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Late Turonian (Cretaceous) climate cooling in

Europe: faunal response and possible causes
Phase de refroidissement au Turonien
supérieur (Crétacé) en Europe : réaction de la
faune...

ARTICLE in GEOBIOS · JANUARY 2002

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Frank Wiese Silke Voigt

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 Geobios 35 (2002) 65–77
www.elsevier.com/locate/geobios

Late Turonian (Cretaceous) climate cooling in Europe: faunal response

and possible causes
Phase de refroidissement au Turonien supérieur (Crétacé) en Europe :
réaction de la faune et causes possibles
Frank Wiese a,*, Silke Voigt b
a
Paläontologisches Institut, FU Berlin, Malteser Strasse 74-100/Haus D, 12249 Berlin, Germany
b
Geologisches Institut, Universität zu Köln, Zülpicher Strasse 49a, 50674 Cologne, Germany
Received 12 November 2000; accepted 31 May 2001

Abstract

Isochronous variations of δ18O curves within several European basins indicate a period of Late Turonian climate cooling, which is
characterized by two distinct cooling phases, separated by a period of climate stability. Literature data for macrofauna (ammonites,
echinoids, and belemnites) indicate that the cooling phases are associated with a southward shift of taxa. Concomitant Late Turonian events
(volcanism and relative sea-level changes) suggest the migration to be triggered mainly by relative sea-level falls. The inferred cooling
phases are seen in context with a general cooling trend due to the decrease in Mid-Cretaceous volcanogenic CO2 emission. Short-term
stagnation of cooling in the Late Turonian has been probably triggered by renewed volcanism. Due to the general high temperatures during
Mid-Cretaceous times, a glacio-eustatic explanation for the coincidence of cooling and sea-level fall is considered unlikely. © 2002
Éditions scientifiques et médicales Elsevier SAS. All rights reserved.

Résumé

Des courbes isochrones de δ18O provenant de plusieurs bassins crayeux indiquent une phase de refroidissement au Turonien supérieur.
Celle-ci se compose de deux phases séparées par une période de stabilité climatique. Sur la base de données issues de la littérature, il est
possible de mettre en évidence une migration d’éléments de faune du nord vers le sud (ammonites, échinides irréguliers, bélemnites). Une
discussion des données empiétant sur d’autres domaines en rapport avec d’autre facteurs (variation eustatiques, volcanisme) permet de
supposer que le refroidissement reflète en fait la tendance normale à cause de la diminution des émissions volcanogénes de CO2. Un
nouveau volcanisme avec émissions de CO2 au Turonien supérieur interrompt le refroidissement pendant peu de temps. © 2002 Éditions
scientifiques et médicales Elsevier SAS. Tous droits réservés.

Keywords: Oxygen isotopes; Climate cooling; Faunal response; Volcanism; Late Turonian (Upper Cretaceous)

Mots clés: Isotopes; Oxygène; Refroidissement climatique; Réponse faunique; Volcanisme; Turonien terminal (Crétacé supérieur)

