HIGHWAY GEOMETRIC DESIGN

MISS EDNA
THE ALIGNMENT
OVERVIEW
The safe and efficient operation of vehicles on the road depends very much on the visibility of the
road ahead of the driver. Thus the geometric design of the road should be done such that any
obstruction on the road length could be visible to the driver from some distance ahead.
Sight distance
Sight Distance is a length of road surface which a driver can see with an acceptable level of
clarity. It plays an important role in geometric highway design because it establishes an
acceptable design speed, based on a driver's ability to visually identify and stop for a particular,
unforeseen roadway hazard or pass a slower vehicle without being in conflict with opposing
traffic.

Throughout the length of any road sight distances must be provided that are sufficient to enable
the drivers to absorb all relevant features of the road and traffic conditions ahead and take the
necessary actions to avoid hazards and proceed in a safe, efficient and orderly way.
The standards for sight distance should satisfy the following conditions:
 Driver travelling at the design speed has sufficient sight distance or road length visible to
stop vehicle, in case of any obstruction on the road ahead, without collision.
 Driver travelling ahead should be able to overtake slow moving vehicles, at reasonable
intervals, without causing obstruction or hazard to traffic of opposite direction.
 The driver entering an uncontrolled intersection, he should have sufficient visibility to
enable him to control his vehicle in order to avoid collision with another vehicle.
The computation of sight distance depends on:
Reaction time of the driver
Reaction time of a driver is the time taken from the instant the object is visible to the driver to the
instant when the brakes are applied.
The total reaction time is split into two
1. Perception time: Time required for a driver to realize brakes must be applied
2. Brake reaction time also depends on several factors including the skill of the driver, the
type of the problems, and various other environmental factors.
The total reaction time is explained by PIEV Theory
According to 'PIEV' theory, the total reaction time of the driver is split into four parts, that is, time
taken by the driver for:
1. Perception
2. Intellection
3. Emotion and
4. Volition
‘Perception time’ is the time required for the sensations received by the eyes or ears of the driver
to be transmitted to the brain through the nervous system and spinal cord. In other words, it is
the time required to perceive an object or situation.
‘Intellection time’ is the time required for the driver to understand the situation. It is also the time
required for comparing the different thoughts, regrouping, and registering new sensations.
‘Emotion time’ is the time elapsed during emotional sensations and other mental disturbances
such as fear, anger, or any other emotional feelings like superstition, etc. with reference to the
situation. The emotion time varies for different drivers, but even for a particular driver, the
emotion time is likely to vary considerably depending upon the situation or the actual problem
involved.
‘Volition time’ is the time taken by the driver for the final action, such as brake application.

It is also possible that the driver may apply brakes or take any other avoiding action like turning,
by the 'reflex action', without the normal thinking process, which is probably the minimum time
for taking a preventive action like brake application.
The PIEV time of a driver also depends on several factors such as the physical and psychological
characteristics of the driver, type of problem involved. environmental conditions and temporary
factors (e.g. motive of the trip, travel speed, fatigue, consumption of alcohol, etc.).
Many of the studies shows that drivers require about 1.5 to 2 secs under normal conditions.
However, taking into consideration the variability of driver characteristics, a higher value is
normally used in design
Speed of the vehicle
The speed of the vehicle very much affects the sight distance. Higher the speed, more time will be
required to stop the vehicle. Hence it is evident that, as the speed increases, sight distance also
increases.
Efficiency of brakes
The efficiency of the brakes depends upon the age of the vehicle, vehicle characteristics etc. If the
brake efficiency is 100%, the vehicle will stop the moment the brakes are applied. But practically,
it is not possible to achieve 100% brake efficiency. Therefore, the sight distance required will be
more when the efficiency of brakes is less. Also for safe geometric design, we assume that the
vehicles have only 50% brake efficiency.
Frictional resistance between the tyre and the road
The frictional resistance between the tyre and road plays an important role to bring the vehicle to
stop. When the frictional resistance is more, the vehicles stop immediately. Thus sight required
will be less. No separate provision for brake efficiency is provided while computing the sight
distance. This is taken into account along with the factor of longitudinal friction. IRC has specified
the value of longitudinal friction in between 0.35 to 0.4.
Gradient of the road.
Gradient of the road also affects the sight distance. While climbing up a gradient, the vehicle can
stop immediately. Therefore, sight distance required is less. While descending a gradient, gravity
also comes into action and more time will be required to stop the vehicle. Sight distance required
will be more in this case.
Sight distance concepts applicable to geometric design are:
1. Stopping sight distance
2. Meeting sight distance
3. Passing sight distance
4. Visibility splays

Stopping sight distance is applicable to all types of roads.

