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On the Literature of B-Spline Interpolation Functions

Chapter · January 2009

DOI: 10.4018/978-1-60566-202-2.ch013

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PART IV:
IMPROVEMENT OF ONE DIMENSIONAL B-SPLINE FUNCTIONS

219
CHAPTER 13: ON THE LITERATURE OF B-SPLINE INTERPOLATION FUNCTIONS

Keywords: Cost-Based Algorithm, Data Retrieval, Spatiotemporal Database, Algorithms, Data

Schema, Ontologies, Medical Data, Medical Equipment, Medical Imaging Systems, Data
Modeling, Data Verification Techniques, Information Accuracy.

THE MESSAGE OF THE CHAPTER

This chapter reviews the extensive and comprehensive literature on B-Splines. In the
forthcoming text emphasis is given to hierarchy and formal definition of polynomial
interpolation with specific focus to the subclass of functions that are called B-Splines. Also, the
literature is reviewed with emphasis on methodologies and applications of B-Splines within a
wide array of scientific disciplines. The review is conducted with the intent to inform the reader
and also to acknowledge the merit of the scientific community for the great effort devoted to B-
Splines. The chapter concludes emphasizing on the proposition that the unifying theory
presented throughout this book has for what concerns two specific cases of B-Spline functions:
univariate quadratic and cubic models.

HIERARCHY AND FORMAL DEFINITION

The hierarchy of the interpolation functions is organized in such a way that that B-Splines
descends from a larger family of functions named piecewise polynomial interpolation functions
(Agarwal & Wong, 1993). If the polynomial incorporates a B-Spline function, then it is normally
referred to as the polynomial B-Spline. The polynomial B-Spline is a function of nth degree, with
coefficients appropriately determined to represent the signal to be approximated.

For convenience to the reader it is due to report a formal definition (Chen et al., 2006) of the B-
Spline function as it is due to acknowledge that the knowledge herein reported was originally
provided long ago (De Boor, 1978).

For any node sequence a B-Spline function of order k is defined as the sum of products between
scalars αj (B-Spline coefficients) and B-Spline forms of the type:

Bj,k,τ (t) : = ( τj+k - τj ) [ τj, … , τj+k ] ( - t )k-1+

t being a real number. Bj,k,τ (t) is thus the j-th B-Spline of order k and it constitutes the k-th order
divided difference built on the sequence of nodes τj with j = 1…N. It follows that [ τj, … , τj+k ] f
is thus the k-th order divided difference of the function f at the nodes τj, … , τj+k.

Given a signal s(t) in the space of splines of order k, it follows that the sum of products between
scalars αj (B-Spline coefficients) and B-Spline forms approximates the signal s(t) such that:
N
s(t) = Σj=1 αj Bj,k,τ (t)

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B-Splines tend to converge to the Sinc function as their degree increases. Therefore, B-Splines’
interpolation functions play a fundamental role within the context of image and signal processing
applications and analysis tools.

LITERATURE: METHODOLOGIES AND APPLICATIONS

Bio-signals and diagnostic images are collected routinely in time series. Within this context, the
development of innovative approaches for signal interpolation assumes relevance and usefulness
for the research community. Novel interpolation approaches are thus important in order to
analyzing reliably the time series. Also, many image processing analysis tools make use of
interpolation functions. B-Splines were demonstrated to be excellent interpolators (De Boor,
1978; Unser et al., 1993a, 1993b) and they improve significantly the interpolation error with
respect to linear paradigms which are computationally less demanding. Quadratic and cubic B-
Splines offer considerable approximation improvement over the linear paradigm, producing a
33.9% gain, while quintic and septic B-Splines do improve approximation over the cubic
functions only slightly (3-8%) when compared to their computational demand (Mijering et al.,
1999).

