Review of Basics

Types of Loads

∗ Resistive
∗ Inductive
∗ Capacitive
 Resistive
Circuit

I V

Current in Phase with Voltage

 Inductive Loads

Current Lagging Voltage by 900

 Capacitive Loads

Current Leading Voltage by 900

 Power factor correction
Some fundamental thoughts
• What is Power factor?
• Why power factor is important?
• Why improve power factor?
• What is the power factor of various loads?
• What is the origin of power factor?
• How to improve power factor?
 Definition of Power Factor
• Power Factor = Active Power (kW)/
Apparent Power (kVA)
• Power Factor can never be greater than 1.00
• Power Factor at best can be equal to 1.00
• Usually P.F is always “Lag” ( Inductive)
• Some times P.F can be “Lead” ( Capacitive)
 Origin of Low Power Factor
• Electrical Equipment need Reactive Power
• Inductive loads draw Reactive Power
• Phase difference between current & Voltage
reduces “Displacement PF”.
• Reactive Power to maintain magnetic fields
in Motors.
• Non-Linear loads reduces “Distortion PF”.
• True PF, being product of displacement and
distortion PF is lower than both.
 Power Factor Improvement
Concept

• Reactive Power flow analogy

• Power Triangle analogy

• Resonance analogy
Reactive Power Flow Analogy

Voltage
I

Inductive Load
Current
+
V Pi
-

Inductive Load
Active power

Reactive power
Reactive Power Flow Analogy

Inductive Load
Inductive Load
Active power

Capacitor
Reactive power
 Power Triangle Analogy

QC
S(kVA)
S(kVA)

Q(kVAr) φ1 φ2
φ1 P(kW)
-QC
P(kW)

kVA=√(kW)2 + (kVAr)2 QC = P (Tan φ 1 - Tan φ 2)

PF = kW/kVA = Cos φ 1 Cos φ1 = Initial Power Factor
Q = P .Tan φ 1 Cos φ 2 = Final Power Factor

Uncompensated Load Partially compensated Load

 Power Factor Correction

Reactive Current I=Active Current

(capacitive) IR(C)
V= Line Voltage
Ø2
Ø1

Reactive Current I2
(inductive) IR(L)

I1
 Resonance Analogy-1
Definition:-
Resonance is defined as a condition where
Capacitive Reactance becomes equal to Inductive
Reactance in magnitude.
The frequency at which this occurs is called the
Resonance Frequency.
| XL| = |XC |
Inductor
| XL| = |XC |
Inductor

|Z| = 0
|Z| =
Zeq = Z1 + Z2 Zeq = Z1Z2 / (Z1+ Z2)
Series Resonance Parallel Resonance
 Resonance Analogy-2
Uncompensated load Compensated Load

Inductive Load If you make |XL| of Load = |XC|

Inductive Load
of Capacitor at Fundamental
Frequency, then the PF will be
Unity due to Parallel resonance
b/w capacitor & load inductor.

Inductor
Inductor

Resistor

Resistor
Resistor
 Practical Example
40 W Fluorescent Tube Light

Choke

P N
P = 40W+10W = 50W
Power Factor = 0.6 230 Volts 50 Hz.
 Calculation of PF correction based
on Power Triangle concept

Active Power = 50 W. ; Power Factor = 0.6

Apparent Power = Active Power/ PF = 83.33 VA.
Reactive Pr.= √(VA)2-(W)2 = √(83.33)2-(50)2
= 66.67 VAr.
Capacitive VAr. req. for UPF = 66.67=V2(2πf)C
Hence Capacitor req. for UPF=106x66.67/2302/100π
= 4.01 µF.
 Calculation of PF correction
based on Resonance concept

Equivalent Circuit of Tube Light

R = V2/W = 2302/50 = 1058 Ω
Inductor

Resistor

230V L R XL = V2/VAr = 2302/66.67 = 793.5 Ω

L = XL/(2πf) = 793.5/100π = 2.526 H.
The value of capacitive reactance required to
Resonate with the inductive reactance at the
Inductor

Resistor

230V R fundamental frequency is given by,

C L |XC| = |XL| = 793.5 Ω = 1/100πC
C = 106/(793.5x100π) = 4.01µF.
 Types of Power Factors
• “Displacement PF” is defined as the cosine of the angle between
fundamental voltage and fundamental current of the load.
• Presence of “harmonics” increases the RMS current and voltage
relative to their respective fundamental values. This increases the
kVA of the load.
• The PF taking into account the effect of harmonics, called “True
PF”, is lower than or at best equal to displacement PF.
• The factor by which the displacement PF is related to true PF is
called the “Distortion PF”
True PF = Displacement PF x Distortion PF
• Capacitors can only improve displacement PF.
 Mathematical expression of PF
Displacement Power factor = P/(V1I1)
Where P = watts and V1 and I1 are fundamental voltage and current

Irms= I1
√ (
1+
THDI 2 V = V
100
) rms 1
√ (
1+
THDV 2
100
)
True Power factor = P/ (VrmsIrms)
P
=

√ (
V1I1 1 + THDI 2
100
) √ (
1+
THDV 2
100
)
True Power factor = Displacement PF x Distortion PF
1
Where Distortion PF =

√ ( ) √1 + (
THDI 2 THDV 2
1+
100 100
)
 Effect of harmonics on PF
%THD(V) %THD(I) Distortion PF

0 0 1.00

1 20 0.98

2 40 0.93

3 60 0.86

4 80 0.78

5 100 0.71
 Three dimensional
power triangle
kW
kdVA

kVA

kVA= √ kW2+kVAr2+kdVA2
kVAr kW
Displacement PF =
√ kW2+kVAr2
kW
True PF =
√ kW2+kVAr2+kdVA2
Electric Power
Apparent Power
kVA

r
we
w er

Po
Po

e
tiv
ive

ac
ct

Re
A
 Power Triangle
Ap
Reactive Power

pa
r en
tP kVA = √kW2 + kVAr2
ow
er kW
P.F. =
kVA
Active Power
 PF of various Industries

Industry Power Factor

Textiles 0.65/0.75
Chemical 0.75/0.85
Machine shop 0.4 / 0.65
Arc Welding 0.35/ 0.4
Arc Furnaces 0.7 / 0.9
Coreless induction furnaces and heaters 0.15/0.4
Cement plants 0.78/0.8
Garment factories 0.35/0.6
Breweries 0.75/0.8
Steel Plants 0.6 / 0.85
Collieries 0.65/0.85
Brick Works 0.6 / 0.75
Cold Storage 0.7 / 0.8
Foundries 0.5 / 0.7
Plastic moulding plants 0.6 / 0.75
Printing 0.55/0.7
Quarries 0.5 / 0.7
Rolling Mills (i.e. ,Paper, Steel , etc.) 0.3 / 0.75
 Inductive Loads

Induction Motor Arc Furnace

0.8 P.F 0.8 P.F

Floursent
Lamp

0.5 P.F.

Induction Welding
Furnace Transformer

0.8 P.F 0.5 P.F.

Benefits of Power factor
improvement
 Advantages of P.F
Correction

Reduction in KVAR
Demand

Reduction in
Reduction in KVA Reduction in
Switchgear
Demand Transformer Rating
Rating

Reduction in
Reduction in Line Reduction in Line
Cable / Bus-bar
Current loss
size
 REDUCTION IN KVA DEMAND

LOAD - 900 KW
KV
EXISTING P.F. (COS Ø 1) - 0.6 A

DESIRED P.F. (COS Ø2 ) - 0.92 Ø.

kW KW
COSØ. =
kVA
KVA = kW
cos Ø. Reduction in KVA

1500 - 978 = 522

KVA 1 = 900 / 0.6 = 1500

KVA2 = 900 / 0.92 = 978

 REDUCTION IN KVAR
DEMAND
KW - 900
KV
A

KVAR
KVA1 - 1500 kVA = √KW2 + KVAR2
Ø.
KVA2 - 978 KVAR1 = √KVA1 -
2 KW2
KW
= √1500 2 - 900 2 = 1200
Reduction in KVAR KVAR 2 =
√978 2 - 900 2 = 382
1200 - 382 = 818
 REDUCTION IN LINE
KVA1 - 1500
CURRENT
KVA = √3 V I
KVA2 - 978 1000
I = KVA x 1000
√3 x 415
I1 = 1500 x 1000
√3 x 415
= 2087 Amp
Reduction in Current
I2 = 978 x 1000
2087 - 1361 = 726
√3 x 415
= 1361 Amp
 Cable Losses

2
CosØ1
% of saving in losses = 1- X 100
CosØ2

2
0.6 X 100
1- 0.92

= 57.46
 Transformer Losses
1 1
Saving in losses = Wr x K1 Cos Ø - Cos Ø
1 2

Wr = Full load copper loss of the transformer

connected load in Kw
k1
KVA rating of the transformer
 Transformer Losses

1 1
Saving in losses = Wr x K1 Cos Ø - Cos Ø
1 2

900 1 1
= 18000 x x
1500 0.6 0.92

= 6260 Watts

Annual Saving = 6260 x 300 x 12

= 22536 KWH
1000
 Power Savings
3000
2500
2500
2086
2000
1500 1500 1600
1360
1500
978 1000
1000