Meeting sight distance is applicable to two-way single carriageway roads with insufficient width
for passing.
Passing sight distance is applicable to two way, 2-lane single carriageway roads.
Visibility splays are required at junctions.
The minimum values for sight distances are generally determined by the design speed.
Factors on which visibility/sight distance depends on are:
1. Features of the road ahead
 These are the horizontal alignment, vertical profile, the traffic condition and the
position of obstructions
  At vertical summit curves the height of the driver’s eye and the object above road
level affect visibility
2. Height of the driver’s eye above the road surface
3. Height of the object above the road surface

Stopping sight distance

SSD Is the distance required by a driver of a vehicle travelling at a given speed to bring his vehicle
safely to a stop before reaching an object that becomes visible on the carriageway ahead. It
includes the distance travelled during perception and reaction times and the vehicle braking
distance. Stopping sight distance is the minimum sight distance requirement for all types of roads
and must be provided at every point along the road. Values for Stopping Sight Distance for various
design speeds are given in the table below. The minimum values are applicable in areas where it
can be assumed that the driver’s reaction time is less than average (e.g. in built-up areas). further,
the minimum value can be used in arid and semi-arid areas where dry road surfaces are likely to
be encountered.
KRDM PART 2 URBAN DRAFT
Meeting sight distance
MSD Is the distance required to enable the drivers of two vehicles travelling in opposite directions,
on a two-way road with insufficient width for passing to bring their vehicles to a safe stop after
becoming visible to each other. It is the sum of the stopping sight distance for two vehicles plus
10m safety distance.
-It is the minimum sight distance requirement for two-way, 1-lane single carriageway roads and
should generally be provided for all roads with carriageway widths less than 5.0m
Passing sight distance
PSD Is the minimum sight distance on two-way single carriageway roads that must be available to
enable the driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle safely without interfering with the speed
of an oncoming vehicle travelling at the design speed, should it come into view after the overtaking
manoevre is started.
Desirable requirement for two-way single carriageway roads. Sufficiently visibility for passing
increases the capacity and efficiency of a road, and should be provided for a long as much of the
road length as possible within financial limitations.
Sight distance at junctions

Sight distance at junctions may influence the location of junctions and the road alignment through
the junction area. At intersections where two or more roads meet, visibility should be provided
for the drivers approaching the intersection from either side. They should be able to perceive a
hazard and stop the vehicle if required. Stopping sight distance for each road can be computed
from the design speed. The sight distance should be provided such that the drivers on either side
should be able to see each other. This is illustrated in the figure 13:3.
Design of sight distance at intersections may be used on three possible conditions:
1. Enabling approaching vehicle to change the speed
2. Enabling approaching vehicle to stop
3. Enabling stopped vehicle to cross a main road
Control of sight Distances
Available sight distances should be checked throughout the road length in the early stages of the
design of the alignment, and any necessary adjustments to the line should be made to meet the
minimum requirements for sight distance.
Guidelines for control of sight distances:
i) Available sight distance should be checked separately for each type of sight distance
and for each direction of travel
ii) The following values should be used for determination of sight lines
 Driver eye height……………………………………………….1.10m
 Object height for stopping sight distance………………………0.10m
 Object height for meeting and passing sight distance………….1.10m
iii) In horizontal curves it may be necessary to remove obstructions or widen cuttings on
the insides of the curves to obtain required sight distance.
iv) Sudden reductions of available sight distance should be avoided. Where reductions are
necessary, they should be logical in relation to the physical surroundings.
QUESTIONS
1.Calculate SSD for V =80kmph for (a) two-way traffic in a two lane road (f=0.37, t=2.5)

S=0.278(2.5) *80 + (80*80)/254*0.37

2.Find SSD for a descending gradient of 2% for V=80kmph. Given: Gradient(n) = -2, V = 80 Km/hr.
(f=0.37)

S=0.7*80 +(80*80)/254(0.37-0.02)