1. Introduction Atlantic Ocean) indicate a Late Turonian climate cooling

Relative trends of oxygen isotope records from several
European and ODP sites (Indian, Pacific and the South
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: frwiese@snafu.de (F. Wiese).
© 2002 Éditions scientifiques et médicales Elsevier SAS. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 0 1 6 - 6 9 9 5 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 0 1 0 - 4
(Huber et al., 1995; Jenkyns et al., 1995; Clarke and
Jenkyns, 1999; Voigt and Wiese, 2000; Stoll and Schrag,
2000). All the above-mentioned δ18O records are based on
bulk rock data, which are altered by burial diagenesis. The
synchroneity of their relative variations, however, indicates
a preserved palaeoenvironmental signal (Jenkyns et al.,
1994; Schrag et al., 1995; Clarke and Jenkyns, 1999; Voigt
66 F. Wiese, S. Voigt / Geobios 35 (2002) 65–77
and Wiese, 2000). Using a high-resolution integrated strati-
graphic framework, Voigt and Wiese (2000) proved two
short, isochronous δ18O increases (Phases I and III) with a
duration of ∼ 400 kyr in Middle to Upper Turonian succes-
sions of three European Cretaceous basins. They proposed a
reorganization of the ocean circulation patterns as a possible
cause for this cooling. New δ18O data from diagenetically
unaltered articulate brachiopod shells indicate a decrease of
seawater temperature of about 2 °C for Phase III (Voigt,
2000). Stoll and Schrag (2000) suggested a glacio-eustatic
mechanism for the cooling because of the correlation be-
tween sea-level lowstand and the relative δ18O increase in
Upper Turonian to Coniacian sediments of Italy and
southern Spain. Concomitant to the δ18O increases, palaeo-
biogeographic changes (ammonites, echinoids, and to some
extent, belemnites and inoceramids) and periods of general
shallowing (Voigt and Wiese, 2000) can be recognized. The
Fig. 1. Approximate geographic position of localities/geologic units fre-
quently mentioned in the text. (1) Anglo-Paris Basin; (2) Westphalia,
Germany; (3) Lower Saxony, Germany; (4) Bohemian/Saxonian Creta-
ceous, Czech Republic and SE Germany; (5) Waschberg-Ždánice Unit,
Austria; (6) Gosau area, northern Calcareous Alps of Austria; (7) Bran-
denberg, northern Calcareous Alps of Austria; (8) Gubbio, Italy; (9)
Kaalat–Senan, Tunisia; (10) Santa Ines, S Spain; (11) North Cantabrian
Basin, N Spain; (12) Basco Cantabrian Basin, N Spain; (13) Uchaux area,
S France; (14) Touraine, France. Note: numbering also valid for the
simplified palaeogeographic map of Fig. 4.
Position géographique approximative des localités/unités géologiques fré-
quemment mentionnées dans le texte. (1) Bassin d’anglo-parisien; (2)
Westphalie, Allemagne; (3) Saxe inférieure, Allemagne; (4) Crétacé de
Bohème/Saxe, République Tchèque et sud-est de l’Allemagne; (5) Unité de
Waschberg-Zdanice, Autriche; (6) Région de Gosau, Alpes calcaires au
nord de l’Autriche; (7) Brandenberg, Alpes calcaires au nord de l’Autriche;
(8) Gubbio, Italie; (9) Kaalat-Senan, Tunisie; (10) Santa Ines, sud de
l’Espagne; (11) Bassin au nord du Cantabrien, nord de l’Espagne; (12)
Bassin au nord du Cantabrien, nord de l’Espagne; (13) Région d’Uchaux,
sud de la France; (14) Touraine, France (note: numérotation valide pour la
carte paléogéographique Fig. 4).
scope of this paper is to present a calibration of the bulk-
rock δ18O records in context with the data on Middle/Late
Turonian palaeobiogeographic changes in selected sections
of the Temperate Realm and the Tethys in Europe and
northern Africa. In addition, a discussion of possible causes
for the Late Turonian climate cooling, and their relation to
sea-level changes, and carbon, oxygen and strontium iso-
tope variations will be given. This contribution represents a
review of the present knowledge and the state of discussion.
2. Correlation and timing of δ18O variations
Several δ18O records for western, central and southern
Europe represent a north–south transect from the epiconti-
nental, temperate Chalk seas of Lower Saxony (Voigt and
Hilbrecht, 1997) and southern England (Jenkyns et al.,
1994) over a mixed siliciclastic/calcareous shelf of northern
Spain (Wiese, 1999) to pelagic, deep water environments of
the Betic Cordillera (Stoll and Schrag, 2000) and the
Gubbio area (Jenkyns et al., 1994; Stoll and Schrag, 2000)
(Fig. 1). For reliable intra-basinal correlations between NW
Europe and N Spain, integrated stratigraphic methods were
applied by Voigt and Wiese (2000), using biostratigraphy
(ammonites, inoceramids), event and tephrostratigraphy
(Gale, 1996; Wray et al., 1996; Ernst and Wood, 1997;
Wiese, 1997; Wood and Ernst, 1997; Wray, 1999). These
were calibrated by a δ13C stratigraphy (Jenkyns et al., 1994;
Voigt and Hilbrecht, 1997; Wiese 1999; Fig. 2). These
Fig. 2. Carbon isotope correlation of δ13C records from Contessa and Santa
Ines (Stoll and Schrag 2000), with the Cenomanian–Turonian composite
δ13C curve (Voigt, 2000) Dotted lines are tie points for correlation.
Question marks indicate uncertainties in correlation in the higher Middle
Turonian of Santa Ines.
Corrélation des données de δ13C avec la courbe δ13C composées de
Contessa et Santa Ines (Stoll et Schrag, 2000), du Cénomanien au Turonien
(Voigt 2000). Les lignes en pointillés sont des points de jonction pour la
corrélation. Les points d’interrogation indiquent des incertitudes de corré-
lation dans la partie supérieure du Turonien moyen de Santa Ines.
 F. Wiese, S. Voigt / Geobios 35 (2002) 65–77 67