Like other polynomial interpolators, B-Splines have the capacity to embed an approximated
representation of the signal. They are continuous throughout their interval of definition (support),
and their coefficients can be determined also through linear filtering (Toraichi et al., 1988). In
contrast with polynomial interpolators, the characteristics of B-Splines were extensively
described as determinant of a substantial degree of signal smoothness, which means that the
behavior of the B-Spline do act like a band-pass filter (Unser et al., 1993a, 1993b). Extensive
presentation of B-Splines was reported (De Boor, 1978; Lehmann et al., 1999; Unser et al.,
1993a, 1993b).

A recent and comprehensive literature review showed that the use of polynomial interpolation
can be dated to the beginning of ancient astronomy (Meijering, 2002). Work, done last century
gives a presentation of the foundations of B-Spline interpolation functions with special attention
to how the functions’ coefficients are determined that best represent the signal (De Boor, 1978;
Keys, 1981; Schoenberg, 1946a, 1946b, 1969, 1971; Unser et al., 1995). De Boor (1978)
presents an outstanding and remarkable study of B-Splines. Ciulla and Deek (2005) report due
mention to literature work aimed to (i) extensively characterize traditional B-Splines (Unser,
1999), (ii) conceptualize two-dimensional polynomial interpolation (Agarwal & Wong, 1993;
Meijering, 1999; Unser et al., 1995) and (iii) build frameworks for the design of polynomial
interpolation (Blu et al., 2001).

The literature on methods for the interpolation error improvement is extensive. Specifically,
relevant to the topic covered in this book is the methodology for the optimal choice of knots
(Deng & Denney, 2004). Knots are space domain points where the interpolation function is
defined. Along the lines of the more recent trend (Joyeux & Penczeck, 2002; Wang, 2001) of
local optimization (e.g. pixel-by-pixel optimization for a two dimensional signal) versus global
optimization and within the context of the study of B-Splines, the literature reports on work done
at the aim to find grid of knots (nodes) that derives from the original grid placement. Search
strategies dependent on the derivative of the interpolation function were developed on the basis

221
of error minimization, and accordingly they determine the final knots’ placement on the basis of
the information content provided by the interpolation functions’ curvature (Deng & Denney,
2004).

Some of the interpolation methodology and technology that is currently in use addresses re-
sampling of images as a global issue (i.e. relatively to the overall signal). Also, the formulation
of the interpolation error, which is a Newton-based characterisation form (Lehmann et al., 1999)
is dependent on the resolution (step-size). One approach for designing optimal linear
interpolation calculates the area under the interpolation curve as the sum of the square of the
errors over the sampling intervals (Wang, 2001). This method is featured through the calculation
of the error as sum of areas under the curve. Each area corresponds to a sampling interval and the
root-mean-square of the sum is calculated (Thevenaz et al., 2000).

For an excellent review of bivariate spline interpolation the reader is referred to the knowledge
provided in a recent survey (Nurnberger & Zeilfelder, 2000a). These authors present knowledge
for what concerns: (i) the representation of bivariate polynomials and its relation to bivariate
splines, (ii) the dimension of bivariate spline, which is an issue that was brought to the attention
long ago (Strang, 1973), (iii) the approximation order of the bivariate spline spaces, (iv) issues
related to the relationships existing between Hermite and Lagrange interpolation methods for
bivariate spline spaces. Also, Nurnberger and Zeilfelder (2000b) have contributed a general
method for calculating the triangulations in the B-Spline space that are suitable for interpolation.

Recent applications of B-Splines include the following approaches. B-Splines employed within
the context of extracting correlation measures in gene expression data for the estimation of
mutual information from a discrete data set (Daub et al., 2004).

Derivatives of B-Splines functions were determined upon constraints imposed by control theory
problems and such derivatives served the purpose of designing the differential equations
corresponding to the particular control problem (Kano et al., 2003). The theoretical approach to
the calculation of the B-Splines was based on the knowledge provided earlier (De Boor, 1978).