500

0
KVA X'MER CURRENT ACB
RATNG
AT 0.6 PF AT 0.92 PF
Evaluating PF from Electricity Bill
 ELECTRICITY TARIFFS - I
In India, there are broadly 4 types of
Electricity Tariffs.
– Single part tariff
• Measurement of kWh only - Energy charges -
Generally applicable for LT installations only.
– Two part tariff
• kWh - Energy charges
• kVA or kW - Maximum demand charges
• PF Penalty/Incentives - vary from region to region
• Applicable for HT installations
ELECTRICITY TARIFFS – II

– Three part tariff

• kWh - Energy charges
• kVArh - Reactive Energy charges
• kVA or kW - Maximum demand charges
• PF Penalty- vary from region to region
• Applicable for HT installations
– Time of day tariff
• Different charges for the various quantities
mentioned above depending on the time of the day -
Analogous to STD (Telecom) tariff structure
 PF PENALTIES
– Different structures are followed - Some common
features
• Minimum monthly PF limit - Varies from 0.85 upwards
• If PF falls below minimum limit then penalty is levied
• The penalty is normally calculated as a %age of the
Energy charges or the full value of the Electricity Bill.
• The %age of penalty is normally linked to the
difference between actual monthly PF as calculated by
Electricity supply authorities and the minimum PF limit
specified.
– For Ex: Minimum PF limit - 0.90
– Actual monthly PF as per calculated by Electricity Supply
authorities - 0.82
– Penalty is 1% for every 0.01 difference between above PF
values
– Hence penalty will be 8% in this case.
 INCENTIVES FOR HIGH PF
– Different structures are followed - Some
common features
• Minimum Upper monthly PF limit - from 0.92 upwards
• If actual monthly PF exceeds this upper limit, then
incentive is offered
• The incentive is normally calculated as a %age of the
Energy charges or the full value of the Electricity Bill.
• The %age of incentive is linked to the difference between
actual monthly PF as calculated by Electricity supply
authorities and the minimum Upper PF limit specified.

– For Ex: Minimum Upper monthly PF limit - 0.95

– Actual monthly PF as per Electricity bill - 0.98
– Incentive is 1% for every 0.01 difference between above PF
values
– Hence Incentive will be 3% in this case.
 EVALUATING PF FROM
ELECTRICITY BILL
– The value of monthly PF is normally indicated on the
Electricity bill
– If this value is not shown on the Electricity bill, then
the normal procedure is as follows
• Note down kWh consumed as given in the bill
• Note down kVAh consumed as given in the bill
• Divide kWh by kVAh
• This value should always be less than 1
• This gives the monthly PF as considered by the Electricity
Supply authorities.
 ESTIMATE kVAr
REQUIRED - I
– From Electricity bill data
– Note down the value of maximum demand in kVA as
given in the Electricity bill
– Convert this value to kW by multiplying the maximum
demand kVA with the monthly PF
• For ex: If maximum demand kVA is 375 and monthly PF is
0.80 then, kW = 375 x 0.80 = 300 kW
– Monthly PF should be assumed as “Initial PF” - 0.80
– Fix target PF as “Final PF” - Let us assume - 0.96
– Note down multiplying factor from table 4.2 on Page 6
of RPM catalogue
– This multiplying factor is 0.458
 ESTIMATE kVAr
REQUIRED - II
– Multiply the kW calculated earlier by this multiplying
factor
• kVAr = 300 x 0.458 = 137.4
• kVAr - rounded off to 150 kVAr, since this is easy to offer
– Always recommend fixed compensation for the
transformer in the installation - the kVAr required can
be estimated from table 4.3 on Page 7 of RPM
Catalogue
• For ex: If in the above installation the transformer is 500
kVA then fixed compensation required is 6% of 500 kVA
which works out to 30 kVAr
– Out of 150 kVAr we can now subtract this 30 kVAr
i.e., leaving a balance of 120 kVAr
 ESTIMATE kVAr
REQUIRED - III
– Of this 120 kVAr we can recommend additional Fixed
compensation only for base load.
• If base load is given as 40% of the installation, 40% of the
above kVAr can be provided as fixed compensation.
• Therefore 40% of 120 kVAr = 48 kVAr - about 50 kVAr
• Consequently, the balance kVAr can be as an APFC
• This works out to 120 - 50 = 70 kVAr - about 75 kVAr
– The final compensation scheme customer can be
• Total Compensation - 150 kVAr - of which
– Fixed compensation - 75 kVAr
– APFC - 75 kVAr
– This procedure is common to Industrial and Commercial
Installations.
 Workshop-2
– Calculate the kVAr required to improve the pf of an
LT installation to 0.95 lag. You have the following
details from the Bill.
Billing date = 01.07.2001 to 31.07.2001
Units consumed = 13500 kWh.
Avg. PF = 0.8 lag.
– Calculate the kVAr required to improve the pf of an
HT installation to 0.97 lag. You have the following
details from the Bill.
Contract Demand = 300 kVA
Recorded Demand = 270 kVA
Avg. PF = 0.8 lag.
Units consumed = 75600 kWh
Evaluating kVAr for new
installations
 ESTIMATE kVAr REQUIRED for
New Electrical Installations - I

Refer the SLD below

500kVA, 11kV/415V,
%Impedance = 4.25%

Resistive
M M M M Load 30kW

Lighting
30 HP, 75 HP, Other loads, 50 kVA, 75 HP, 20 HP,
415V, 415V, Load 10kW
415V, 3ph, 415V, total of 25 440V,
motor 3ph, kW 3ph, UPS 3ph, 3ph,
compressor compressor Pump,
PF =0.80
Lag
 ESTIMATE kVAr REQUIRED for
New Electrical Installations - I

– We must draw up a load list of the Maximum operating load

(including the supply transformer) & fix the target Power
Factor as desired by the Customer.
– Let us assume the load list as follows
• Supply transformer - 3 Phase, 500 kVA, 11 kV/415V,
• 3 Phase, 415 V, Induction motors - Totaling to 200 HP
• 3 Phase, 415 V, UPS system - 50 kVA
• Resistive heating load - 30 kW
• Lighting load (Fluorescent) - 10 kW
• Miscellaneous loads - 14 kW
– Let us assume that the target Power Factor as desired by the
Customer is 0.95.
 ESTIMATE kVAr REQUIRED
- for New Electrical Installations - II
– The kVAr can be estimated as follows:
• The kVAr required for the supply transformer can be
estimated from Table 4.3 on pg 7 of RPM Cat.
– For 500 kVA transformer kVAr = 30 kVAr
• Convert induction motor rating from HP to kW - 200 HP x
0.746 = 150 kW
– Assume that initial PF of motors is likely to be around 0.7, because
of the fact that motors are generally oversized due to other
considerations.
– Calculate kVAr by using multiplying factor as given in Table 4.2 on
Page 6 of RPM Catalogue - Multiplying factor for initial PF of 0.7
and final PF of 0.95 = 0.692.
– Hence, kVAr = 150 x 0.692 = 104 kVAr
 ESTIMATE kVAr REQUIRED - for
New Electrical Installations - III

– The kVAr can be estimated as follows:

• Convert the UPS system kVA to kW by assuming a PF of
0.7 to be on the safer side. Hence, kVAr required for the
UPS is 25 kVAr.
• The resistive heating loads are unity Power Factor loads and
hence do not consume Reactive Power. Hence, kVAr
compensation is not required.
• For other loads i.e., fluorescent lighting - 10 kW and
miscellaneous loads of 14 kW assume an average PF of 0.7.
Hence kVAr works out to about 17 kVAr.
 ESTIMATE kVAr REQUIRED - for
New Electrical Installations - IV
– The total kVAr can be estimated as follows:
• Transformer - 30 kVAr , Induction motors - 104 kVAr, UPS - 25
kVAr, Other loads - 17 kVAr: Total kVAr = 176
• Round off on the higher side by about 15% since, significant
assumptions have been made in the calculation.
• Hence, total kVAr recommended can be 200 kVAr.
• Capacitors can be connected at motor terminals.The total kVAr of
such Capacitors may be subtracted from the figure of 200 kVAr.
• For calculating the balance fixed compensation and APFC
combination, the procedure given earlier applies.
 HOW TO CALCULATE
SAVINGS
• If Power Factor is improved cash savings
arise due to the following :-
– Reduction in kVA demand charges
– Elimination of Penalties for low Power Factor
– Incentives for maintaining high Power Factor
• Hence, we must calculate the above savings
as given in the workshop 3 problems.
 Workshop-3
1. In problem 1 of workshop-2, if the PF penalty is 5% of
kWh charges, calculate the savings when the PF is
improved to 0.95 lag.
Unit charges = Rs. 3.5/ kWh.
Unit consumed = 13500 kWh.

