Writing Statement of the Problem (SOP), between and among variables

Hypothesis, Significance of the Study, under investigation.

Conceptual & Theoretical Framework, and
(Polit and Beck, 2008)
Scope and Delimitations
Statement of the Problem (SOP)
FORMULATING AND WORDING THE
The statement of the problem is a detailed, distilled
HYPOTHESIS
expression of your research problem. Specifically, it
has to talk about the present state regarding the • Qualitative studies do not have
problem, its desired state, and the remedies that hypothesis. They are guided by research
will help attain the desired state. questions.
Key Characteristics of SOP • Quantitative studies, experimental studies
and some descriptive studies require
A good research problem should have the following
hypotheses to explain the value and
characteristics:
meaning of the phenomenon.
1. It should address a gap in knowledge.
• Do your review of literature and theoretical
2. It should be significant enough to contribute
framework before making a hypothesis. The
to the existing body of research.
later serves as your basis for making your
3. It should lead to further research.
hypothesis.
4. It should be of interest to the researcher and
suit his/her skills, time, and resources • The hypothesis not the research problem
5. The problem should render itself to but is subjected to empirical testing
investigation through collection of data through data collection and analysis.
6. The approach towards solving the problem
should be ethical. • Research problems that are
experimental, causal, comparative,
Format for Writing the SOP correlational or normative need
hypothesis for their in-depth solution.
PART A: The Ideal
• The hypothesis is based on the literature
PART B: The Reality
review and theoretical framework, theories,
PART C: The Consequences concepts and principles that support the
study.
• Hypothesis is stated in declarative form.
HYPOTHESIS
• Wordings in the hypothesis is Clear and
WHAT ARE HYPOTHESES?
concise and must be in present tense.
• Hypotheses are based on theories that are
• The hypothesis indicate the population, the
proposed and tested with reality. They are
independent variable, dependent variable
tentative statements that propose a possible
and the anticipated relationship between
explanation to some phenomenon or event.
them.
• HYPOTHESES:
• They are statements that translate
Characteristics of hypothesis
the problem into precise,
unambiguous predictions of  Testability – observable, quantifiable
expected outcomes capable of analysis
• A shrewd guess or inference. They – NOT testable when:
are statement expectations
• Variables are not observable,
regarding the relationship
quantifiable cannot be
 subjected to factual testing 1. Directional
and analysis  specifies clearly the
characteristics of the
• Variables do not state any
variables
predicted relationship.
 older professionals
• If a hypothesis lacks a are less likely to
phrase such as more than, accept expanded
less than, greater than, roles than younger
different from related to. health professonals .
Associated with or something 2. Non directional
similar, it is not testable.  Health professionals
in the hospital are
 Clarity less likely to accept
 Verifiable expanding role than
Health professionals
– States anticipated relationship in the community.
 Research or alternative
• When stating relationship
hypothesis vs statistical or null
between variables, use terms
hypothesis
such as more than, greater
1. Research or alternative
than, significantly or not
hypothesis
significantly related,
 There is a significant
significantly or not
relationship between
significantly different from
maternal heroin addiction
– Set the limits of the study and birth weight of infants.
2. Statistical or null hypothesis
– Can be accepted or rejected.  There is no significant
 Formulated in simple and relationship between heroin
understandable terms addiction and birth weight.

 Corresponds to existing knowledge Advantages of null hypothesis

– Logical and justifiable – consistent 1. Scientific
with a body of knowledge 2. Reflects the impartiality of the researcher
3. Minimizes research bias
– Based from the research problem  Most scientific studies utilize null
hypothesis.
 Testing the hypothesis is the
Types of hypotheses: HEART of the empirical investigation
and for it determines the solution to
• Simple vs. Complex the research problem.
1. Simple : - one independent and one
dependent variable
2. Complex –
– two independent
variable and one
dependent variable
– one independent
variable and two
dependent variable

 directional vs. Non directional

RESEARCH FRAMEWORK
• Assumptions
– These are statements that are
considered true even if they have yet
to be scientifically proven.
– They are not mere guesses but
despite scientific proof, they have
good logical basic.
– They do not need verification or
testing. They are usually drawn from
theoretical framework
Types of assumptions
• Universal assumptions
– Derived from personal knowledge of
the researcher or from observed
facts, experiences and findings of
previous researches.
– They are beliefs taken as true by
most people and still need testing or
verification.
• Study Assumptions
– Assertions needed in pursuit of the
study which are taken as starting
point from which the study can
proceed.
– The basis for presuming the validity
of the explanatory variables and
used as basis for formulating the
hypothesis.
• Theory or research based assumptions
– Derived from theories generated
from previous research in a field of
study which await further
confirmation and validation
– Theories and research instruments
are developed on the basis of
assumptions
THE RESEARCH FRAMEWORK
• Framework – the structure of the idea or
concept and how it is put together. It is an
essay in a form of an argument which
supports the rationale for developing the
research question.
• Terminal cancer patients that manifest
optimism will increase their life expectancy
• Among babies in the nursery, length and
frequency of the crying is related to length
of human contact.
• The number of traditional doctors are
related to the distance of the barrio from
the barangay health center.
• Women who marry late tend to have small
spacing between their children.
RATIONALE FOR CONCEPTUAL OR
THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
• To justify the rationale behind the
investigation
• Give reasons for searching new data and
for analyzing, interpreting and synthesizing
new data
• Cite theories on which the study is premised
in order to establish the relationship among
variables in the study.
Conceptual framework
• It is a structure of concepts grouped
together as a map for the study. It refers to
the explanation of the relationship of
variables of the study based on literature
and research
• It consists of concepts which helps clarify
the overall relationship of the research
variables in terms of how the concepts are
defined.
• A conceptual framework is a written and
visual representation of an expected
relationship between variables. Variables
are simply the characteristics or properties
that you want to study. The conceptual
framework is generally developed based on
a literature review of existing studies and
theories about the topic.
 Reinforcement theory of motivation by BF
Skinner
 It states that individual’s behavior is a
function of its consequences.
ASSUMPTIONS:
 Individual’s behavior is based on “law of
effect”,
 Behavior with positive
consequences tends to be repeated,
 Behavior with negative
consequences tends not to be
repeated.
Theoretical framework
• a collection of interrelated concepts that Thorndike’s law of exercise
exists in the literature, a readymade map
for the study. A theoretical framework ASSUMPTIONS:
guides the researcher in determining the  Law of use- the more often an
variables to be measured and the association is used the stronger it
conclusions to be drawn. It is an becomes.
explanation or an essay that interrelates the
concept or theories involved in the  Law of disuse- the longer an
phenomenon. association is unused the weaker it
becomes.