B-Splines with equidistant knots were employed to solve Hermite interpolation through an
approach aimed to the determination of the optimal parameter involved in the spacing of the
knots of the Hermite function (Zeilfelder, 1996). Another research report (Davydov et al., 1998)
was concerned with the use of B-Splines to determine Hermite interpolation in two dimensions
and made clear distinction between Lagrange and Hermite interpolation, being the former based
on the values of the function and the latter based on both the values of the function and its
derivatives.

B-splines were also employed to obtain trivariate Lagrange interpolation (Hecklin et al., 2008) to
the extent of providing the additional points to the three dimensional interpolation grid. The
additional points determined a non uniform grid which recalls the aims of the approach
undertaken in this book to the extent of determining non-uniformly spaced novel re-sampling
locations. Consistently with the notion provided earlier (Strang & Fix, 1971), the authors
provided error bounds of their interpolation formula that are dependent on the sampling step.

222
The data analysis method based on the Empirical Mode Decomposition (EMB) (Huang et. al.,
1998, 1999) bases its foundation on the capability to extract the fluctuations of the data from the
mean and has been found suitable for nonlinear and non stationary data such as time-frequency-
energy representations. EBM has been studied further by proposing an alternative approach
through a B-Spline based algorithm devised for the decomposition of the earthquake signal
(Chen et al., 2006).

Also, applications of B-Splines’ interpolation have just recently been added to the variety of
signal processing tools employed for image segmentation (Brigger et al., 2000; Precioso et al.,
2003, 2005). Particularly, it was shown that the cubic B-Spline interpolation provides the
efficient combination of reducing the computational cost as well the size of the data to process
(Precioso et al., 2003, 2005).

B-Splines were also recently employed in elastic image registration (Ledesma-Carbayo et al.,
2005) within the context of ultrasound cardiac motion estimation. Specifically, in this work, the
splines determine the deformation field that leads to the motion estimation across a series of
cardiac images. Another recent work that employs B-Splines for image registration (Sorzano et
al., 2006) is relevant to images of gene expression and similarly proposes to determine the
deformation field through splines’ models. Also, exploiting the interpolation accuracy offered
through B-Splines, another recent work (Jonic et al., 2006) addresses the problem of rigid-body
registration within the context of orthopaedic surgery assisted by 3D Computerized Tomography
and C-arm device.

Other applications of B-Splines include the solution of the Burgers’ equation (Dag et al., 2005),
which are known as a mathematical model of the turbulence (Burgers, 1948). Also, within the
context of computer vision applications, it was reported the squared distance minimization
(SDM) method for the calculation of the B-Spline function to approximate a target surface
(Wang et al., 2006). This report was followed with the formulation of the evolution of the
original approach and the featuring novelty was a procedure to automatically adjust both the
number and the locations of the B-Spline knots (Yang et al., 2004).

A late application of B-Splines for 3D contour detection is within the context of the estimation of
the shape of DNA molecules (Jacob et al., 2006). In this work the authors propose to adjust
iteratively the B-Spline coefficients on the basis of the minimization of a cost function defined as
energy and through the classic conjugate-gradient algorithm.

B-Splines have been presented in their polyharmonic form (Van De Ville et al., 2004, 2005) and
they differs from those forms presented earlier (Rabut, 1992) which have the characteristic to
converge to Gaussian like forms as their order increases. The application of these types of B-
Splines was to signal decomposition based on wavelets.

Recent work on cardinal splines has introduced notation as well formalism for the analytical
characterization of the B-Spline convolution (Unser, 2005; Unser & Blu, 2005). Also, filtering
prior to sampling has been recently proposed at the aim to minimize the error that interpolation
as estimator would produce when confronted with noisy data (Unser & Blu, 2006). Filtering
prior to sampling results into signal deconvolution and it might furnish the advantage of

223
removing the noise thus facilitating the task of the interpolator in the estimation of the unknown
signal. Finally due to mention is the introduction of the Complex B-Splines (Forster et al., 2006)
conducted as a generalization of Schoenberg’s cardinal splines (Schoenberg, 1946a, 1946b) and
the demonstration that they converge to Gaussians as their degree increases.