2. In problem 2 of workshop-2, the penalty clause is as

follows:
kVA charges = Rs. 180/kVA (if Demand < CD)
= Rs. 180 x 3 ( if Demand > CD)
Unit charges = Rs. 3.4 / kWh.
Units consumed = 56700 kWh
PF penalty = 5% on energy consumed
 CLAUSES, TERMS &
CONDITIONS
• All calculations are done on assumptions of certain
Electrical loading in the installation.
• If any changes occur due to modifications/
revisions of load data and characteristics the
desired PF may not be achieved
• This is particularly important in Indian conditions,
since data given by the Customer is not always
accurate.
• This issue must be kept in mind when dealing with
customers.
Methods of improving
power factor
Methods of Improving Power Factor

Fixed Compensation
– For Steady Loads
– No load compensation of Motors
– No load compensation of Transformers

Variable Compensation
For Varying Loads
Selection of Capacitor

1. Individual Compensation

2. Group Compensation

3. Central Compensation
 Where to install Power
Factor correction Equipment

Individual Compensation

• Directly at the Load terminals

• Ex. Motors, Steady loads
• Gives maximum benefit to user
• Not recommended for Drives
• Costly solution
 Where to install Power Factor
correction Equipment-2

Group Compensation

• Single compensation for Group of Loads

• Ex. Group of Motors
• Gives moderate benefit to user
• Few Capacitor Banks
• Relatively easy to maintain
 Where to install Power Factor
correction Equipment-3

Central Compensation

• Directly connected at the incomer

• Improves PF at the metering point
• Line losses continue to prevail down stream
• Least beneficial to user
• Extremely easy to maintain
 Central Compensation
Providing compensation at the main incomer of the installation is
called central compensation (pos. No. 1).
This is suitable for installations where the loads are few and
situated close to the main supply. (Refer Fig. 3.1)
Supply Bus

Transformer

Circuit Breaker
No 1

M M M M
Fig. 3.1
 Central,Group and Individual Compensation

Providing compensation at
•main incomer bus – central compensation. (pos. No 1)
•At power distribution boards – group compensation (pos. No. 2).
•At individual load terminals – individual compensation. (pos. No. 3)
This is suitable for installations consisting of main receiving station,
substations, several load feeders and a wide variety of loads. (refer fig 3.3)

Supply Bus

Transformer

Circuit Breaker
No 1
No 2 No 2

No 3 M No 3 M No 3 M No 3 M

Fig. 3.3
 Some basic formulae –
capacitance,capacitor currents
Capacitor Connection

B
Capacitor Rated Current

√3. VL IL
KVAR =
1000

KVAR .1000
IL =
√3 .VL
 Change in Current Vs.
Change in Voltage
VOLTAGE KVAR CURRENT

440 28.10 36.88

415 25.00 34.78

400 23.23 33.52

380 20.96 31.85

360 18.81 30.17

 Capacitance

6π f C∆ VL2 *
KVAR = CM
10 9

KVAR X 10 9
C∆ = µF C∆
6πf VL2
CM = 1.5. C∆

Calculate Capacitance C∆ and CM

for 25 KVAR, 415 V, 50 Hz. capacitor

* C∆ in µF and VL in Volts
 Peak inrush current of
capacitor

√2
√.
Ip = Ir MVA SC X 103
kVArc

Ip = Peak inrush Current in Amps

Ir = Capacitor Rated Current in Amps.

MVAsc = Short circuit MVA of the System

kVArc = Capacitor Rating in kVAr.

 Fault Level Calculation
1.1 VL
Maximum Fault Current =
√3 ZT
Transformer % Z = 5 1.1 x 415
1000 KVA , 22.0kV/415V =
√ 3 x 0.00861
= 30607 Amp

Transformer = %Z x 10 x kV2
ACB impedance kVA
= 5 x 10 x 0.4152
1000
= 0.00861 Ohm
 Short Circuit MVA of the System
√3 VL Isc
Short circuit MVA of the System =
10 6

= √3x 415 x 30607

10 6
= 22.0
 Peak Current Calculation
Capacitor Rating = 25 KVAR, 415V, 50 Hz.

Ip = Ir . √2
√.
MVA SC X 103
kVARc

Ip= 34.78.√2
√.
22.0 X 103
25
= 1459.1 Amp
Parallel Switching of Capacitor

√2 1
Ip = VL
√ X C XL
√3

Ip = Peak inrush current in Amps.

VL = Line to Line Voltage in Volts
XC = Capacitive Reactance in Ohms
XL = Inductive Reactance Between the Capacitors in Ohms.
Voltage Rise Due To Capacitor
V Q
=
V S

V = Voltage Rise

V = System Voltage Without Capacitors

Q = Capacitors Rating in MVAR

S = System Fault Level In MVA

 Voltage Rise Due To Capacitor
For a 25 kVAr, 415V capacitor & System fault level of 22 MVA.

V Q
=
V S

415 x 0.025
V =
22

= 0.47 volts
 Discharge Time

Discharge Time < = 60 sec for LT capacitors

< = 10 min for HT capacitors

Voltage at the end of Discharge time

should be < = 50 volts taking into
account the plus side tolerances of the
Capacitance value and supply voltage.

C
 Discharge Time
t
R<
K C log e
( Vn.√2
VR
)
R = Discharge Resistance in M Ohm

t = Discharge Time in Sec.

K = 1/3 or 1 or 3 depending upon discharge

resistor Configuration.

C = Capacitance in µF

Vn = Capacitor Rated Voltage

VR = Permissible Residual Voltage

Configuration of Discharge
Resistors
R
K=1 R K = 1/3
C C

C R K=1
K=3
R
C

R R
C C K=3
R
C
K=1
3. Calculation of Capacitor kVAr Required for Power-
Factor Improvement

Capacitor kVAr = kW (tanϕ1 - tanϕ2)

Where ϕ1 = Cos-1(PF1) and
ϕ2 = Cos-1(PF2)
PF1 and PF2 are initial and final power factor respectively.
 Multiplying Factor Table
to Calculate kVAr
Final PF
Present PF 0.9 0.91 0.92 0.93 0.94 0.95 0.96 0.97 0.98 0.99 1.00
0.4 1.807 1.836 1.865 1.896 1.928 1.963 2.000 2.041 2.088 2.149 2.291
0.45 1.500 1.529 1.559 1.589 1.622 1.656 1.693 1.734 1.781 1.842 1.985
0.5 1.248 1.276 1.306 1.337 1.369 1.403 1.440 1.481 1.529 1.590 1.732
0.55 1.034 1.063 1.092 1.123 1.156 1.190 1.227 1.268 1.315 1.376 1.518
0.6 0.849 0.878 0.907 0.938 0.970 1.005 1.042 1.083 1.130 1.191 1.333
0.65 0.685 0.714 0.743 0.774 0.806 0.840 0.877 0.919 0.966 1.027 1.169
0.7 0.536 0.565 0.594 0.625 0.657 0.692 0.729 0.770 0.817 0.878 1.020
0.75 0.398 0.426 0.456 0.487 0.519 0.553 0.590 0.631 0.679 0.739 0.882
0.8 0.266 0.294 0.324 0.355 0.387 0.421 0.458 0.499 0.547 0.608 0.750
0.85 0.135 0.164 0.194 0.225 0.257 0.291 0.328 0.369 0.417 0.477 0.620
0.9 0.029 0.058 0.089 0.121 0.156 0.193 0.234 0.281 0.342 0.484
0.91 0.030 0.060 0.093 0.127 0.164 0.205 0.253 0.313 0.456
0.92 0.031 0.063 0.097 0.134 0.175 0.223 0.284 0.426
0.93 0.032 0.067 0.104 0.145 0.192 0.253 0.395
0.94 0.034 0.071 0.112 0.160 0.220 0.363
0.95 0.037 0.078 0.126 0.186 0.329
0.96 0.041 0.089 0.149 0.292
0.97 0.048 0.108 0.251
0.98 0.061 0.203
0.99 0.142
 4. For Single Phase Capacitor

lC
1 2

2 πfCV2 kVAr . 103 106

kVAr = IC = XC =
109 V 2 πfC

C = Measured capacitance across terminals 1 &2 in µF

XC = Capacitive Reactance in ohms
V = Voltage in Volts
kVAr = Rated output of capacitor
IC = Capacitor Current in Amps.
 5. For a Balanced Three Phase Delta Connected Capacitor
1

C C
V Vph CM
C = µF
C 1.5
2
CM
3 V = Vph

CM is the measured capacitance across any two terminals with the other terminal left open circuited.

106 2πfcV2 X 3 3ph kVAr X 103

XC / ph = 3 phase kVAr = IL =
2πfc 109 √3 V

Where XC = Capacitive Reactance per phase in ohms

V = Voltage (line to line) in volts
kVAr = Rated output of capacitor
IL = Line current in Amps
 6. For a Balanced Three Phase Star Connected Capacitor
IL
1
>
C Vph
CM
V Vph = V/ √3

C C C= 2CM
2
3

CM is the measured capacitance across any two terminals with the other terminal left
open circuited.

XC/Ph = 106
2πfc
Where XC = Capacitive Reactance per phase in ohms
3 Ph kVAr = 2πfcV x 3
2
V = Voltage (line to line) in volts
109
kVAr = Rated output of capacitor
3 ph kVAr X 103
IL = IL = Line current in Amps
√3 V
 Measured verses cell capacitance
C1,C2,C3 are the capacitance
Ca Cc measured as indicated with the third
line open-circuited.
C1
Ca,Cb,Cc are the cell capacitance,
C2 internal to the three phase capacitor.
Using following formulae we can
Cb calculate cell capacitance, without
C3 opening and de-soldering/cutting the
capacitor units.