Fig. 3. Bulk-rock oxygen isotope curves of temperate (Söhlde, Salder: Voigt and Hilbrecht, 1997, Kent: Jenkyns et al., 1994) transitional (Liencres: Wiese,
1999) and Tethyan (Contessa, Santa Ines: Stoll and Schrag, 2000) sections. Two synchronous phases of relative increases in oxygen isotope values, each of
them lasting ∼ 400 kyrs, indicate periods of climate cooling (Phases I and III of Voigt and Wiese 2000).
Courbes d’isotope de l’oxygène de la roche totale pour les coupes tempérées (Söhlde, Salder: Voigt et Hilbrecht, 1997 Kent: Jenkyns et al., 1994)
transitionnelles (Liencres: Wiese, 1999)et téthysiennes (Contessa, Santa Ines: Stoll et Schrag, 2000). Deux phases synchrones de l’isotope relatif de l’oxygène
augmentant, chacune d’elles durant 400 kyrs, indiquent des périodes de refroidissement du climat (phases I and III de Voigt et Wiese, 2000).

techniques provide, when combined, isochronous datum

lines at a resolution unattainable with conventional bios-
tratigraphy alone. Problems only exists with the biostrati-
graphic control of stable isotope records from Italy and
Spain published by Stoll and Schrag (2000). The authors
plotted their detailed oxygen and carbon isotope data
against the sea-level curve of Haq et al. (1987). However,
uncertainties in correlating planktic foraminifera, and the
usage of an older time scale made a precise calibration of
their detailed stable isotope records with the integrated
Cenomanian/Turonian stratigraphic framework applied
here, difficult.
Changes of relative sea-level and differential subsidence
in European shelf-sea basins caused strong variations of
accumulation rates, and, in the Turonian, several hiatuses
occur at different levels in the succession (e.g. Gale, 1996;
Voigt and Hilbrecht, 1997). Based on δ13C correlations,
hiatuses can easily be detected, and their temporal duration
can be estimated by comparison with more complete sec-
tions. Thus, a composite δ13C record was generated from
the most complete sections and was calibrated against the
Gradstein et al. (1995) time scale (Voigt, 2000). Based on
40
Ar/39Ar bentonite ages from the western interior basin
(Obradovich, 1993) and a correlation of ammonite zones Fig. 4. Simplified palaeogeographic overview (northern Africa and Eu-
between North America and Europe (Hancock et al., 1993), rope), with inferred boundary areas of biogeographic units; map based on
Voigt (1996) (numbering as in Fig. 1).
a time frame for the relative δ13C variations was provided. Vue paléogéographique générale simplifiée (Nord de l’Afrique et de
This composite δ13C curve is used here to incorporate the l’Europe), avec les unités biogéographiques limitantes; carte basée sur
δ13C stratigraphy of the Contessa and Santa Ines sections Voigt (1996) (numérotation Fig. 1).
68 F. Wiese, S. Voigt / Geobios 35 (2002) 65–77
(Stoll and Schrag, 2000) into the integrated biostratigraphic
Cenomanian–Turonian framework (Fig. 2) and to replot the
corresponding δ18O data against the Gradstein et al. (1995)
time scale (Fig. 3). The Middle Turonian part of the Santa
Ines δ13C curve is somewhat insignificant, which prevents
detailed intra-basinal correlation with other curves at least
in this interval. However, correlation of the δ18O stratigra-
phies shows also the late Middle and Late Turonian δ18O
increase (Phase I and III; Voigt and Wiese, 2000) and,
consequently, true isochronous cooling phases. Each phase
lasted about 400 kyr, separated by an approximately 500 kyr
period (Phase II) of more stable climate (Fig. 3).
Phase I (91.0–90.6 Ma) is characterized by a significant
positive 0.5‰ δ13C excursion. Biostratigraphically, it falls