What is Theory?
Paradigm
• Always speculative and are never proven
• An overall belief system that makes sense
• It provides description and explanation of of reality and the basis of knowledge.
a phenomena and are subject to further
development or revision or may even be • How one view the reality
discarded if not supported by empirical
Conceptual paradigm
findings
– A diagram that visually presents and
• A general principle, an explanation of a
interprets the underlying theory,
phenomenon or an abstract generalization
principles and concepts of the
that systematically explains the relationship
research. A visual presentation of
among given phenomena of explaining,
variables that interrelate with one
predicting and controlling such as
another as perceived by the
phenomena.
researcher before actual empirical
• A theory is consists of concepts and investigation is done to prove the
propositions (ideas and relationships relationship.
between concepts). It is also consists of
– A picture that represents the
conceptual paradigm.
structure and parts of the theory. It
• Made up of interrelated concepts to form a focuses on the structure or
framework that will guide and direct the composition of the theory
researcher in the investigation.
– A model or map
 – Symbolic representation of a 2. Among quantitative studies which of the
phenomenon developed after the conduct of
the study which depicts actual use or
application of concepts into reality by means
of hypothesis testing
Quiz1
1. Hypotheses are based on theories that are
proposed and tested with reality. They are tentative
statements that propose a possible explanation to
some phenomenon or event. Which of the following
is true about hypotheses?
Hypotheses are supported by literatures and
theories
following does not have a hypothesis?
Descriptive research
3. In a study entitled Health Risk Behavior and
family support among college students of
GSDMSFI: Which of the following is a well
written or testable hypothesis?
Health risk behavior is related to family support
among college students of GSDMSFI.
4. Which is the role of hypothesis in a research
study?
It is being subjected to empirical testing.
5. Which of the following must be indicated in
a well written hypothesis?
Independent variable, dependent variable,
population, anticipated relationship
6. Which of the following is a testable
hypothesis for a study entitled: Practices on
Complementary and Alternative Medicine
and Compliance to Medical Treatment
among Adults with Hypertension"
The practice of complementary and alternative
medicine is related to compliance to medical
treatment among adults with hypertension.
7. Which of the following is a properly written
null hypothesis?
There is no significant relationship between
hygiene practice and incidence of helminthiasis
among elementary pupils
8. What is the role of the conceptual
framework in the conduct of research?
It shows the association of the variables of the
study.
9. The theoretical framework is a collection of
concepts that exist in literature which has
been already established providing a
readymade structure of how the variables in
the study interact.
True
10. What is the primary difference of a
conceptual framework and a theoretical
framework?
A conceptual framework is confirmed after the
conduct of the study while a theoretical
framework has been developed before the
study was conducted.
Quiz 2
1. Hypotheses are based on ideas that were
taken from the literatures and can also be
derived from existing theories.
True
2. hypotheses are statements that translate
the problem into precise, unambiguous
predictions of expected outcomes
True
3. Hypotheses are written in future tense since
it will be tested after the proposal defense.
False
4. The manifestation of a clear hypothesis is
that it contains the independent and
dependent variables, it mentions the
population studied and the expected
relationship between variables.
True
5. The hypothesis is considered testable or
verifiable if it has the terms similar to,
greater than, less than, related to, different
from and similar words
True
6. The conceptual framework clarifies the
overall relationship between research
variables based on literatures.
True
7. The theoretical framework is a collection of
unrelated concepts but when put together
can explain the conduct of the study.
False
8. A conceptual paradigm is a symbolic
representation of of the phenomenon in the
study.
True
9. The null hypothesis declares specifically
what the researcher truly desires to attain in
the study.
False
10. The alternative hypothesis is used most
scientific studies because it shows the
impartiality of the researcher.
False
MIXED METHODS
• Mixed methods research takes advantage
of using multiple ways to explore a research
problem.
Uses of mixed method
 To explain and interpret.
 To explore a phenomenon.
 To develop and test a new instrument.
 To serve a theoretical perspective.
 To complement the strengths of a single
design.
 To overcome the weaknesses of a single
design.
 To address a question at different levels.
 To address a theoretical perspective at
different level
What are some strengths?
• Can be easy to describe and to report.
• Can be useful when unexpected results
arise from a prior study.
• Can help generalize, to a degree, qualitative
data.
• Helpful in designing and validating an
instrument.
• Can position research in a transformative
framework.
What are some weaknesses?
• Time required.
 • Resolving discrepancies between different
types of data.
• Some designs generate unequal evidence.
• Can be difficult to decide when to proceed
in sequential designs.
• Little guidance on transformative methods.
Four Decisions for Mixed Method Designs
(Creswell, 2003, p. 211)
1. What is the implementation sequence of
data collection?
2. What method takes priority during data
collection and analysis?
3. What does the integration stage of finding
involve?
4. Will a theoretical perspective be used?
Six Mixed Methods Design Strategies (Creswell,
2003)
1. Sequential Explanatory
• Characterized by: Collection and analysis of
quantitative data followed by a collection
and analysis of qualitative data.
• Purpose: To use qualitative results to assist
in explaining and interpreting the findings of
a quantitative study.
2. Sequential Exploratory
• Characterized by: An initial phase of
qualitative data collection and analysis
followed by a phase of quantitative data
collection and analysis.
• Purpose: To explore a phenomenon. This
strategy may also be useful when
developing and testing a new instrument
3. Sequential Transformative
• Characterized by: Collection and analysis of
either quantitative or qualitative data first.
The results are integrated in the
interpretation phase.
• Purpose: To employ the methods that best
serve a theoretical perspective.
4. Concurrent Triangulation
• Characterized by: Two or more methods
used to confirm, cross-validate, or
corroborate findings within a study. Data
collection is concurrent.
• Purpose: Generally, both methods are used
to overcome a weakness in using one
method with the strengths of another.
5. Concurrent Nested
• Characterized by: A nested approach that
gives priority to one of the methods and
guides the project, while another is
embedded or “nested.”
• Purpose: The purpose of the nested method
is to address a different question than the
dominant or to seek information from
different levels.
6. Concurrent Transformative
• Characterized by: The use of a theoretical
perspective reflected in the purpose or
research questions of the study to guide all
methodological choices.
• Purpose: To evaluate a theoretical
perspective at different levels of analysis.
Methodology
RESEARCH DESIGNS
 The choice of research design
strongly influences the quality of
evidence the study yields.
 Research design has more impact
on the quality of the study than any
other methodological decisions.
Qualitative research
• Qualitative research - focuses on
gathering insights and understanding the
individual perceptions of the phenomenon
under study.
• They delve into hidden meanings.
• Considered as a soft science concerned
with subjective meaning of experiences of
an individual.
• It is used to enhance the interpretability of
quantitative studies.
• The purpose is to make a thorough
description of people or events and data
collected through unstructured interview and
participant observation
• Qualitative studies are not intended to be
generalized to study population and are
also not intended to test cause and effect
relationship.
• Saturation is reached when themes become
repetitive suggesting no new inputs is
needed.
• QUALITATIVE RESEARCH IS BASED ON
trustworthiness rather than reliability and
validity
• Bricoleur - a person who has expertise in
performing qualitative research.
• Informants – respondents or participants in
the qualitative research
• Sampling for qualitative research is non-
probability sampling such as purposive or
snowball sampling
TYPES OF QUALITATIVE STUDIES
• Phenomenology – examines the lived
experiences of individuals about a
phenomenon through description and
analysis.
• Ethnographic studies – collection and
analysis of data on lifestyle and daily
activities of a culture or a group of people.
• Grounded theory studies – concerned
with the development of a theory. The
conceptual framework will be taken from the
data generated rather than from previous
studies.
• Historical studies – involves in the
identification, location and critical evaluation
and synthesis of past events to shed light
on present behavior, trends and practices.
• Case studies – in-depth examination and
analysis of people or groups of people in
relation to health issues or problems that
are important to the researcher.
• Field studies- Investigate problems as
they occur in the natural setting such as
in the clinical wards, housing projects,
communities, etc.
• Biographies – explore the life of an
individual from data derived from
documents
• Critical theory – is an action oriented
research. It aims to integrate theory and
practice such that people become aware of
contraindications and incongruities in their
culture, beliefs and social practices.
• Feminist approach- focus on gender
domination and discrimination
characteristics of a patriarchal society.
• Participatory action research - works with
groups or communities that are vulnerable
to the control or oppression of a
dominant group.
• Focus group- is an in-depth qualitative
interview in which a group of people were
asked about their attitude towards a
particular subject matter which could be a
product, a service, a concept or experience.
PHASES IN QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
• Phase 1 – conceptualizing and planning
 Identify research problem, review
related studies, select research site,
formulate strategy, address ethical
issuers.
• Phase II- conducting a qualitative study
 Initial findings , observation and
discussion, cluster the findings,
identify emerging patterns,
determine data saturation,
trustworthiness of data, debriefing
• Phase III – Writing
 Transcribing the data in verbatim,
develop category scheme, content
analysis of narrative data and
encoding qualitative
 Types
designs
DATA GATHERING PROCEDURE IN
QUALITATIVE RESEARCH 1. Correlational
Ex post facto design
1. BRACKETING-
– Identifying and holding in abeyance
preconceived ideas, beliefs and
opinions about the phenomenon