Ca =
1
( 1 1
+ -
1
C1 C3 C2 ) Cb =
1
( 1
+
1
-
C1 C2 C3
1
) Cc = 1 ( 1
+
1 - 1
C2 C3 C1 )
These are derived from the following
where basic relationships.
CaCb C cC a

( )
C1+C2+C3 C 1 = C c+ C + C C3 = Cb+
1 1 1 1 C c+ C a
= - + + a b
CbCc
C1C2C3 2 C12 C22 C32 C2 = Ca+
Cb+ Cc
 Measured verses cell capacitance
1 1 1
Ca Cc Ca Cc Ca Cc
C2

2 2 2
Cb Cb Cb
C1 C3
3 3 3
C1,C2,C3 are measured capacitances across any line and other two lines
short circuited. Full line to line voltages are applied across the cells.
C1 = Ca+Cb C2 = Ca+Cc C3 = Cb+Cc
The individual cell capacitances can be computed as follows.
1 (C +C -C ) ; 1 (C +C -C ) ; 1 (C +C -C )
Ca = C = Cc = 2 3 1
2 1 2 3 b 2 1 3 2
2
 Cost Based Selection

The total cost of using a capacitor is a function of

•Purchase Cost • Operating Cost
•While purchase cost is easy to estimate it is necessary to
also evaluate operating cost
•The operating cost of a capacitor is a function of the total
losses & the operating time of the capacitor.
Ex: An installation requires 1000 kVAr which will be operated for
about 6000 hrs per year. Calculate the operating cost of MD-XL
Capacitors verses MD type Capacitors assuming a life expectancy of
15 years for the Capacitors. The total energy consumed by the
Capacitors for its on operation is calculated as follows
 Calculation of operating
cost of capacitors

An installation requires 1000 kVAr which

will be operated for about 6000 hrs per year.
Calculate the operating cost of MD-XL
Capacitors verses MD type Capacitors
assuming a life expectancy of 15 years for the
Capacitors. The total energy consumed by the
Capacitors due to its internal watt loss is
calculated as follows.
 Cost Based Selection
• MD-XL Capacitors
Energy Consumed = (Loss per kVAr x Total kVAr x Operating time)/1000
= (0.5 x 1000 x 6000 x 15) / 1000
= 45,000 kWh

• MD Capacitors
Energy Consumed = (Loss per kVAr x Total kVAr x Operating time)/1000
= (1.5 x 1000 x 6000 x 15) / 1000
= 1,35,000 kWh
Consequently, the excess energy consumption due to the MD Capacitor shall be
= 1,35,000 – 45,000
= 90,000 kWh
This energy consumed can be converted into cost using a weighted average cost of Rs.5 per
kWh. Consequently, the extra cost shall be Rs.5 x 90,000 = Rs.4,50,000.
On a per kVAr base this can work out to Rs.450/-per kVAr. It is obvious that operating
cost must be evaluated carefully before taking the final decision on the type of capacitor to
be used. It is also self explanatory that lower the losses, lower will be the operating cost.
Automatic Power Factor Correction
(APFC)
 NEED FOR AUTOMATIC POWER
FACTOR CORRECTION

•Modern Power networks cater to a wide variety of electrical and

power electronic loads, which create a varying power demand on
the supply system.
•In case of such varying loads, the power factor also varies as a
function of the load requirements.
•It therefore becomes practically difficult to maintain a consistent
power factor by use of Fixed Compensation i.e. fixed capacitors
which shall need to be manually switched to suit the variations of
the load.
• This will lead to situations where the installation can have a low
power factor leading to higher demand charges and levy of power
factor penalties.
 NEED FOR AUTOMATIC POWER FACTOR
CORRECTION
•The use of fixed compensation can also result in leading power
factor under certain load conditions.
•This is also unhealthy for the installation, as it can result in over
voltages, saturation of transformers, mal-operation of diesel
generating sets, penalties by electric supply authorities etc.
•It is therefore necessary to automatically vary, without manual
intervention, the compensation to suit the load requirements.
•This is achieved by using an Automatic Power Factor
Correction(APFC) system which can ensure consistently high
power factor.
•In addition, the occurrence of leading power factor will be
prevented.
Issues in Power Quality
 Momentary Voltage Sag

Momentary voltage sag , which is a momentary

decrease in voltage outside normal tolerance.
 Momentary Voltage Swell

Momentary Voltage swell , which is a corresponding voltage increase

often caused by the sudden de – energizing of heavy equipment.
Voltage Loss
 Voltage Transient / Impulse

Voltage transient or impulse , which is a very short duration voltage,

whose amplitude will be in the range of several tens to thousand volts.
 Voltage Spike

Voltage Spike ,which can destroy electronic equipment and damage transformer
and motor insulation. They also cause failures in capacitors and indicators.
Notch in the Voltage Waveform
 Liner Load Characteristics

Voltage
Waveform

Current
Waveform
 Non-linear Load Characteristics

Voltage
Waveform

Current
Waveform
 Power Quality Issues

• Reactive power flow

• Harmonic currents & voltages
• Voltage dips
• Voltage flicker
• Unbalanced load
• High neutral current
• Excessive neutral to earth voltage
 Problems ! - I
Reactive power flow
– Lower PF & Increased kVA Demand.
– Overloading of transformers, cables &
switchgear.
– Increased energy consumption due to higher
losses.
– Financial penalties for low PF.
– Loss of financial incentives for high PF.
 PROBLEMS ! - II
Harmonic currents & voltages
– Overheating & failure of
• Electrical equipment
– Motors, transformers, switchgear
– Capacitors
• Power electronic equipment
– Malfunction/failure of
• Protective relays
• Control & Automation equipment
– Increased energy consumption.
– Risks of resonance - current amplification -
extremely dangerous
 PROBLEMS ! - III

Voltage dips & flicker

– Failure of power electronic equipment
– Malfunction/failure of
• Protective relays
• Control & Automation equipment
– Increased strain on eyes.
• Due to fluctuations in intensity of lighting systems.
 PROBLEMS ! - IV

Unbalanced loads
– Over & under voltage in the network.
– Increased energy consumption by motors
• Due to reduced efficiency.
– Failure of power electronic equipment
– Malfunction/failure of
• Protective relays
• Control & Automation equipment
 PROBLEMS ! - V

High neutral current

– Overheating of neutral conductors
– Increased energy consumption
– If neutral becomes open high voltages will
occur, resulting in
• Malfunction/failure of
– Single phase loads
– Protective relays
– Control & Automation equipment
– Risk of fire & destruction
Accumulation of 3rd harmonic current in neutral
Three phase system

Wave forms of balanced three phase

fundamental currents.
Time.

R - phase.

R-Phase current with its third

harmonic component.
Time.

Y - phase.

Y-Phase current with its third

harmonic component.
Time.

B - phase.

B-Phase current with its third

harmonic component.
Time.

Addition of third harmonics in

Neutral conductor

Third harmonic currents of R,Y&B

phases are in phase with each other
and hence adds up, without
Time. cancellation in the neutral conductor.
 SOLUTIONS - I

Networks with <20% non linear load

• Improve PF, reduce voltage dips/flicker
by the use of
– Power capacitors
– APFC systems
• Contactor switched
• Thyristor switched
– Open loop systems
– Closed loop systems
 SOLUTIONS - II
Networks with >20% non-linear load
• Improve PF, reduce harmonics & voltage
dips/flicker by the use of
– Fixed detuned filters
– Detuned filters + APFC systems
• Contactor switched
• Thyristor switched
– Open loop systems
– Closed loop systems
– AHF - Active Harmonic Filters
 SOLUTIONS - III

Networks with unbalanced loads.

• Improve PF, reduce harmonics & voltage
dips/flicker by the use of
– Phase balancing circuits
– Electronic VAr Compensation Systems.
– AHF - Active Harmonic Filters
 SOLUTIONS - IV

• Networks with high neutral current / excessive

neutral to earth voltages
– Ensure proper EARTHING quality
– Oversize all neutral conductors to reduce neutral
heating
– If OVERSIZING is not possible, reduce
harmonics by the use of
• AHF - active harmonic filters in 4 line configuration
Active filter schematic diagram
Sin u so id al
Lo ad C u rren t w ith Su pp ly
H arm o n ics Su pp ly
C u rren t
Sy stem

C o m p ensatin g
C u rren t

A ctiv e
F ilter

+ =

( T im e Do ma in )

+ =

( F requ en cy D oma in )
 Benefits of POWER
QUALITY MANAGEMENT
• Improved reliability of installation
• Reduced energy consumption
• Reduced fuel consumption
• Better productivity
• Improved profitability
• Enhanced equipment life
Power factor improvement of DG sets
Capacitors with Generators

G
 Diesel generator set
G

Prime mover Alternator

100 KVA
0.8 P.F.
80 kW
 Connected load P.F. is 0.6

Case 1 100 kVA Shortfall of

P.F. 0.6 20 kW
60 kW

100 kVA
P.F. 0.8
80 kW

P.F. 0.6 Alternator

80 kW overloaded
kVA 133.33 by 33.33 %
Case 2
 Load P.F. improved up to 0.98

100 kVA 100 kVA Prime mover

P.F. 0.8 P.F.0.98 overloaded
80 kW 98 kW
 DG Set fundamentals
• As load kW (Output) increases, input power from
prime mover has to be increased.

• Diesel engines can be overloaded by 10 %, for half

an hour, within a span of 12 hours.

• Prime movers are matched with alternator to

operate at specific P.F.

• Lagging P.F. weakens the flux which links with

alternator stator and leading P.F. strengthens it.
 DG Set fundamentals

• At low lagging P.F, it is not possible to reach the nominal

operating voltage of the alternator, even at low load.

• With leading P.F, even with low excitation, there could be

rise in voltage, causing damages to the connected
equipment.

• At leading P.F. generator becomes unstable.

• If generator is operated with purely capacitive load

voltage increases by 33.33 %
 Selection of DG set rating
• Connected load and demand factor.

• Short duration peak loads like starting of induction motors.

• Allowance for extra kVA for harmonic generating loads.

• Allowance for accommodating future additional loads.

Hence DG sets are always oversized for a given application

and operate at relatively lower percentage loading.
 Loading verses Yield curve

Operating at lower % of loading , result in poor yield from DG set.