into the upper Collignoniceras woollgari ammonite Zone of
the Temperate Realm and into the Tethyan Romaniceras
deverianum ammonite Zone (Fig. 2), above the last occur-
rence (LO) of the planktic foraminifera Helvetoglobotrun-
cana helvetica.
Phase III (90.1–89.7 Ma) falls into the middle Subpri-
onocyclus neptuni Zone (Fig. 2). In its upper part, it
corresponds to the Hitch wood Hardground of the English
Chalk Rock (Bromley and Gale, 1982; Gale, 1996), a time
equivalent of the German (Dahmer and Ernst, 1986) Hy-
phantoceras Event. It terminates below the base of the
Mytiloides scupini inoceramid Zone (upper Upper Turo-
nian). Comparable bio-events that serve long-range event
stratigraphic correlation are not known from the deeper
pelagic Tethyan sections in Italy and Spain. Phase III falls
into the Marginotruncana sigali/coronata planktic foramin-
ifera Zone and corresponds to a 1.0‰ δ13C increase. The
three phases of Turonian δ18O variations are independent of
facies, sedimentary thickness and degree of diagenesis.
Their synchroneity in all sections excludes diagenesis as a
cause for these temporal variations (Stoll and Schrag, 2000;
Voigt and Wiese, 2000).
3. Palaeobiogeographic data (Europe and northern
Africa)
During the Middle and Late Turonian, Europe and N
Africa were characterized by well developed, latitudinal
biogeographic units (Klinger and Wiedmann, 1983; Matsu-
moto, 1973; Fig. 4). The NW-European localities (Anglo-
Paris Basin: Kent; Lower Saxony Cretaceous Basin: Salz-
gitter–Salder and Söhlde), located at an approximate
palaeolatitude of around 43°N, belonged to the North
European Subprovince of the Boreal Realm (sensu Kauff-
man, 1973). This area is in large parts synonymous with the
Central European Subprovince of Christensen (1976). To-
wards the south, it graded into the Northern Transitional
Subprovince (NTS; Ernst et al., 1996), an intermediate area
between the Tethys and the Boreal Realm (North Cantabrian
Basin: Liencres section) with an approximate palaeolatitude
between 30° and 35°. The excellent δ13C correlation be-
tween these areas permits good dating of the δ18O fluctua-
tions and the faunal changes. If the interpretation of δ18O
fluctuations as cooling events were correct, the variations of
palaeotemperature may also have an effect on the compo-
sition of the marine faunal assemblages, and thus, the
biogeographic character of the areas in question (Wiese,
1999; Voigt and Wiese, 2000).
This paper is an attempt to summarize the distribution
pattern of ammonites, and to some extent, irregular echi-
noids, belemnites and inoceramids during the interval in
question, and it is based on a compilation of data available
from the literature. Only stratigraphically well-labelled
records were considered. Although not yet statistically
analysed, as done, for example, by Smith (1992) for
Cenomanian echinoids, the trends shown here affected wide
areas and produced comparable patterns. Thus, true biogeo-
graphic implications are inferred.
4. Phase I (Middle/Upper Turonian boundary interval)
to Phase II (Lower Middle Turonian)
4.1. Ammonites
To visualize fading southern influence in the north and
vice versa in Europe and northern Africa, the northernmost
limits of the Tethyan/intermediate Romaniceras and the
southernmost occurrence of collignoniceratids may be used
(Fig. 5). In the North European Subprovince, the faunal
successions pre-dating Phase I (Middle Turonian C. wooll-
gari Zone or R. ornatissimum Zone, respectively) are
mainly characterized by a collignoniceratid fauna (e.g.
C. woollgari, C. carolinum) with Lewesiceras, scaphitids,
anisoceratids and baculitids (England: Wright and Kennedy,