under study to limit the researchers’
bias of the phenomenon.
2. IMMERSION
– Data collection process on which the
researcher lives with the data
overtime.
3. INTUITING
– The researcher is open to meanings • ADVANTAGES:
attributed to the phenomenon
4. DATA REDUCTION-
– Simplifying the large amount of data
obtained from interviews and from
the sources
5. ANALYZING
– Dissecting of significant meanings of
statement and events
• METHODOLOGY:
6. DESCRIBING
– Defining and interpreting the
meaning of the phenomenon under
study.
• Limitation :
NON-EXPRIMENTAL RESEARCH DESIGNS
• Many research questions cannot be
addressed with an experiment or quasi-
experiment
• The researcher do not intervene by 2. Retrospective designs or case-control
manipulating the independent variables, the studies
study is non-experimental.
• This study is usually needed before an
experimental study can be planned. The
non-experimental research describe the
scope of the problem and critical
relationships between variables.
of Non-experimental research
research design or
 Useful in examining phenomena as
they naturally occur without the
researchers intervention.
 It will examine relationships
between variables. The criteria for
causality are an empirical
relationship between variables will
be identified.
 The researcher does not control the
independent variable which has
already occurred
 It is strong on realism and therefore
has intrinsic appeal in solving many
problems. It is appropriate when
manipulation of variables is
impractical or impossible due to
insufficient time, inconvenience,
presence of administrative barriers
or prior manifestation of the variable
of interest.
 It is similar to quasi experimental
non-equivalent control group post
test only design except for the
absence on independent variable
being manipulated
 There is no direct control over the
independent variable
 There is also no randomization
 An existing phenomena is linked to
a situation that occurred in the
past before the study was initiated.
 The researcher is interested in a
present outcome and attempts to
determine the antecedent factors
that caused it.
  USES: Identify risk factors of
different problems or conditions.
 The researcher being with a dependent
variable. The researcher examines whether
it is correlated with one or more antecedent
or independent variables.
 Case control study: Here researchers use
existing records to identify people with a
certain health problem (“cases”) and a
similar group without the problem
(“controls”). Example: To learn whether a
certain drug causes birth defects, one might
collect data about children with defects
(cases) and about those without defects
(controls). The data are compared to see
whether cases are more likely than controls
to have mothers who took the drug during
pregnancy.
3. Prospective Study (Cohort study)
 Starts with a presumed cause and
go forward with a presumed effect.
 Limitations: More costly than
retrospective studies because
substantial follow-up is necessary for
dependent variable to manifest. May
require large samples if dependent
variables are rare.
 Strengths : stronger than
retrospective study. Samples are
more likely to be representative. The
investigators can impose control to
rule out competing explanations of
the result .
 Cohort study: For research purposes, a
cohort is any group of people who are linked
in some way and followed over time.
Researchers observe what happens to one
group that's been exposed to a particular
variable — for example, the effect of
company downsizing on the health of office
workers. This group is then compared to a
similar group that hasn't been exposed to
the variable.
 Frammingham study. Started in 1948 70
years in October 2018
4. Natural Experiment
 A group that is exposed to a natural
phenomenon that have important
health consequences are compared
with a non-exposed group .
5. Path analytic studies
 Testing theories of causation based
on non-experimental data
 Researcher tests if non-experimental
data conform sufficiently to the
underlying model to justify causal
inferences
6. Descriptive Research
 Applicability : to observe, describe
and document aspects of a situation
as it naturally occurs and sometimes
to serve as a starting point for
hypothesis generation or theory
development
Types of Descriptive Research
 DESCRIPTIVE CORRELATIONAL STUDY
 To describe relationship
among variables rather than
infer cause and effect
relationship
 UNIVARIATE DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES
 Prevalence study - to determine
the prevalence rate of some
conditions. Determines the extent to
which the condition of interest is
present.
 Incidence Study – used to measure
the frequency of developing new
cases. Longitudinal designs are
needed to determine the incidence.
The researcher must first establish
who is free of the condition and risk
of becoming a new case.
LIMITATIONS OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH
1. Weak establishing causal
relationship
2. Susceptible to faulty interpretation
because it lacks the randomization
but groupings are done through self
selection leading to selection bias
 3. Cannot assure that groups being
compared are similar before the
occurrence of the dependent
variable
4. The interpretations of most
correlational results should be
considered tentative particularly if it
has theoretical basis.
STRENGTHS OF DESCRIPTIVE STUDIES
1. Many problems are not amenable to
experimentation
2. To list a causal hypothesis that has been
deduced from an established theory.
3. An efficient means of collecting a large
amount of data about the problem.
4. Looks at a few variables at a time
5. Strong in realism and has a strong intrinsic
appeal to solving a practical problem.
6. Seldom criticized for artificiality.
NON TRADITIONAL /NONEXPERIMENTAL
RESEARCH DESIGNS
1. Survey – information obtained are relatively
superficial
2. Evaluation research – the cornerstone of
policy research. Can contribute to policy
formulation
3. Needs Assessment – Similar to evaluation
research
4. Secondary analysis - the researcher
examine the documents . Since the
researcher does not gather the data there is
a big possibility that the data set will be
deficient
5. Meta-analysis – gathers data on researches
previously done on the subject. It is
convenient and an objective method of
integrating a large body of finding and of
observing patterns and relationships that
might otherwise have gone undetected.
6. Delphi survey – a method that asks the
different experts on the topic being
studied . It is relatively efficient and
effective method of combining the expertise
of a large group of individuals to obtain
information or planning and prediction
purposes.
7. Time dimension designs– a non-
experimental design which aims to
determine the cause. Also known as
inferred causality.
 Longitudinal design – examines
changes in the same subject over an
extended period of time.
 Cross sectional design – used to
examine various groups of
individuals in various stages of
development simultaneously.
 Trend design – examines changes
in the general population in relation
to a particular phenomenon
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH
DESIGNING FOR QUANTITATIVE STUDIES
PRINCIPLES of quantitative studies:
• Principle of Causality
 Studies are quantitative if the
research questions are about cause
and effect
 Criteria for causality
1. The cause must precede the effect in time
(temporal)
2. There is an empirical relationship between
the perceived cause and the perceived effect
3. The relationship cannot be explained as being
cause by other variables.
 The BradfordHill criteria for
causality;
1. Coherence – involves similar evidence from
multiple other sources (meta-analysis)
2. Biologic plausibility – evidence from the
laboratory that causal pathway is credible
• Counterfactual model
 A model that tells us what will
happen if the subjects were not
exposed to the causal factors.
 Involves the establishment of a
control group
 Uses of counterfactual include:
 Alternative intervention group
 Placebo
 Standard method of care or
usual treatment
 Different doses or intensities
of treatment
1. This is used to analyse dose response effect.
 Wait list control group – with
delayed treatment. The
control group eventually will
receive treatment but is
deferred.
• This will provide evidence to cause and
effect.
• Placebo – provide intervention presumed to
have no therapeutic value to evaluate the
effectiveness of drugs and to control the
non-pharmacologic effects of the drug like
the attention given to subjects or
expectations or benefits or harm
• Options: option 1: treatment vs. Usual
care
• option 2: treatment vs. Placebo vs.
No care
Designs to identify causal relationship
• EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN (Randomized
Controlled Trial (RCT))
 True experiment is the gold
standard for yielding reliable
evidence about cause and effect
 The phenomenon is observed under
controlled condition and MUST
meet the criteria for establishing
causality.
• True experiments provide convincing
evidence about the effect of one variable
has on another
• This method’s strength is based on the fact
that experiments can achieve greater
confidence of geniuses of causality
because they are access under controlled
conditions and they met the criteria for
establishing causality.
Characteristics of true experiments
1. Manipulation or intervention
2. Control – control group or a counterfactual
group which does not receive the
intervention
 A process that shows that the
relationship of the dependent and
independent variable cannot be
explained by something else
 Control group usually receives no
treatment or usual treatment and
the experimental group receives
treatment
 Control group is a group of subjects
whose performance on the
dependent variable is use to
evaluate the performance of the
treatment group. Also referred to as
counterfactual
POSITIVE CONTROL GROUP
 Expected to have a positive result.
 Allows the investigator to show that
the set up was capable of producing
result
 Reduce the chances of false
negative
NEGATIVE CONTROL GROUP
 Expected to have a negative result
 Makes sure that no confounding
variable has affected the result
 Can also be a way to set the
baseline
Failure to provide sufficient evidence
of strong control groups can
completely invalidate a study.
3. Randomization – Example : Effectiveness of the use of guava
leaves for external flushing of post partum
 assigning subjects to control and
patients to prevent infection
experimental group is on random
basis . 3. One shot design
 The signature of an experiment.  One group of treatment was given to
one group of subjects and then
 The most trustworthy and
measured or observed. One
acceptable method of equalizing
treatment, one observation.
groups
 Highly useful on practice setting. It
4. Validity – The gathered evidences should
provides least measure to a new
be unbiased and cogent
treatment of the group in question
 Baseline data is gathered before
 it is simple, easy and low cost .
randomization to rule out that group
Gives answer to post treatment
assignment is not affected by outcomes
behavior shortly after the treatment.
 The subject must meet criteria for inclusion
X O
before randomization.
 Randomization should be close as possible
to the intervention to maximize the
likelihood that all randomized subject will
receive the conditions to which they have
been assigned

