀𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = 𝜀1 𝐿1 + 𝜀2 𝐿2
 Stress-strain of composite materials
A bioengineer is designing a new artificial ligament using a composite structure having a total
cross-sectional area of 4 cm2 and a length of 10 cm. Also, each structure is made up of material 1
(Young’s modulus of E = 600 MPa) and material 2 (Young’s modulus of E =10 MPa), in proportions
of 80% and 20%, respectively. In the first design, constituents are arranged in parallel, while in
design 2, constituents are arranged in series. A tensile axial load of 1,000N is applied. For each
design, determine-
the tensile force and the tensile stress in each constituent along the cross-section;
the strain and axial extension in each constituent;
the total extension;
the effective modulus;
Which design more closely resembles a real tendon, which has a Young’s modulus of
400 MPa? Which one would you choose?
 Stress-strain of composite materials
Parallel configuration:
Strain is same i.e. ∈1 =∈2 =∈𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
Axial load=1000 N
1000
Total axial stress= = 2.5 × 106 𝑃𝑎
4×10−4
Effective Young’s modulus, 𝐸𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝐸1 𝜑1 + 𝐸2 𝜑2 ∴∈ 𝐸𝑒𝑓𝑓 =∈ 𝐸1 𝜑1 +∈ 𝐸2 𝜑2
Total axial stress=∈ 𝐸1 𝜑1 +∈ 𝐸2 𝜑2
2.5 × 106 =∈ 𝐸1 𝜑1 +∈ 𝐸2 𝜑2
2.5 × 106 2.5 × 106
∈= = 6 6
= 0.0052
𝐸1 𝜑1 + 𝐸2 𝜑2 600 × 10 × 0.8 + 10 × 10 × 0.2
Tensile force in material1=600 × 106 × 0.8 × 4 × 10−4 × 0.0052 = 998.4 N
Tensile force in material2=1000 − 998.4 = 1.6 𝑁
Total extension=each component extension=0.0052 × 10 𝑐𝑚 = 0.052 𝑐𝑚 = 52 𝑚𝑚
Effective Young’s modulus, 𝐸𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝐸1 𝜑1 + 𝐸2𝜑2 = 600 × 106 × 0.8 + 10 × 106 × 0.2 = 482 MPa
 Stress-strain of composite materials
Series configuration:
Stress is same i.e. 𝜎1 = 𝜎2 = 𝜎𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
Axial load=1000 N
1000
Total axial stress= = 2.5 × 106 𝑃𝑎
4×10−4 Since the effective modulus of the composite in
Tensile force in material1=1000 𝑁 parallel is close to the modulus of the
natural tendon, a composite with a parallel
Tensile force in material2=1000 𝑁 configuration needs to be selected.
𝜎 2.5×106
Strain in material1= 1 = = 0.0042
𝐸1 600×106
𝜎2 2.5×106
Strain in material1= = = 0.25
𝐸2 10×106
Total extension=material1 extension+material2 extension=0.0042 × 0.8 × 10 + 0.25 × 0.2 × 10 = 0.53 𝑐𝑚
𝐸1 𝐸2
Effective Young’s modulus, 𝐸𝑒𝑓𝑓 = 𝐸 = 46.9 𝑀𝑃𝑎
1 𝜑2 +𝐸2 𝜑1