1981; France: Roman and Mazaran, 1913, Devalque et al.,
1982, Kennedy et al., 1980a, Robaszynski et al., 1982;
Germany: Petrascheck, 1902, Seiffert, 1955, Kaplan, 1988;
Poland: Tarkowski, 1991; Czech Republic: Laube and
Bruder, 1887; Bulgaria: Minev, 1994). From the middle
Middle Turonian of the northern Calcareous Alps, Austria, a
collignoniceratid/baculitid fauna has been recorded (Sum-
mesberger, 1992). In northern Spain (NTS), the fauna is
characterized by a Romaniceras/desmoceratacean assem-
blage with Tetragonites, Gaudryceras and Phylloceras
(Lamolda et al., 1989; Santamaría Zabala, 1992, 1995;
Wiese, 1997; Küchler, 1998). Anisoceratids, baculitids and
collignoniceratids are insignificant, and the very rare occur-
rences of the Boreal Middle Turonian index ammonite
C. woollgari are mostly restricted to the upper Mid-
Turonian ornatissimum ammonite Zone. One doubtful
record of C. woollgari has been recorded from Tunisia
within an otherwise monospecific assemblage of Coilopo-
ceras (Robaszynski et al., 1990). On the other hand, R. or-
natissiumum is known from northern Africa up to the
Anglo-Paris Basin. It occurs particularly abundantly in
northern Spain, and, in decreasing quantities from the
 F. Wiese, S. Voigt / Geobios 35 (2002) 65–77
Fig. 5. Pre-Phase 1: southern limits of collignoniceratid faunas and
northern limits of the Romaniceras ornatissimum distribution (Middle
Turonian ornatissimum ammonite Zone).
Pré-phase 1: limites sud des faunes de collignoniceratidés et limites nord de
la distribution de Romaniceras ornatissimum (Turonien moyen zone de
l’ammonite ornatissimum).
Touraine (France) via the French part of the Anglo-Paris
Basin to southern England, indicating likewise a decreasing
southern influence (Kennedy et al., 1980b; Wright and
Kennedy, 1981). Rare records are known from the southern
rim of the Münsterland Basin (Kaplan, pers. Comm.) and
the Bohemian Cretaceous Basin (Fritsch and Schlönbach,
1872). Towards the south-east, its distribution extends to
Bulgaria (Pavlishina and Minev, 1998).
With terminal Phase I/Phase II, slight faunal modifica-
tions occurred (Fig. 6). In Tunisia, the fauna is dominated
by the Tethyan/intermediate Romaniceras deverianum and
Coilopoceras requienianum. The scattered occurrence of the
Western Interior ammonite Prionocyclus indicates immigra-
tion from the latter region (Robaszynski et al., 1990). From
the northern Calcareous Alps (Austria), palaeogeographi-
cally located much more southward than its position today
(Sanders et al., 1997, p. 353, Fig. 2), R. deverianum and
C. requienianum are recorded (Herm et al., 1979; Summes-
berger and Kennedy, 1996), but no biogeographic state-
ments are possible due to the general scarcity of ammonites.
In northern Spain, a southward shift of a Collignoniceras
fauna is indicated by the occurrence of Subprionocyclus
(Santamaría Zabala, 1995; Küchler, 1998), which co-occurs
with R. deverianum and C. requienianum. In addition,
scaphitids that, at least in the Turonian, show a latitudinally
bound distribution pattern, become more frequent. The
overall faunal character, however, is that of a mixed
Boreal/intermediate assemblage. This is also true for SE
France (Uchaux massif; Figs 1 and 6), where the
Tethyan/intermediate taxa (R. deverianum, C. requien-
69
Fig. 6. Terminal Phase I/Phase II: southern limits of the Subprionocyclus
distribution and northern limits of Romaniceras and Coilopoceras (early
neptuni ammonite Zone).
Phase terminale I/ Phase II: limites sud de la distribution de Subprionocy-
clus, et limites nord de Romaniceras et Coilopoceras (partie inférieure de