BASIC EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS

1. AFTER ONLY DESIGN or post test only
design
 After random assignment, treatment
is introduced and data on dependent
variable is collected only once.
 Does garlic have more inhibitory effect than
R X O penicillin on s. Aureous or vice versa.
R O  Does the percent of dilution of extract affect
the inhibition of bacterial growth?
Example : One group receives health teaching
on urinary incontinence, while the other one did  Which among the following percentage of
not receive any. After one month both groups dilution of garlic extract has the most
were tested on the effects of health teachings. inhibitory effect on s. Aureous? 25%,?
50% ?100%?
2.Pre-test – post-test design
 FACTORIAL DESIGN permits to evaluate
 Pre-test and post-test were
the main effects ( effects from
conducted before and after the
experimentally manipulated variables) and
experimental treatment was done to
also the interaction effects
the control and experimental group
(effects from combining treatment)
R O X O
 In factorial experiments subjects are
R O O assigned at random to specific combination
of conditions.
  The two independent variables in the study
are the factors. (garlic extract and
penicillin) When describing the dimensions
of the design , researcher refer to the
number of levels. ( 3 levels for factor A
garlic extract and 1 level for factor B
penicillin) 3 X1 design
5. Randomized block design
 Look similar to factorial structure but
in this design.
 There are two independent variables
but one is not experimentally
manipulated but a stratifying variable
7. Solomon four group
 Example: comparing the effects
garlic extract and penicillin to s. combination of pretest posttest control design and
Aureoaus and e. Coli posttest only design

 The type of bacteria is the factor that R O X O

we cannot manipulate is the blocking R O O
or stratifying variable
R X O
R O

STRENGTHS OF EXPERIMENTS
1. It yield the highest quality evidence
regarding intervention effects
2. Randomization and use of comparison
condition is close to attaining the ideal
counterfactual
3. Gives increase in confidence that causal
relationships can be inferred.