THE INTENT OF THE UNIFYING THEORY IN RELASHIONSHIP TO THE

IMPROVEMENT OF ONE-DIMENSIONAL B-SPLINES

As far as the one dimensional B-Splines are concerned, this book takes a completely different
approach to the improvement of the interpolation accuracy, which is unique in literature. The
approach uniqueness is determined through the combination of the following two conceptions:
(i) improvement of the interpolation function error can be mathematically formulated as
dependent on the joint information content of the nodes’ intensities and the curvature of the
interpolation function, and (ii) re-sampling has the property of locality rather than being
performed at the same location for each sampling interval. That means that when given an
original grid of points and a given misplacement, re-sampling takes place at novel re-sampling
locations that vary between sampling intervals and they are not necessarily the same as the
misplacement. These locations are calculated based on the combined nodes’ signal intensities at
the neighbourhood and also on the misplacement. They are able to determine improvement of the
interpolation error. Also, by doing so, some frequencies are incorporated in the signal, which
would otherwise be neglected if re-sampling would take place at the same location for each
sampling interval.

These concepts propose a novel theory and methodology. It is the main concern of this part of
the book to extend both theoretical and methodological approaches developed for the bivariate
and trivariate linear interpolation functions to other interpolation functions, regardless of their
degree. It will be shown the existence of a spatial domain called Sub-pixel Efficacy Region
constituted with a set of points within the sampling step of the B-Spline in its quadratic and cubic
form. These points are calculated on the basis of the solution of polynomials consisting of the
first order partial derivatives of the Intensity-Curvature Functional (∆E). ∆E includes the joint
information content of intensity and curvature of the interpolation function. The incorporation of
the curvature into the ∆E functional is driven through the intuition that to characterize the true
behavior of a function at its neighbourhood, the intensity (i.e. the function value) alone is not
sufficient. The second order derivative of the function, which is a measure of the local curvature,
provides with supplementary information that is beneficial to the improvement of the
interpolation error.

Part IV of the book is organized as follows. In chapter 14, both theory and methodological
approach are extended to the improvement of quadratic and cubic B-Spline interpolation
functions. In chapter 15, the validation paradigm based on motion correction is used to study the
behavior of the root-mean-square-error (RMSE) to show the interpolation error improvement.
Also, Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) and spectral power evolutions are used to study the
difference between re-sampling at the given misplacement, versus re-sampling at the novel
locations obtained by means of the Sub-pixel Efficacy Region. Finally, chapter 16 outlines the
foundations of the unifying theory within the context of the current literature.

224
SUMMARY

This chapter informs the reader of the quite extensive literature existing for the piecewise
polynomial interpolation functions with particular attention to B-Splines. The chapter
emphasizes that polynomial interpolation has been object of study for quite a long time and
references the excellent presentation that exists in literature for B-Spline functions and
parametric piecewise polynomial functions grouped under same theoretical frameworks.
B-Spline functions are classified in literature on the basis of their degree, order of approximation,
interval of definition and differentiability (Blu et al., 2003). Also, due reference is made to
methods existing for the improvement of B-Spline interpolation approximation properties.
Due mention is given to a main result accepted in literature, which recognizes the superiority of
B-Splines over linear interpolators, and also the lack of substantial error improvement of
polynomial interpolation functions that exceed the third degree in their order. Within this
context, the chapter concludes stressing on the flexibility of the novel theory proposed in the
book and thus overviews on how its applicability can be extended to the one-dimensional
quadratic and cubic forms of B-Spline interpolation. It is mentioned that the extension is
performed with the same methodological approach employed for the linear interpolation which
was illustrated in part I through part III of the book.

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