la zone de l’ammonite neptuni).
ianum, Tongoboryceras rhodanicum, Pachydesmoceras lin-
deri) occur together with the Boreal Lewesiceras mantelli
(plus associated Scaphites geinitzii, Gaudryceras cf. mite
and Puzosia curvatisulcata), suggesting likewise a mixed
assemblage. R. deverianum occurs in decreasing quantities
towards the north. It is known from the Anglo-Paris Basin
and the marginal glauconitic facies near the Rhenish and
Bohemian massifs (Dacque, 1939; Lommerzheim, 1976;
Wright and Kennedy, 1981). Coilopoceras is recorded as far
north as the Münsterland Basin (Lommerzheim, 1976). It is
important to realize that terminal Phase I/Phase II—above
interpreted as a cooling event—reflects a bimodal faunal
migration of boreal taxa to the south and warmer water
forms to the north.
4.2. Irregular echinoids
Other than for the Cenomanian (Smith, 1992), no de-
tailed palaeobiogeographic data or comprehensive faunal
lists on Turonian echinoids have been published. However,
some general statements appear possible. A differentiation
into a late Mid-/early Late Turonian northern (northern
Germany, eastern England) and an intermediate (northern
Spain) echinoid fauna is possible. In the first area, taxa such
as Discoidea, Cardiaster truncatus, Conulus subrotundus,
Micraster ex gr. leskei, Sternotaxis plana, Infulaster excen-
tricus, Echinocorys gravesi and Cardiaster cotteauanus are
not uncommon (Ernst, 1970, 1972; Ernst et al., 1996). Of
these, the last five taxa are unknown from the NTS, where
Epiaster michelini, Hemiaster (Bolbaster) gauthieri and
70 F. Wiese, S. Voigt / Geobios 35 (2002) 65–77
Cardiaster cretacea are the most important taxa (Wiese,
1997). With terminal Phase I/early Phase II, however, the
northern M. leskei, C. cotteauanus and S. plana enter the
stratigraphic record in northern Spain and occur together
with Hemiaster (Bolbaster) gauthieri. As for the ammo-
nites, the echinoids indicate an intermediate assemblage.
4.3. Belemnites
No belemnites have been recorded from this interval in
Europe. They are generally rare in the European lower
Upper Cretaceous, where they are restricted to distinct
intervals. Specifically short incursions during the Cenoma-
nian, e.g., the primus Event with Actinocamax primus and
A. boweri (Ernst et al., 1983; Christensen, 1992) and the
short-term incursion of Praeactinocamax plenus in the
Upper Cenomanian (plenus Zone in the Anglo-Paris Basin,
Jefferies, 1963; plenus Event of Germany, Ernst et al., 1983)
are interpreted as short-term migration events due to sudden
cooling (Ernst et al., 1996). Christensen (1997) suggested
that the progressive climate warming and the concomitant
warming of the oceans during the terminal Cenomanian and
the Lower/Middle Turonian forced the belemnites to retreat
to the Russian platform.
5. Phase III (Middle Upper Turonian)
5.1. Ammonites
Phase III is characterized by the spread of the Hyphan-
toceras reussianum ammonite fauna over wide parts of the
North European Subprovince. This so-called reussianum
fauna occurs in England, parts of France, Germany, the
Czech Republic, Poland and, to some extent, in Kazakhstan
(e.g. Roman and Mazaran, 1913; Seifert, 1955; Tröger and
Wolf, 1960; Kaplan, 1986; Wright, 1979; Tarkowski, 1991;
Metzdorf, 1992; Juignet and Breton, 1994; Marcinowski
et al., 1996). Integral components of the fauna are hetero-
morph ammonite taxa such as Bostrychoceras, Hyphanto-
ceras, Allocrioceras, Scaphites, and Sciponoceras and ‘nor-
mally’ coiled forms such as collignoniceratids and
Lewesiceras. Areas previously influenced by southern fau-
nas became now part of the North European Subprovince,