6. Cross over design 4. Meta-analysis of randomized controlled

trials which integrate studies using
 Involves the exposure of one subject experimental designs are the pinnacle of
to more than one experimental evidence hierarchies for questions relating
treatment to causes
 This type of one subject design has LIMITATIONS OF EXPERIMENTS
an advantage of ensuring the
highest possible equivalence among 1. Artificiality- more variables are
subjects exposed to different controlled
conditions. The groups being
2. Clinical studies are conducted in areas
compared are equal with respect to
where there is little control
characteristics because they are the
same people or subjects. 3. Hawthorne effect
 – output or effects that result from the
mere fact of being under observation

B. QUASI-EXPERIMENTS
• Also involves intervention but lacks
randomization (the signature of a quasi-
experiment). Referred to as controlled trials
without randomization. It can even lack a
control group
• Not as powerful as experiments in
establishing causal relationship
1. Non-equivalent control group design
4. Other quasi-experimental designs
• Before –after design  Regression discontinuity design
 Systematic assignment of subjects
 Involves an experimental treatment
based on cut-off scores on pre-
and two groups of subjects observed
intervention measures (giving
before and after the implementation
intervention to the severely ill).
 Two groups are observed before  Partially randomized treatment
and after treatment. Comparison preference
group is used in lieu of the control  Those with strong preference get to
group choose their treatment condition and
are followed up as part of the study.
O x O Those without preference will be
O O randomized.
 This study can yield information on
 The experimental and comparison the kind of people who prefer one
group must have similar intervention. Weakness will be those
characteristics so that changes after who selected one intervention can
the intervention can be attributed to be different from those who selected
the intervention and not to the alternative.
extraneous variables.  dose response design
 the outcome of those receiving
2. Non-equivalent control group design
different doses of treatment not as a
Control group after only design
result of the randomization
 No pre test . data is gathered only
 if large dose results to large
after intervention
outcomes, this provides evidence for
 A weaker experimental design inferring that the treatment caused
X O the outcome
O
3. Time series design
 Information is gathered over an extended STRENGTHS OF QUASI-EXPRIMENTAL
period. The extended period strengthen the DESIGNS
ability to attribute changes to the
1. Practical
intervention
2. Can introduce some control if experimental
 Usually used in single subject experiments
research is not possible
• O1 O2 O3 X O4
3. Patient may not be able to relinquish control
O5 O6
over the experimental treatment condition.
 - True

Quiz 3 13. When qualitative data is gathered through mixed

method, the data can be generalized.
1. Qualitative research design requires reliability and
validity of the process - True

- False 14. The mixed method is also used to determine the

effect of an intervention.
2. The goal of qualitative research is to discover
hidden meanings. - False

- True 15. The mixed method is used to validate a research

instrument.
3. Resutls of a qualitative study like the results of a
quantitative study can be generalized. - True

- False 16. The process of setting aside one's opinions and

beliefs before the researcher proceeds to qualitative
4. Ethnographic studies involves the exploration of data gathering is called Immersion.
peoples' lifestyle.
- False
- True
17. Qualitative research uses structured interview and
5. The Sequential transformative mixed method ia an observation techniques.
integration of both quantitative and qualitative
methods to develop a theory. - False

- True 18. The exploratory sequential mixed method is used

to explain the results of a quantitative study.
6. In research, it is possible to use multiple ways to
explore a research problem under study. - True

- True 19. The respondents in a qualitative study are called

participants.
7. Action REsearch is a type of qualitative research
design which is used to solve a specific problem in the - False
field.
20. The mixed method is also used to conduct
- True surveys.

8. One weakness of mixed emthod is its lengthy - False

process.

- True
Quiz 4
9. Narrative inquiry is a type of qualitative study where
the informants describe their expereinces of a 1. Quasi-experimental studies do not require a
phenomenon and the researcher aims to find its control group.
meaning. - True
- False 2. Hawthorne effect happens when the subject of the
10. Purposive sampling requires the respondents to subjects of the study are aware that they are being
have specific characteristics. observed.

- True - True

11. The Concurrent triangulation mixed mehtod uses 3. Experimental studies require researchers not to
two or more mehtods to corss-valdate findings intervene with the variables of the study.

- True - False

12. Mixed method is used to explore a phenmenon.

4. Pretest - post-test research design requires the
observation of variables before and after the
intervention.
- True
5. The purpose of correlational research design is to
determine the effect of the independent variable and
to the dependent variable in a natural setting, without
conducting an experiment.
- False
6. The Solomon four-group design is an example of a
non-traditional, non-experimental research design.
- False
7. The research design which is the gold standard for
determining the cause and effect is quasi-
experimental study.
- False
8. A non-experimental research designrequires the
researcher to control the varaibles of the study.
- False
9. In an experimental study, there is an experimental
and control group. The purpose of teh experimental
group is to exhibit what will happen to the subjects
when not exposed to the intervention.
- False
10. True experimental research design or randomized
controlled trial, requires randomization of the subject
of the study.
- True
11. The control group in an experimental study shows
what the results will be, when the subjects are
exposed to the standard or usual intervention.
- True
12. Time series design requires the observation of the
subjects twice, once before the intervention and at a
designated time after the intervention.
- False
13. The research design providing the highest quality
evidence is the meta-analysis for randomized
controlled trials.
- True
14. Descriptive studies cannot establish causal
relationship between the independent and dependent
variables.
- True
15. Research Design affects the quality of evidence
the study will produce.
- True
16. In conducting correlational studies, the researcher
need to control the independent variable.
- False
17. The Strenght of Descriptive studies is that it is
done in a natural environment.
- True
18. post-test only research design requires
observation of variables only after the intervention.
- True
19. One weakness of experimental studies is that it is
not conducted in natural setting.
- True
20. Quasi-experimental research design needs
randomization of subjects and a control group.
- False
SAMPLING PROCEDURE
• SAMPLE- are subjects or respondents of the
study that will generate the data specific to the
purpose of the study or inquiry. The subjects
must be a representative of the target
population to ensure the validity and reliability
of the findings.
• It is impossible to study the whole population
therefore a sample chosen wisely is enough.
Guide on how to proceed with the sampling
procedure:
• Universe – the totality of elements to which
research findings may apply. The group
where the researcher intends to collect data
and generalize the findings.
• Population – the accessible group of
individuals that the samples will be drawn by
the researcher.
  Subjects or respondents population –
samples or individuals chosen to provide
data and information needed in the research.
 Stratum – a segment of the
population distinguished for one or
more traits or qualifications
 Eligibility or inclusion criteria –
specific characteristic of the
population specified in the study.
Exclusion criteria are characteristics of
the population that are not specified in
the study and are therefore
disqualified to participate in the study.
Sampling
 Sampling is a process of selecting
representative portion of the population to
represent the entire population.
 Sampling unit – a place used during the
sampling process
 Sampling frame – a complete
list where potential samples
are drawn.
 Sampling design – a scheme that specifies
the number of samples drawn from the
population, inclusion exclusion criteria and
sampling technique.
Determining the number of samples
Slovin's formula
n = N .
1+Ne2
• Where n = sampling size , N= population
and e = sampling error ranging from 1 to
10%
 Sampling size – total number of
samples to participate in the study.
 Sampling error – arise when the
value of one sample size differ from
another drawn from the same
population
Bigger sample size is needed in the following
instances:
1. Presence of variables which cannot be
controlled
2. Expected differences on the variable of
interest among populations
3. Dividing the population into subgroups
4. Expected dropout rate among subjects is
high
 Statistical tests require minimum
sample sizes.
 POWER SAMPLING – there
should be enough subject to
detect the difference in the
independent variables
Steps in determining the target subjects
• Identify the target population.
• Identify the number of respondents.
• Specify inclusion and exclusion criteria for
respondent selection.
• Specify the sampling design.
• Recruit the subjects.
 3. Quota sampling
 Desired number of subjects
is identified and conveniently
sampled.