 How to improve %
loading in DG
• Do not exceed the current rating of Alternator.
• Do not exceed the BHP/kW rating of the prime mover (Engine).
Golden Rules for safe DG set operation :-
• Load the Alternator by ‘Amperes’.
• Load the diesel engine by BHP/kW.
Improve % loading by operating at higher power factor
• Higher PF reduces current output from DG at a given load.
• Loads can now be added without violating the ‘Golden Rules’.
Operating at highest feasible PF, enables higher loading,
resulting in better yield from DG set.
 PF CORRECTION IN
INSTALLATION WITH CAPTIVE
GENERATION BY DG SETS

The DG set consists of a diesel engine, which is mechanically

coupled to an alternator. The engine supplies the mechanical
energy to the alternator and the alternator supplies the electrical
energy to the load.
The alternator is subjected to certain copper losses, which is
proportional to the square of the current delivered by it. The
diesel engine has to supply these losses in addition to supplying
the load requirements.
Thus by reducing the losses in the alternator the diesel
consumption of the diesel engine can be brought down.
 ALTERNATOR LOSS REDUCTION
BY P.F IMPROVEMENT
ƒReducing the current output from alternator without
altering the loading conditions can reduce the
alternator losses.
ƒImproving the power factor at the output of the
alternator can conveniently do this.
ƒHence, improvement in the Power Factor in alternator
leads to reduction of fuel consumption in DG sets.
ƒDG sets operate at a relatively low power factor of 0.6
to 0.8. Conventionally capacitors are not used along
with DG sets.
 Effect of PF improvement
OUTPUT CURRENT FROM DG WITH /WITHOUT COMPENSATION

600

500
CURRENT IN AMPS

400
WITHOUT
COMPENSATION
300
WITH
COMPENSATION
200

100

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

TIME IN SECONDS
 Alternator loss reduction due
to P.F improvement
ƒThe following example gives an approximate
calculation to show the impact of power factor
improvement on reduction of alternator losses and
accrued savings in Diesel consumption.
ƒConsider a 3 phase, 415V, 50Hz, 500 kVA DG set
used in an industry for 6000 hours/year with an
average load of approximately 250kW at 0.65 PF.
What is the fuel saving if PF is improved to 0.93? The
full load copper loss of the alternator is 12kW and
average yield of the DG set is 3kWh/litre of fuel
(HSD).
 Alternator loss reduction by
P.F. improvement

Rated Current of Alternator = 500000/(√3 x 415)

= 695.60 A
Current at 0.65 PF = 250000/ √3 x 415 x 0.65
= 535.08 A
Copper loss at this current = (535.08)/695.6)2x12kW
= 7.1 kW
Current at 0.93pf = 250000/ √3 x 415 x 0.93
= 373.98A
Copper loss at this current = (373.98/695.6)2x12kW
= 3.47kW
Saving in Copper loss = 7.1 – 3.47 kW
= 3.63 kW
 Alternator loss reduction by P.F.
improvement
Energy saved for 6000 hour
Generation
DG set Yield
Potential savings in HSD fuel
Potential savings in
Rs @ Rs. 35/liter
= 3.63 x 6000 kWh
= 21780 kWh
= 3 kWh / liter of HSD
= 21780/3
= 7260 liters per year
= 2,54,100 per year
 Method of P.F. improvement

Conventional fixed capacitors, should not be

used with DG sets. This is because, by using
fixed capacitors, there is a danger that the PF
can become leading under lightly loaded
condition, which is highly undesirable in DG
set operation. Hence only Automatic Power
factor Correction system (APFC) should be
used with DG sets. The target power factor
can be set to 0.93 to 0.95 for optimum
performance.
 APFC Selection
The appropriate APFC system can be selected
based upon the harmonic content of the load. If
the harmonic generating load is less than 20%,
the APFC should be used as mentioned in
section-8. If the Harmonic load is greater than
20% then reactor protected APFC should be used
as mentioned in section 9.5
The rating of the APFC has to be selected
depending upon the kW of the load connected
and the minimum power factor in the installation.
F I G .3 - B L O C K D I A G R A M O F C O N T A C T O R S W I T C H E D A P F C S Y S T E M
G
C T ..../ 5 A
~ V a r ia b l e L o a d s

F .S .U

f 2
F 1 ......F n

Pow er
F a c to r
C o n tr o lle r C 1......C
K 1 .....K n
n

C 1......C n = N o . o f C a p a c it o r S te p s
K 1 ......K n = N o . o f C a p a c it o r S te p C o n ta c to r s
F 1......F n = C a p a c i to r S t e p P r o te c tio n F u s e s
f2 = C o n tr o l F u s e s
F .S .U = F u s e S w itc h U n it ( O p tio n a l)
G = D i e s e l G e n e r a to r
CT = M a in S u p p l y C u r r e n t T r a n s f o r m e r
FIG 5. BLOCK DIAGRAM OF DYNAMIC COMPENSATION SYSTEM IN CLOSED LOOP
G
CT
~ Variable
Load
F.S.U

Reactive f2
Power
Controller
F1 F2 Fn

Thy 1 Thy 2 Thy n

S1 S 2 Sn

S 1......S n = No. of Steps

Thy 1......Thy n = Thyristor Switches
F1......F n = Capacitor Step Protection Fuses
f2 = Control Fuses
F.S.U = Fuse Switch Unit (Optional)
G = Diesel Generator
CT = Main Supply Current Transformer
 Conclusions
• The efficiency of the DG set is maximum at UPF.
• The yield of the DG set is maximum at its peak loading.
• By proper use of reactive power management the efficiency of DG
set can be improved.
• The loads can be transferred so as to optimize the loading of DG for
better yield output.
• The output voltage of DG set can be stabilized under rapidly
fluctuating loads by use of “Dynamic compensation systems”
• Saving in fuel is possible resulting in economic benefit to user.
Harmonics & Effect of Adding
Capacitors in the System
 Technical problems
experienced in industry
 Case – 1

• Type of industry - paperboard Manufacturing

industry.

Brief description of installation.

Primary power source = grid supply at 33kv.
Distribution voltage = 440V.
• Load details:
The total induction motor load was 800HP.
 Case – 1
• There were no non-linear loads installed in
this plant.
• 300kvar, 3ph, 440V MPP-H capacitor banks
were installed for power factor correction.
Some capacitors were connected across the
motor terminals and remaining used as
central compensation.
• Problem experienced:
• Frequent failure of capacitors.
 Case – 1- Analysis
• The system voltage was around 435 – 440V.
• The capacitors installed were subjected to severe
and intermittent overload.
• For ex:- A 25 kVAr, 440V capacitor was drawing
a current of 90 - 120A for certain periods of time.
Compared to its rated current of 33 amps, the
capacitors were subjected to an overload greater
than 250%.
• This abnormal overloading resulted in frequent
capacitor failure.
 Case – 1- Analysis
• Following observations were made on the 33kV
grid :-
• Only two industries were found to be connected to
33kV line, one of them being the paperboard
manufacturing industry and the other was a steel
rolling mill.
• The length of the 33 kV transmission line between
the two plants was approximately10kms.
• The steel rolling mill had installed a high
frequency induction furnace.
 Case – 1- Analysis
• It was observed that, whenever the high
frequency induction furnace installed in
steel rolling mill was operated, the
harmonic distortion on the grid
abnormally increased and during this
period the capacitors were getting
severely over loaded.
 Case – 1- Conclusion
• Thus the use of conventional capacitors in the
network, where the harmonic voltage distortion at the
grid was abnormally high resulted in the following:
• Over loading of capacitors due to series
resonance.
• Frequent failure of capacitor banks
• Increased harmonic distortion at the LV bus
• Inability of the customer to maintain the
desired power factor.
• Financial losses incurred by customer.
 Case – 2
• Type of industry - Cement industry
• Brief description of installation.
Primary power source = grid at 220kV.
Distribution voltage = 6.6kv and 440V.
• The LV power factor correction is done as
follows:
At 440V bus, around 2000 kVAr APFC panels with
conventional capacitors were installed.The APFC
panels were distributed on several 6.6/0.440 kV
distribution transformers installed in the plant.
 Case – 2

Problem experienced at LV bus:

• Malfunction of 350kW, 440V DC drive

used for kiln motor installed at cement
plant substation, when capacitors are
connected in the network.
 Case – 2: Analysis
• The cement plant sub station was fed by a 1600kVA,
6.6/0.440 kV transformer.
• The 350kW, 440V DC drive, was connected to this
transformer, consequently the % non-linear load
exceeded 22%.
• A 475kVAr, 440V APFC panel with conventional
capacitors, was also connected to this transformer for
power factor correction. Other linear loads such as
compressors, pumps etc were also connected to this
transformer.
• Malfunctioning of the DC drive was co-related to a
situation when specific combination of capacitor
steps in the APFC were ON.
 Case – 2: Conclusion

• The use of conventional capacitor in

harmonic rich environment led to high
total harmonic distortion on the LV bus.

• As the same distorted sine wave is applied

to the 350kW DC drive, sensitive
electronic devices used in this drive were
mal-functioning.
 Case – 3
• Type of industry - Steel rolling mill.
• Brief description on installation.
• Primary power source = grid at 33kV.
• Distribution voltage = 440V.
• The plant was installed with 2 x 2000 kVA + 1 x 1000
kVA, 33/0.440 kV distribution transformers.
• At the secondary of one of the 2MVA transformer
following loads were connected:
• 1000HP AC induction motor.
• 500HP DC drive.
 Case – 3
• Around 900 kVAr of conventional
capacitors were connected to this
transformer for power factor
improvement as shown in the fig.
 Case – 3
33kV supply
from Grid.