such as SE France (Uchaux area), where the reussianum
fauna with all its components occurs (Roman and Mazaran,
1913; Devalque et al., 1982). In Saxony (North European
Subprovince), the cooling is macrofaunistically indistinct.
However, the unique occurrence of limestones (Strehlen and
Weinböhla limestones; Seifert, 1955) within the otherwise
siliciclastic-dominated facies near the Bohemian Massif
(Tröger, 1987; Tröger and Voigt, 1995) may be interpreted
as a southward shift of the temperate (Pläner-) limestone
facies, restricted otherwise to Westphalia, Lower Saxony
and Saxony–Anhalt (NW Germany). Micropalaeontologi-
cally, this is an expression of a short-termed southward
Fig. 7. Phase III/post-Phase III: extension of Prionocyclus distribution,
southern limits of Subprionocyclus and Hyphantoceras. Inferred belemnite
incursion is indicated by arrows (late neptuni/early germari ammonite
Zones).
Phase III/ post Phase III: extension de la distribution de Prionocyclus,
limites sud de Subprionocyclus et d’Hyphantoceras. L’incursion déduite
des bélemnites est indiquée par des flèches (partie supérieure de la zone
d‘ammonite neptuni (partie inférieure de la zone d’ammonite germari).
spread of abundant calcareous nannofossils and calci-
spheres.
Towards northern Spain, the influence of the reussianum
Fauna ceases, and only some elements (scaphitids, colli-
gnoniceratids, Hyphantoceras; Santamaría Zabala, 1992;
Wiese, 1997; Küchler, 1998) occur (Fig. 7). However,
incursion of northern waters is not only documented by the
occurrence of certain taxa, but also by the significant
reduction of previously frequent groups (e.g., desmocerata-
ceans, puzosiids, Tetragonites; Ernst et al., 1996; Küchler,
1998). Hyphantoceras reussianum and Eubostrychoceras
saxonicum reached even northern Africa (Algeria: Pervin-
quière, 1910; Fig. 7). From Tunisia, (Kaalat–Senan), the
collignoniceratids Prionocyclus and Subprionocyclus are
specifically common and are associated with rare Hemitis-
sotia (Robaszynski et al., 1990, 2000). Although interpreted
as terminal Turonian in age by the latter authors, the
assemblage can be shown—based on a newly established
δ13C curve (Wiese, unpublished data)—to equate with
Phase III. After a peak occurrence of Prionocyclus
(Robaszynski et al., 1990) above Phase III, the Boreal
influence due to the short-term cooling event faded in
Tunisia, indicated by the establishment of a monospecific
assemblage of Barroisiceras tunetanum (Robaszynski et al.,
2000).
From Lower Austria (Waschberg–Ždánice Unit; Sum-
mesberger et al., 1999; Fig. 1), a small collignoniceratid
ammonite fauna (Subprionocyclus), associated with phyllo
 F. Wiese, S. Voigt / Geobios 35 (2002) 65–77
ceratids, desmoceratids and puzosiids, is recorded. Palaeo-
geographically located south of the Bohemian Massif, the
presence of the collignoniceratids indicate at least some
boreal influence in the latter area during the interval. Minor
northern influence is detectable in the northern Calcareous
Alps (Gosau Group; Figs 1 and 7), where Hyphantoceras
reussianum co-occurs with baculitids in an interval, equa-
ting stratigraphically with the top of Phase III or slightly
above (Summesberger and Kennedy, 1996). Although col-
lignoniceratids are present in the form of Barroisiceras
habnerfellneri, this taxon is almost exclusively restricted to
the northern Calcareous Alps. It should better be interpreted
to indicate endemic development. Rather, the absence of
additional northern taxa points at indistinct southward
incursion into the latter area. The biogeographic relation of
an endemic collignoniceratid fauna in Croatia (Dugi–Otok,