4. Purposive or judgmental sampling

 Based on inclusion/exclusion
criteria
5. Snowball or network or chain
Types of Sampling:
sampling
A. Non-probability sampling
 The early samples are asked
 respondents are selected in to refer other people who
a non-random way. Use of meet eligibility criteria.
available subjects that are
convenient
B. Probability sampling
2. Accidental or convenience sampling
–  Random selection of participants
from the population.
 uses the most readily
available or respondents 1. Simple random sampling
 Fishbowl or lottery
method
2. Stratified random sampling
 The population is
divided into strata or
subsets and
appropriate number of
subjects are drawn
from each subset.
3. Cluster sampling or
multistage sampling
  Used for large scale 2. Validity – is the soundness of the study’s
survey. The evidence – the findings are unbiased, cogent and
population is well grounded.
clustered into regions,
Validity is obtained by:
provinces,
municipalities,  Using methods and tools that
baranggays and so measure the concepts that they are
on. supposed to measure.
4. Systematic or sequential  There is a clear evidence of the
sampling effect of the independent variable to
the dependent variable.
 Selection of every nth
case from the list. Cogent convincing
C. Theoretical sampling 1. Do the methods measure the
concepts that they are supposed to
– Used in qualitative studies.
measure?
– Finding samples based on the
2. Do the tools to measure the variable
findings of the study
really measure the variable or it
measures something else?
Assessing scientific merit or quality of the The quality of the researcher’s evidence
study regarding effect of the independent variable
to the dependent variable.
RELIABILITY, VALIDITY AND
TRUSTWORTHINESS 3. Did the intervention really bring
about the improvement to the
• The findings should reflect the truth
outcome or other factors are
• If findings are inaccurate, the study cannot responsible for the progress?
contribute as evidence.
3. Generalizability and transferability
Criteria for assessing scientific merit or quality of
– The evidence taken in the study can
the study:
be applied to other groups and
1. Reliability – is the accuracy of the settings.
information obtained in the study.
4. Trustworthiness (RIGOR IN QUALITATIVE
Reliability can be obtained by: RESEARCH)

 Use of proper methods and tools to Criteria for trustworthiness

measure the research variable
1. CREDIBILITY – the data are
 The interpretation of the statistical true including the
analysis should be appropriate researcher’s interpretation

• Statistical reliability 2. CONFIRMABILITY – similar

to objectivity. It is the degree
 Statistical reliability – the probability that the that the study results are
same result with a completely new sample drawn from characteristics of
of the study. This also mean the results are participants.
an accurate reflection of a wider group not
just the particular people participated in the 3. TRANSFERABILITY -
study.
4. DEPENDABILITY - evidence
that is consistent and stable.
Rigor in Qualitative Research
Credibility VALIDITY
Refers to confidence in the truth of the data • Validity refers to how accurately a method
and interpretations of them. Findings are believable measures what it is intended to measure. If
and convincing. research has high validity, that means it
produces results that correspond to real
Methods of enhancing and evaluating
properties, characteristics, and variations in
credibility:
the physical or social world. High reliability
Prolonged engagement is one indicator that a measurement is valid.

Persistent observation • INTERNAL VALIDITY - the degree to which

changes in the dependent variable (effect)
Triangulation (data, investigator, theory, method) can be attributed to the independent
Peer debriefing variable (cause)

Member checking • EXTERNAL VALIDITY – the degree which

study results can be influenced or affected
Researcher credibility by external factors or populations or
settings.
Transferability
The findings could realistically apply to other
situations that are similar to the one being studied THREATS to validity, reliability and
trustworthiness:
The extent to which findings can be transferred to
other settings or groups (analogous to Threats to internal validity
generalizability)
1. Selection bias – study results are attributed
Potential for transferability enhanced by thick to experimental treatment when in fact the
description results are due to differences among
subjects even before the treatment.
Dependability
Other sources of bias:
– Within reason, the findings seem
similar to those of other studies.  Participants’ lack of candor – wants to
present themselves in the best possible light
– Refers to stability of data over time
and over conditions  Researcher’s subjectivity – the investigator
distort their information to the direction of
Methods of assessing dependability:
the hypothesis
– audit
 Sample imbalances – faulty sampling
Confirmability
 Faulty method of data collection
– The process and product could be audited
 Inadequate study design
by a third party with findings being the
same.  Flawed implementation
– Refers to the objectivity of the data 2. History
—the potential for congruence between two
or more people about data accuracy,  some event besides the
relevance, or meaning experimental treatment takes
place during the course of
Methods of assessing confirmability: the study and affect the
dependent variable.
– Audit trail
3. Maturation –
  Development changes takes
place within the subjects
Dealing with bias
during the experimental
study thus may influence • Bias is an influence that produce a
study results. distortion or error in the study results and
threatens the ability of the study to reveal
4. Testing –
the truth.
 this refers to the influence of the pre-
• It is the job of the researcher to reduce or
test which already projects the post
eliminate bias, establish mechanisms to
test scores.
detect or measure it when it exist and to
5. Instrumentation change – take known biases into account when
interpreting the study findings.
 the existence of a difference
between the pre test and post test • Bias can seldom be avoided totally
scores results caused by change in
• Random bias – the participants
the accuracy of the instrument or the
failed to provide accurate
ratings rather than the result of the
information as a result of extreme
experimental treatment.
fatigue or psychological factors at
6. Mortality – the time of data collection
 when a difference exists between • Systemic bias – consistent bias ex.
the subject dropout rates of either Weighing scale is 2 lbs. Over weight
the experimental group and the than the true weight.
control group

CONTROLLING BIAS
Threats to external validity
1. Research control
1. Hawthorne effect – the obvious change of
1. Physical control
behavior of the participants is because they
are aware that they are being observed.  Gives all subjects equal
Deal with this problem by having a control exposure to the independent
group that is subject to same conditions as variable.
the treatment group then administering a
placebo to the control group.  ELIMINATE confounding or
extraneous variables that
• Blind experiment – the affect the dependent
subject does not know that variable.
he/she is receiving treatment
or placebo 2. Selective Control