2000kVA,
33/0.44 kV Trafo.

Feeder for other Feeder for

2000kVA Trafo. 1000kVA Trafo.

440V bus

M 500HP DC
900kVAr
Drive
Capacitor
1000HP
Induction Motor
 Case – 3
• Problem experienced:
• Frequent failure of capacitors installed for
power factor correction.
 Case – 3- Analysis
• A team of engineers from MEHER made an analysis
at the site. The result of the analysis is as follows:
• The capacitors installed were drawing more than it’s
rated current. A 50 kVAr, 440V capacitor was
drawing a current of 200A against the rated value of
65amps, thus constituting an overload greater than
300%.
• This abnormal over load resulted in frequent
capacitor failure.
• The total harmonic voltage distortion at the
secondary of this 2000 kVA transformer with all the
capacitors switched on was more than 25%. This
value is higher than acceptable levels.
 Case – 3- Conclusion
• Thus the use of conventional capacitor in harmonic
rich environment resulted in:
• Over loading of capacitors due to parallel
resonance.
• Increased harmonic distortion at the LV
bus.
• Frequent failure of capacitor banks.
• Inability of the customer to maintain the
desired power factor.
• Financial losses incurred by customer.
 What Are Harmonics ?
• Distorted sine wave cause harmonics.
• Distorted current wave cause current harmonics.
• Distorted voltage wave cause voltage harmonics.
• Fourier expansion result in integral multiples of
fundamental frequency components.
• Nth order harmonics is of n.Fs frequency.
• Generally odd harmonics are prevalent because of
half wave symmetry.
 How Harmonics Are Generated ?
• Non-linear loads generate current harmonics.
• Harmonic currents flow largely through capacitors.
• Harmonic currents also flows through network.
• The flow of harmonic currents cause voltage harmonics.
• Harmonics are thus injected to other linear loads
connected in the same bus.
• Harmonics injected into the network flow towards other
users connected to the network.
 What Loads Generate Harmonics
• Equipment using switched mode power supply
- Television
- Computers, other IT loads
• Equipment using power electronic devices
- AC & DC drives
- Frequency converters
- Rectifiers
- Arc & induction furnaces
- UPS
- Compact fluorescent & other discharge lamps
 Sources of Harmonics
Following are some of the non-linear loads which generates
harmonics:
•Static Power Converters and Rectifiers, which are used in UPS,
Battery chargers, etc.
•Arc furnaces.
•Power Electronics for motor controls (AC/DC Drives)
•Computers.
•Television receivers
•Saturated Transformers
•Fluorescent Lighting with electronic ballast.
•Telecommunication equipment.
 Type of Harmonics
Characteristic harmonics
- Related to circuit configuration.
- Fairly predictable frequency spectrum.
- Frequency spectrum given by k*p+1 ; k = 1,2,3….
- For ex. 5&7 for 6 pulse, 11 & 13 for 12 pulse.
- Magnitude inversely proportional to order.
Non-characteristic harmonics
- Caused by frequency converters.
- System imbalance (voltage & impedance)
Triplen harmonics
- 3.(2n+1) order n = 0,1,2… i.E 3,9,15,21.. Etc.
- Zero sequence in nature.
- Accumulates as neutral current.
 Harmonic Order & Phase
Sequence
• Each harmonic order has a particular phase
sequence relationship with respect to
fundamental.

• By convention the fundamental is assumed to

have positive phase sequence.

• All higher order harmonics have either

positive,negative or zero phase sequence with
respect to fundamental.
How to Determine the Phase
Sequence of Each Harmonics ?
R

Phase Sequence of RYB (+ Seq.) Positive Sequence

For Fundamental Component Y

R Y B
Fundamental +120o 0o -120o B

B
Second +240o 0o -240o
Negative Sequence
Harmonic -120o 0o +120o
Y

Thus Second Harmonic Behaves As

a Negative Sequence Component.
R
 How to determine the phase
sequence of each harmonics ?
R Y B
Fundamental +1200 00 -1200

Third
Harmonic +3600 00 -3600
00 00 00
Fundamental Third Harmonics
R
Zero Sequence
Positive Sequence
Y R
Y
B
Thus third harmonic behaves as
B a zero sequence component.
Accumulation of 3rd harmonic current in the neutral
Three phase system

Wave forms of balanced three phase

fundamental currents.
Time.

R - phase.

R-Phase current with its third

harmonic component.
Time.

Y - phase.

Y-Phase current with its third

harmonic component.
Time.

B - phase.

B-Phase current with its third

harmonic component.
Time.

Addition of third harmonics in

Neutral conductor

Third harmonic currents of R,Y&B

phases are in phase with each other
and hence adds up, without
Time. cancellation in the neutral conductor.
 How to Determine the Phase
Sequence of Harmonics ?
Harmonic order 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Phase Sequence + - 0 + - 0 + - 0

Positive Sequence Negative Sequence Zero Sequence

Fundamental 2nd Harmonic 3rd Harmonic
4th Harmonic 5th Harmonic 6th Harmonic
7th Harmonic 8th Harmonic 9th Harmonic
10th Harmonic 11th Harmonic 12th Harmonic
3n+1 3n+2 3n+3
Div. by 3 Rem. 1 Div. by 3 Rem. 2 Divisible by 3
 Characteristics of Harmonics

Positive Sequence Negative Sequence Zero Sequence

Causes over heating due Causes over heating due Causes over heating due
to ‘Skin effect’ to ‘Skin effect’ to ‘Skin effect’

Accumulates in the
Aids the fundamental Opposes the fundamental
neutral

Moderate heating Excessive heating Creates ‘hot neutral’

Responsible for neutral
Relatively less harmful Most harmful to earth voltage and open
neutral condition.
 Skin effect
Cross-section of current carrying conductor

DC current flow Low frequency High frequency

AC current flow AC current flow
The effective area of the conductor, available for current flow,
reduces as the frequency of the AC current increases. Hence, the
resistance of the conductor increases, at higher frequencies, as it
is inversely proportional to its area of cross-section.
ρL
R =
A
 Skin effect explanation
Magnified view of current carrying conductor
Enhanced impedance due
to high mutual inductance.
Hence least current flow.

Moderate impedance due to

medium mutual inductance.
Hence moderate current flow.

Least impedance due to

low mutual inductance.
Hence max. current flow.
 Effect of Harmonics
Type of equipment
• Rotating machines
• Transformer, switch-gear,
power cables
• Protective relays
• Power electronics
• Control & automation
• Power capacitors
Effect of harmonics
• Increased losses, over
heating due to skin effect.
• Pulsating torque
• Over heating, increased
power consumption
• Mal-operation, nuisance
tripping
• Mal-operation, failure
• Erratic operation
• High currents & failure
due to overload
 Effect of Harmonics on
Protective Relays
Mal-operation
Trip level set lower than the fundamental
value. The relay should trip as the fundamental
value is higher than the trip level. But the
presence of harmonics has reduced the peak
value. Hence the protective relay will not trip.
Nuisance tripping
Trip level set higher than the fundamental value.
The relay should not trip as the fundamental
value is lower than the trip level. But the
presence of harmonics has increased the peak
value. Hence the protective relay will trip.
Circuit configuration of
six pulse drive
Current spectrum of six pulse drive for
star-star & star-delta configuration
Twelve pulse drive configuration
Current spectrum of twelve pulse drive
 How Capacitors &
Harmonics Are Related -1
Network behaviour without capacitors
• Network do not reveal harmonics.
• Most of the harmonic currents internal to
network go to the grid.
• No resonance at harmonic frequencies.
• Network power factor is unacceptably low.
 Network Without
Capacitors
Harmonic currents flow towards Grid.
GRID
Min. Import of Harmonics from Grid.
No Resonance at harmonic frequencies.

BUS Hence least Harmonic Problem.

Power Factor Very Low.
Non Linear
Load

M
 How Capacitors &
Harmonics Are Related -2

Network behaviour with capacitors

• Network start revealing harmonics
• Internally generated harmonic currents may
amplify due to parallel resonance
• Externally generated harmonics enter capacitors
due to series resonance
• May increase harmonic distortions.
• Capacitors draw excessive currents & fail
• Network power factor improves
 Network With Capacitors
ZN
GRID Harmonic currents flow towards
Capacitors , due to parallel
ZT resonance with load “ZL”
BUS Import of Harmonics from Grid
towards Capacitors , due to
series resonance with network &
transformer impedances “ZN”
&“ZT”
M Increase of THD(V) in the Bus
Non Linear

Equivalent Load Harmonic overloading of

Impedance “ZL” Capacitors, leading to its failure
Load

Improvement in Power Factor

With Harmonic overload
 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION IN
HARMONIC RICH ENVIRONMENT

•A harmonic rich environment is said to exist when the

percentage of non linear loads in an installation becomes
greater than 20% of transformer rating.
•Power factor correction by the use of capacitors, in such an
environment, must therefore be carried out with certain
precaution.
•This is due to the fact that parallel resonance conditions can
occur, I.e. the magnitude of the Capacitive reactance of
capacitors installed and the inductive reactance of the
network can tend to be come equal.
•If such resonance occurs near to a frequency which is present
in the network, current amplification takes place.
 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION IN
HARMONIC RICH ENVIRONMENT

•This current amplification can lead to overloading of

capacitors and an increase of the voltage distortion in the
network.
•Capacitors drawing higher current i.e. more than the rated
current at normal operating voltages is a typical indication of
presence of harmonics.
•While it is possible to design the capacitors to withstand the
overload conditions, the increase in distortion will cause other
ill effects such as :
• Capacitors installed being subjected to severe harmonic
overloading, leading to premature failure
 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION IN
HARMONIC RICH ENVIRONMENT

• Total harmonic distortion in the network increasing beyond

the permissible levels, which is harmful to various equipments
within the installation.
•The use of capacitors in the conventional manner is therefore
not recommended in such situations.
 POWER FACTOR CORRECTION IN
HARMONIC RICH ENVIRONMENT

lh XC XL
Harmonic Filters
Harmonic Mitigation Concept

Fire Triangle Harmonic Triangle

 How to Improve Power Factor
Without Causing Harmonic
Problem ?
• Conventional capacitors should not be used.
• Capacitors should be replaced by harmonic suppression
filters (series combination of suitable series reactor &
capacitors) so that,

• It offers capacitive reactance at fundamental frequency

for necessary power factor correction.

• It offers inductive reactance at all higher order dominant

harmonic frequencies to avoid resonance.

• Its self series resonance frequency “fR” do not coincide

with predominant harmonics.
 Network With Harmonic
Filters
ZN No resonance at harmonic
GRID frequencies as filter is inductive
at such frequencies
ZT
Harmonic currents flow towards
BUS Grid , as it offers least
impedance compared to filter
L Predominantly fundamental
current flows through Capacitors
M C Moderate THD(V) in the Bus
Non Linear

Equivalent Load No harmonic overloading of

Impedance “ZL” Capacitors
Load

Improvement in Power Factor

without Harmonic overload
 Harmonic Filter
• Harmonic filter comprises of a reactor (L)
in series with a capacitor (C)
• Such a filter has a unique self series
resonance frequency fR at which inductive
reactance of reactor equals capacitive
reactance of capacitor. Fr = 1/(2π√LC)
• Below fR the filter is capacitive
• Above fR the filter is inductive
 Characteristics of Harmonic Filter

fR= Resonant
Capacitive Inductive
Frequency

f < fR - Capacitive
Impedance

f > fR - Inductive

Harmonic filters
are classified based
upon how close fR is
to a Harmonic
fR Frequency frequency
 Classification of
Harmonic Filters
• Detuned or harmonic suppression filters
• Resonance frequency fR< 90% of
lowest dominant harmonic frequency.
• Tuned or harmonic absorption filters
• Resonance frequency fR within 10% of
the frequency of the harmonic to be
absorbed.
 Classification of Harmonic
Filters
Harmonic
Filters

Passive Harmonic Filters Active Harmonic Filters Hybrid Harmonic Filters

Detuned Tuned 3Ф
Filters Filters 3wire

3Ф
7% 4wire

14 % Single
Phase
 Selection Criteria for
Harmonic Filters
• Detuned filters
• Power factor correction is of paramount importance.
• If ordinary capacitors draw > 130% of its rated
current.
• Reduction of THD(V) not relevant.
• To prevent capacitors from harmonic overload
• Harmonic study not required for installing standard
detuned filters.
 Selection Criteria for
Harmonic Filters

• Tuned filters
• Power factor correction & reduction of THD(V) are
of paramount importance.
• Ordinary capacitors draw > 130% of its rated
current.
• Harmonic study required for installing tuned filters.
• Specifically designed for each location.
• More bulky, since it carries large amount of
harmonic currents. Hence expensive.
 Standard Detuned Filters-1
• Standard detuned filters have a fixed percentage
tuning factor “p”
• Percentage tuning factor is defined as
Reactor reactance at system frequency
p = Capacitor reactance at system frequency X 100 %
• Standard detuned filters are available for 7%
tuning factor
• The resonant frequency of the filter fR is related to
tuning factor “p” by
Fr = Fs/ √(p/100) = 189 Hz for 7% filter
 Standard Detuned Filters-2
• Standard 7% detuned filters are suitable for use in
majority of installations where the dominant
harmonics are higher than 189 Hz like 5th and
higher.
• 7% detuned filters should not be used in
installations where predominant 3rd harmonics are
present like “IT based” industries.
• For “IT based” industries 14% detuned filters
(fR=134 Hz) should be used.
 Design Features of
Detuned Filter

• Detuned filter consists of matched pair of

specially designed reactor and capacitor.
• Detuned filter is designed to provide the rated
kVAr at the rated voltage at the bus.
• The reactor capacitor combination is designed for
the rated tuning factor.
• Standard detuned filters are available for 7%
tuning factor rated for 12.5, 25, 50, 75 & 100
kVAr at 440 volts.
 Design Features of
Detuned Filter
Reactor features.
• Reactors are specially designed to carry wide
spectrum of harmonic and fundamental currents
without saturating.
• They are rated for operation up to 160°C through
use of class “F” insulation.
• Over load thermal cut off provided to protect the
reactor.
 Design Features of
Detuned Filter
Capacitor features
• Capacitor is specially designed to carry wide
spectrum of harmonic and fundamental currents
without overloading.
• It is designed for higher voltage to allow for
increased voltage due to introduction of series
reactor.
• The kVAr of the capacitor is suitably designed to
deliver the rated kVAr of the filter at the bus.
 Calculation to Estimate the Rated
Voltage of the Filter Capacitor
I = V/ Xeq = V/ (XC (1-p/100))
I
Voltage across Capacitor VC is given by
L XL= (p/100) XC
V VC = I XC = V/ (1-p/100)
C XC Allowing 10% for over voltage, the rated
voltage of the capacitor is given by

1.1 VC = 1.1 V/ (1-p/100)

Bus Percentage Voltage Rating Voltage Rating
Voltage Tuning Factor of Capacitor Rounded off
415 7% 490.86 500 V
415 14% 530.81 550 V
 Note on Capacitor for
Detuned Filter Application
• It is seen that the voltage rating of the
capacitor has to be higher than the system
voltage.
• Hence normal capacitor of 415/440 volts
rating should never be used in series with
reactor.
• Any such attempt would be hazardous to the
capacitor and the installation.
 Analysis of Detuned Filters

L L L L L L L

C∆ CY CY

Actual connection Star equivalent SLD Representation

of Detuned Filter of Detuned Filter of Detuned Filter
 Analysis of Detuned Filters
Analysis of Detuned Filter can be done by
analysing its single line diagram representation
as shown
IL L XL Let the net available kVAr. at Bus = N
C
V/√ 3 Let the System Line Voltage in Volts = V
Let the Tuning Factor in % =p
XCY Line current of the Filter IL= V/√3/(XC - XL)
C = V/√3/XC/(1-p/100)
The 3 phase kVAr. At Bus = √3V IL/1000
i.e NC = V2/ XC/(1-p/100)/1000
The XCY of the star eq. Capacitor = V2/ (NC/1000/(1-p/100))
The XL of the Reactor = XCY p/100 = V2/(NC/1000/(100/p-1))
The kVAr of the Capacitor at its rated voltage VC and the
inductance of the reactor can be computed from the above.
 Analysis of Detuned Filters
kVAr. of the Capacitor at its rated voltage VC
= (VC/V)2 NC (1-p/100)
IL L Inductance per phase of the 3 phase Reactor in mH.
XL L = V2/N /(100/p-1)/100/π
C
V/√ 3 From these formulae we can calculate the Detuned
C XC Filter elements for standard outputs as under.
For 7%, 440 Volts Detuned Filters
Available Inductance per Rated Voltage of kVAr.of the
Bus kVAr. Phase in mH. the Capacitor VC Capacitor at VC
12.5 3.71 500 15.01
25 1.855 500 30.02
50 0.928 500 60.05
75 0.618 500 90.07
100 0.464 500 120.09
 Exercise

Parallel Resonance
 Description of the Problem
A 500kVA, 415V, 3 phase, 50Hz., 4% impedance
drop transformer is feeding a 100kW, 6pulse DC
drive. The PF of the DC drive under full load
condition is 0.7 lag. Calculate the following :-
• A) Calculate the harmonic current spectrum of
100kW DC drive.
• B) Calculate the kVAr required to improve the PF of
the drive above 0.99 lag.
• C) Calculate the harmonic voltage distortion and
harmonic overload with the following :-
• 1) Without any capacitors.
• 2) With conventional capacitor connected to the
network.
• 3) With de-tuned filter connected to the network.
 Harmonic Spectrum
• Harmonic spectrum of 100kW, 6 pulse, 0.7 PF DC
drive is given by the relation: Ih =i1/h, where h is the
harmonic order.
Since the drive is 6 pulse, h = 5,7,11,13,17,19.

I1 = 100x1000 / (√3 x 415 x 0.7)

= 200 A (Approx.).
Harmonic Spectrum

h Ih Amps
5 40
7 28.6
11 18.2
13 15.4
17 11.8
19 10.5
 Estimation of kVAr
• kVAr required to improve the PF above 0.99 lag.

• kVAr =kW x (tan (cos-1 (PF1)) - tan (cos-1 (PF2))

=100 x (tan (cos-1 (0.7)) - tan (cos-1 (0.99))
=87.8 kVAr.

• kVAr =100 kVAr. (standard available)

Network Without Capacitors:

500 kVA

100 kW,
3ph,415V, DC
drive Linear resistive
Loads
Network Without Capacitors
Equivalent Circuit

XT
Ih
 Calculation of Transformer
Impedance Xt
• We use the following formula.