2. Experimenter’s effect – the researcher’s  Indirectly manipulate by

behavior influences the behavior of the selecting in or out variables
subjects such as the researcher’s facial that cannot be controlled
expression, gender, clothing, etc. 3. Statistical Control
3. Re-active effect of the pre-test – the  Variables not conducive to
subjects are sensitized to the treatment by physical or selective
taking the pre-test and there after influence manipulation may be
the post test results controlled by statistical
4. Halo effect – the tendency to rate the techniques.
subject high or low because of the 2. Randomness
impression he has on the latter.
  Having certain features of the study 2. Attempt to eliminate the
established by chance rather than by contaminating factors (also called
design or researcher’s preference . confounding or extraneous
Everyone has equal chances of variables) that cloud the relationship
being selected.” between variables.
3. Masking or blinding 3. How to control extraneous variables
 Prevent bias that stem from 1. Hold constant the extraneous
awareness variables
 Masking is concealing information 2. Matching approach –
from participants and research
1. Select participants in
agents such as data collectors.
such a way that they
 The participants does not know have similar
(single blind) characteristics
 The participants as well as data
collectors do not know ( double
DATA COLLECTION
blind)
QUANTITATIVE DATA ANALYSIS
DATA PRESENTATION
• Instrument = is the generic term that
researchers use for a measurement device
(survey, test, questionnaire, etc.). It is the
device .
• Instrumentation is the course of action or
the process of developing, testing, and
using the device
Categories of data collection instruments
 researcher-completed
 subject- completed or researcher-
administered
4. Reflexivity
 Completed by the participant
 Involves reflecting critically on self
and analyzing and taking note on the
personal values that could affect
data collection and interpretation.
 Commonly used in qualitative
studies.

RESEARCH CONTROL
1. Holding constant other influences on
the independent variable so that true
relationship between the
independent and dependent variable
can be understood
Data Gathering Tools can be:
• Researcher-made
• Adopted
• Adapted
• With permission

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD DATA

COLLECTION INSTRUMENT

• Usability
The ease with which an instrument can be
administered, interpreted by the participant, and
scored/interpreted by the researcher.

 Validity
Validity is the extent to which an instrument
measures what it is supposed to measure and
performs as it is designed to perform.
It is rare, if nearly impossible, that an
instrument be 100% valid, so validity is
generally measured in degrees.

 Reliability
Reliability can be thought of as consistency.
• Does the instrument consistently measure
what it is intended to measure?
There are four general estimators of reliability:
• (1) Inter-Rater Reliability: The degree to
which different raters/observers give
consistent answers or estimates;
• (2) Test-Retest Reliability: The consistency
of a measure evaluated over time;
• (3) Parallel-Forms Reliability: The reliability
of two tests constructed the same way, from
the same content; and
• (4) Internal Consistency Reliability: The
consistency of results across items, often
measured with Cronbach’s Alpha.
 Adequacy
Adequacy sufficiency of content for
a particular purpose.
 Appropriateness
 the quality of being suitable or
proper in the circumstances.
 Acceptability
• is the characteristic of a thing being
subject to acceptance for some purpose
Three major methods of data collection:
1. Self-report
advantages
1. It is the most direct way of gathering
information about a subject.
2. There are some behaviors that are
not manifested in public and
instances when the subjects would
not want to be observed.
3. It can be used to gather
retrospective data bout activities and
events of the past or to gather
prospective data about behaviors
the subject will manifest in the
future.
disadvantages
1. There is a question on the validity
and accuracy of self reports
particularly if the questions require
them to reveal unpopular positions
on a controversial behavior or when
they asked to describe themselves.
2. The tool may have some errors like
unclear directions.
2. Observation
Advantages:  There are normal interferences that
create artifacts in physiologic
 Useful when gathering a variety of
measurements
information and including information
on characteristics and conditions INSTRUMENT CONSTRUCTION
of the individual or situations. Stages in instrument construction
 Useful whenever people are unable Stage 1 – operational specification of the attribute
to describe their behavior to be measured.
adequately.
A. What is it that you want to
 When people are unaware of their measure?
behaviors, they are embarrassed to
Stage 2 – purposes to be served by the instrument
report their behavior, when people
are emotionally laden and when they A. Who will use this instrument?
are unable to articulate their (to whom will you administer
behavior like young children and the instrument?)
mental ill patients.
B. What are the characteristics
 You can record the behavior as it of those who will use the
occurs making the data more instrument?
reliable.
 The content, difficulty,
 Disadvantages level, language and
length of the
 There are ethical difficulties ex.
instrument should be
Concealed observation
based on the target
 It can distort the behavior of the clientele’s abilities.
subjects when they are aware that
C. How will be the results be
they are being observed and when
used?
they feel conscious about the
presence of the observer. There Stage 3 – determine the constraints of the
are possibility of observer bias which instrument.
can interfere with objectivity in
observation. A. Time. Should be brief
enough
3. Bio-physiologic Measures
B. Group vs. individual
 Advantages administration
 There is objectivity in the data C. Other constraints
collection process because the data
collected by different persons will • Can be administered
yield similar results . to males only,
females only or both
 The subjects are unlikely to be able
to distort the physiologic data
collected through the equipment.
 disadvantages:
 An equipment is highly technical, it
can be expensive
 The measuring equipment may have
an effect on the subject.