% Z = Transformer Impedance / Base Imp.

Base Imp.= Phase voltage / Full load current.
∴ Xt = % Z* Phase voltage / Full load current.
= 0.04* 415/√3/(500*1000/(415*√3 )) ohm.
= 0.013778 ohm.
 Harmonic Simulation
Without Capacitors
h Ih Xth = Vh =
Xt*h √3*Ih*Xtotal
5 40 0.0689 4.7728
7 28.6 0.0964 4.7728
11 18.2 0.1516 4.7728
13 15.4 0.1791 4.7728
17 11.8 0.2342 4.7728
19 10.5 0.2618 4.7728
 Total Harmonic Voltage Distortion %
Without Capacitors

Total harmonic voltage distortion

THDV% = (√(V52+V72+V112+V132+V172+V192) / V1) x 100

= (√(4.772+4.772+4.772+4.772+4.772+4.772)/415)*100

THDV% = (11.69/415)*100

THDV% = 2.82%
 Network With Capacitors:
• Calculation of harmonic voltage distortion and
harmonic overload:
• With conventional capacitor of rating 100 kVAr.
Capacitive reactance Xc= V2/ (kVAr x 1000) ohms.
= 4152 / (100 x 1000).
Xc = 1.72225 ohms.
Transformer reactance.
Xt = V2 x (%Z / 100 ) / (kVA x 1000) ohms
= 4152 x (4 / 100) / (500 x 1000).
Xt = 0.013778 ohms.
 Network With Capacitors

500 kVA

100 kW,
3ph,415V, DC 100 kVAr,
drive Linear resistive 3ph,415V
Loads
Network With Capacitors:
Equivalent Circuit

Ih Xt XC
 Harmonic Simulation With
Capacitors
h Ih Xth=Xt*h Xch=Xc/h |Xtotal| = Vh = Ic =
Xth*Xch √3*Ih*Xtotal Vh/(√3*
|(Xth-Xch)| Xch)

5 40.0 0.0689 0.3445 0.08611 5.9659 10.00

7 28.6 0.0964 0.2460 0.15863 7.8501 18.42

11 18.2 0.1516 0.1566 4.73619 149.151 549.89

13 15.4 0.1791 0.1325 0.50885 13.5593 59.08

17 11.8 0.2342 0.1013 0.17853 3.6379 20.73

19 10.5 0.2618 0.0906 0.13866 2.5281 16.11

 Overloading of Capacitors
Ich = 554 Amps.

Ic1 =139 Amps.

Iceff=571 Amps.

Overload = 411 %
 THDV% With Capacitors

THDV% = (√(V52+V72+V112+V132+V172+V192) / V1) x 100

=(√(5.972+7.852+149.152+13.562+3.642+2.532)/415)*100

= (150.16)/415*100

= 36.18%
Calculation With Detuned Filters

500 kVA

XLF
100 kW,
3ph,415V, DC
drive Linear resistive 112.5 kVAr,
Loads
3ph,440V,DF
 Why 112.5 kVAr
• The detuned filters, supplied by L&T/Meher are rated
for a bus voltage of 440V. This is mainly done to
provide a standardized solution.
• The kVAr output of a 440V capacitor is reduced if
connected to a 415 volts system, given by the relation.
= (Vsystem/Vrated)2 * kVAr.

= (415/440)2 * 100 kVAr.

= 88.9 kVAr.
Hence while suggesting a detuned filter for a 415 V
system, additional kVAr has to be provided so as to
provide the required 100 kVAr at system voltage. .
 Why 112.5 kVAr
• Hence if the 100 kVAr capacitors have to be
supplemented by detuned filter, the detuned
filter should be rated for 112.5 kVAr,
calculated by the relation

= (Vrated/Vsystem)2 * kVAr

= (440/415)2 * kVAr
= 1.124 * 100
= 112.5 kVAr. (approx.)
 Network With Detuned
Filters: Equivalent Circuit

Ih Xt XLF

XCF
 Detuned Filter of
112.5 kVAr, 440V
Capacitive kVAr = 112.5 * (1 – p/100)
= 112.5* (1-7/100)
= 112.5 *0.93
= 104.625 kVAr
XC = 4402 / (104.625 x 1000)
XCF = 1.8504 ohms.

Reactance of reactor
XLF = p/100* Xc
= 0.07*1.8504
= 0.129528 ohm.
 Harmonic Simulation

Transformer reactance.

Xt = V2 x (%Z / 100 ) / (kVA x 1000) ohms.

= 4152 x (4 / 100) / (500 x 1000).

Xt = 0.013778 ohms.
 Harmonic Simulation With
Detuned Filter
Xth = XLFH = XCFH = XFilter = Xtotal = Vh = Ic= Vh/
h Ih Xt*h XLF*h XCF/h
XLFH – Xfilter*Xth √3*Ih* (√3*XFilter)
XCFH ( XFilter+Xth) Xtotal

5 40 0.0689 0.6476 0.3701 0.2776 0.0552 3.8238 7.95

7 28.6 0.0964 0.9067 0.2643 0.6424 0.0839 4.1498 3.73

11 18.2 0.1516 1.4248 0.1682 1.2566 0.1353 4.2591 1.96

13 15.4 0.1791 1.6839 0.1423 1.5415 0.1605 4.2760 1.60

17 11.8 0.2342 2.2020 0.1088 2.0931 0.2107 4.2925 1.18

19 10.5 0.2618 2.4610 0.0974 2.3636 0.2357 4.2969 1.05

 Overloading of Detuned Filter
Ifh = 9.27 Amps.

If1 =139.12 Amps.

Ifeff=139.43 Amps.

Overload = Negligible.
 THDV% With Detuned Filters
THDV% = (√(V52+V72+V112+V132+V172+V192) / V1) x 100

= (√(3.822 +4.152+4.262+4.282+4.292+4.302)/415)*100

THDV% = (10.25/415)*100

THDV% = 2.47%
 Summary
It is seen that the introduction of capacitors into
a network with non-linear loads not only leads
to very high overloading of the capacitors but
also increases the harmonic voltage distortion
in the network due to parallel resonance.

If the same capacitors are supplemented with

detuned filters, the overloading is prevented
and also the voltage distortion in the network is
reduced to acceptable limits.
 Conclusion

Detuned filter is a safe and proven

solution to improve power factor in
harmonic rich environment.
 Limitations of Passive filters
• Sensitive to system frequency change.
• Sensitive to change in network parameters.
• Has location limitation when ‘Drives’ exist in system.
• Mixing of filters having different tuning factor
generally not possible due to risk of resonance.
• Not immune from harmonic overloading.
• Generally cannot handle wide harmonic spectrum.
• kVAr. output of filter variable only in steps.
 Session 15

Active Compensation
 SCOPE
• ACTIVE COMPENSATION
• NEED
• PRINCIPLE
• BENEFITS
• SOLUTIONS
• AHF - ACTIVE HARMONIC FILTER
• INTELLVAr - E
• Electronic VAr Compensation
Need for Active Compensation - I

In networks where HARMONIC

FILTERING is to be done
• Independent of PF Improvement

• for complex harmonic frequencies

• for fine control of THD(V): <3%
Need for Active Compensation - II
for Unsymmetrical Reactive Power
Compensation (PF improvement)
• in REAL TIME MODE
• in STEPLESS MODE
• where INFINITE CONTROL is needed

• for real time Voltage Support

Principle of Active Compensation

Involves real time CURRENT

INJECTION into a network
• in Variable AMPLITUDE & PHASE ANGLE
• in COMPLEX WAVE SHAPES
• with INFINITE CONTROL
• at any LOCATION (in shunt)
 Active Compensation
Benefits
• Filtering upto the 50th HARMONIC including
Inter-Harmonics
• Unsymmetrical Compensation of Reactive
Power
• Real time response < 2 msec
• Independent of network characteristics,
voltage & frequency behavior
• INFINITE CONTROL
• Compatibility with conventional compensation
installations
 Active Compensation - BENEFITS

Total PF No risk of
Control Resonance

Voltage Extremely
Stabilty Flexible

THD (V) Plug & Play

Control Solution
 SOLUTIONS - I
• ACTIVE HARMONIC FILTERS
- for 3 Phase, 415/440 V, 50 Hz. NETWORKS
- In Current Ratings from 32 to 630 Amps
- Optional Reactive Power Compensation
 SOLUTIONS - II
• INTELLVAr - E
- Hybrid ELECTRONIC VAr COMPENSATION
- for 3 Phase, 415/440 V, 50 Hz. NETWORKS
- Output from 50 to 1000 kVAr
Active filter schematic diagram

Sinusoidal
Load Current with Supply
Harm onics Supply
Current
System

Compensating
Current

Active
Filter

+ =

(Time Domain)

+ =

(Frequency Domain)
Waveform of current without Active filter
Waveform of current with Active filter
Current harmonics without active filter
Current harmonics with active filter
Cost-Technology Pyramid of Harmonic Filters
Top end solution for wide
spectrum of current
Suitable for installations Active harmonics & suitable for
having high harmonic filters installations having
distortion (cement, sugar sensitive equipment
& steel plants, etc.)
Hybrid Filters

Tuned Filters

14% Detuned Filters

Suitable for installations having 3rd harmonics and
above (IT parks, corporate banks & establishments)

7% Detuned Filters
Most common, Base end product suitable for majority
of industries having 5th and above harmonics