TESTS FOR RELIABILITY AND VALIDITY,
STATISTICAL TOOLS
Reliability: it is the degree of consistency of the
measuring instrument wherein the instrument
yield the same accurate result.
• Ways of establishing reliability
1. Stability
1. Test-retest reliability
2. Internal consistency
1. Split half reliability
2. Cronbach’s alpha
3. Kuder-richardson formula 20
– used for questions
presenting only two choices
or dichotomy.
3. Equivalence
1. Inter-rater reliability
2. Parallel form reliability
Tests for Stability
1. The test-retest reliability method is one of
the simplest ways of testing the stability and
reliability of an instrument over time.
Internal consistency reliability
• Internal consistency reliability is a
measure of reliability used to evaluate the
degree to which different test items that
probe the same construct produce similar
results.
EXAMPLE : CRONBACH’S ALPHA ,
KUDER RICHARDSON FORMULAR
20 0R 21
• Cronbach’s alpha :
• It is generally used as a measure of
internal consistency or reliability of a
psychometric instrument which uses
the Likert Scale.
• The Kuder-Richardson Formula 20 test
checks the internal consistency of
measurements with dichotomous choices.
Test for Equivalence
• Inter-Rater or Inter-Observer Reliability
Used to assess the degree to which
different raters/observers give consistent
estimates of the same phenomenon.
• Parallel-Forms Reliability
In parallel forms reliability you first have to create
two parallel forms. One way to accomplish this is to
create a large set of questions that address the
same construct and then randomly divide the
questions into two sets. You administer both
instruments to the same sample of people. The
correlation between the two parallel forms is the
estimate of reliability.
Validity – It is the degree to which the instrument
measures what it is supposed to measure
Aspects of validity
 • Face validity – refers to whether an
instrument looks as though it is measuring
what its constructors say it is measuring
Face validity
• is the extent to which a test
is subjectively viewed as covering the
concept it purports to measure.
• a test can be said to have face validity if it
"looks like" it is going to measure what it is
supposed to measure.[
Content validity
• refers to the degree to which
the questions in a test are
representative of the
universe of all questions
that might be asked about
the topic of the test. May be
determined by the experts in
the content area and or
ensured by careful planning
and execution of the plan
Test for Validity
• Criterion related validity – refers to the
degree of relationship between what the
instrument tests
• Concurrent validity – used when the
criterion is taken at about the same
time as the instrument
• Determine the degree of
laziness of the respondents
at present.
• Predictive validity – used when the
criterion is taken at some future
time.
• Who will develop the illness
in the future.
• Construct Validity is used to ensure that
the measure tool is actually measuring
what it intended to measure (i.e. the
construct), and not other variables. This is
done by experts.
• Example:
• The histopathology subject teacher
has designed a cumulative
assessment of learning for the
subject. The questions are written
with complicated case studies and
long wordings and phrasing. This
can cause the test inadvertently
becoming a test of reading
comprehension, rather than a test of
knowledge of histopathology. It is
important that the measure is
actually assessing the intended
construct, rather than an extraneous
factor.
Quiz 5:
1. Nurse joy understands that convenience
samples are:
those to which a researcher has the best
access
2. As a wise nurse researcher, you are aware
that probability samples are often considered
superior to non-probability samples because
they:
use randomization that ensures that inferences
between samples and their population is as
accurate as possible
3. Nurse Hazel samples a group of mothers
attending community classes by selecting
every third person on the class list. Which type
of sampling method is this?
Systematic
4. Nurse Paul samples the patients in the ward
by selecting all patients in the ward 1 and
ward 4 in the whole medical floor. This
sampling technique is called?
Cluster
5. Studnet nurse Niza plans to conduct a study
that involves cosmetics. She wanted to know
the preference for cosmetic use among
adolescents, young adults, middle adults, and
late adult women. She asks whomever she
finds available
Accidental
 6. A community health nurse wanted to conduct
a survey on what food the people in the
community eat for breakfast. And, out of every
100 persons, she is going to interview 60
housewives, 25 husbands, and 15 children
under the age of 18. What type of sampling
ttechnique will be applied?
Quota
7. A sample will be selected from A group of
patients undergoing physical rehabilitation.
The sample should be a young adult, with
direct kin who were diagnosed with
osteoporosis, has been undergoing rehab for
at least one month, and is willing to
participate. Those who are excluded are
patients who does not have a relative
diagnosed with osteoporosis. What is this
sampling design?
Purposive or judgemental
8. The population is all 250 employees whom
have an equal chance of being chosen. The
names of 25 employees will be chosen out of
a hat from a company of 250 employees.
What sampling technique will be utilized?
simple random sampling
9. Internal Consistency Reliability which means
the consistency of results across items, is
often measured with Cronbach’s Alpha.
True
10. Validity means that if we repeat the study, we
would get the same results.
False
11. Generalizability means that the results of the
study can be applied to the population in other
settings.
True
12. Reliability in a measurement tool is
synonymous with being able to measure what
the tool is supposed to measure.
False
13. Validity is manifested by having tools and
methods that are able to show consistent
accuracy.
False
14. The respondents did not finish answering the
questionnaire are considered a mortality that
is a threat to validity of the study.
True
15. The weighing scale used for weighing the
subject in a study was replaced by an
electronic weighing scale battery operated in
the is middle of the study. This incidence is
NOT a threat to the validity of the study.
False
Quiz 6:
1. what is the best method of data-gathering to
be used for data that is only not observable
but can be described by the respondent?
Self report
2. what descriptive statistical tool will be used to
determine how many males and females are
there in the population and what percentage of
the whole are the males and females in hte
popualtion?
Percentage and frequency distribution
3. The measures of central tendency specifically
the mean, median and mode all mean
average in layman's terms
True
4. Frequency distribution and percentage are
example of inferential statistical tools used to
test a hypothesis.
False
5. Which of the following characteristics of a
good data collection instrument is manifested
by being suitable to the respondents it is
entended to be used like elderly, children or
person with disability such as the blind?
Appropriateness
6. Content validity is a characteristic of the
research questionnaire that is manifested by:
it contains all the necessary questions about the
topic
7. An example of a subject or respondent-
completed instrument is a survey questionnaire
True
8. Which of the following characteristics of a
good data collection instrument is
manifested by easy administration and
interpretation?
Usability
9. The researchers would like to determine if
there is a relationship between the blood
type of the subjects and the type of personal
disposition that they have whether they are
pessimistic or optimistic.
Chi-square
10. Which of the following inferential statistical
tool will be used to determine if there is a
difference between the level of awareness
on proper nutrition among the mothers of
pre-schoolers before and after watching the
informational video?
T-test
11. Statistical tool to determine if there is a
relationship between the level of parents'
income and the level of academic
performance of nursing students.
pearson product-moment correlation
12. The research instrument is a statistical tool
that is used to analyze data.
False
13. Waht is the best method of data gathering
for describng behaviors that the repsondent
are aware of but not manifested in public?
Self-report
14. A data gathering tool made by another
author and has been used with permission
by a researcher without creating any
changes in the instrument is is referred to
as:
Adopted questionnaire
15. what is the best Method of data gathering
for behaviors the respondent is unaware of.
Observation
16. A data-gathering tool created by another
author was used by a researcher wth
permission to revise some of the items. This
data gathering tool is referred to as:
adapted instrument
17. the best method for gathering vital signs
such as blood pressure, temperature and
respiratory rate.
bio-physiologic measurement
18. The first thing to do in creating a data
gathering instrument is to determine the
characteristics of who will use the
instrument.
False
19. Dichotomous questionnaires require a
respondent to choose from a 4 point or 5
point scale
False
20. An example of a researcher completed
instrument is a checklist.
True
21. Cronbach's Aplha and Kuder Richardson 20
are statistical tests that will determine the
validity of teh research isntrument
False
22. Cronbach's Alpha is a test for internal
consistency reliability for instruments using
the Likert scale .
True
23. statistical tool to describe the average pre-
test and post-test scores of the subjects of
the intervention
meassure of cental tendency -mean and standard
deviation
24. Face Validity is a characteristic of an
instrument that is manifested by being able
to look like it will measure what it intends to
measure.
True
25. Which of the following characteristics of a
good questionnaire is manifested by being
able to constantly measure the variable it
intends to measure.
Reliability