Davey et al., 1992; Fig. 7) remains unclear.
5.2. Irregular echinoids
In the North Cantabrian Basin, sediments representing
Phase III are turbidites of a lowstand fan, and echinoid body
fossils are rare. With the onset of autochthonous sedimen-
tation at the top of Phase III (Wiese, 1997), an echinoid
fauna with a northern character occurs. Specifically the
stratigraphic succession of the genus Micraster (small
M. Leskei–large M. Leskei–advanced Micraster ex gr.
praecursor/normanniae) is identical to that of the Anglo-
Paris Basin (Fouray, 1981; Stokes, 1973; Mortimore, 1986),
and the general evolutionary trend from early to advanced
Micraster is also recognizable in the Basco-Cantabrian
Basin and northern Germany (Ernst, 1970, 1972; Küchler,
1998). In addition, the evolutionary development of Sterno-
taxis plana in the North Cantabrian Basin is identical to that
in northern Germany: in the uppermost Phase III, S. plana
shows a typical size increase and a shift towards forms of ex
gr. S. placenta. The lineages of both Micraster and Sterno-
taxis show an isochronous, uniform evolution during Phase
III in northern Germany, England/France and northern
Spain. True Boreal echinoids such as Infulaster, common in
northern Germany and England, have not yet been observed
in northern Spain. With Phase III, hemiasterid echinoids
ceased to be an integral part of the echinoid assemblage of
the North Cantabrian Basin. On the other hand, some
species of Hemiaster play an important role in the echinoid
assemblages of the Castillian Ramp during Phase III
(Néraudeau, 1990; Néraudeau and Floquet, 1991), sugges-
ting general warmer settings in the latter area.
5.3. Belemnites
A short belemnite incursion into the Central European
Province occurs at an interval representing the upper part of
Phase III. Only a handful of specimens, belonging to the
Belemnitellidae (Praeactinocamax bohemicus), have been
recorded from Saxony (Germany) and Bohemia (Czech
71
Republic), in the vicinity of the Bohemian Massif (Chris-
tensen, 1982; Košták, 1996). From the middle Upper
Turonian Strehlen Limestone (Saxony) two complete speci-
mens are described, and from the slightly younger (Upper
Turonian/Lower Coniacian) Teplice Formation (Bohemia),
one complete specimen and four fragments are known. One
presumed Upper Turonian specimen of P. bohemicus has
been recorded from Särdal in Sweden, in the vicinity of
Fennoscandia (Bergström et al., 1973). The immigration of
belemnites into the Central European Province happened
presumably from the Central Russian Subprovince, where
belemnitellids persisted during the Turonian in the Volga
Region (Naidin, 1981). The taxonomic relation, however,
between the Russian and European occurrences remain still
unclear (Christensen, 1997). Based on the few specimens,
the European occurrences may be interpreted as a first
re-immigration into the Central European province in con-
text with the cooling pulse of Phase III. Of particular
interest is the facies dependency of the European belemni-
tellids. Praeactinocamax obviously preferred shallower
habitats in the vicinity of emerged areas such as the
Bohemian Massif (Christensen, 1976). Thus, the brief
immigration pulse may be seen in the light of climatic
cooling (as indicated by the δ18O excursion), as well as in
context with a sea-level fall during the terminal Phase III.
The immigration pulse is terminated by the succeeding
transgression, and a new immigration (Goniocamax
lundgreni: island of Bornholm and Bohemia; Košták, 1996;
Christensen, 1997; Christensen and Schulz, 1997) occurred
during the early Coniacian regression (Haq et al., 1988).
5.4. Others
In the North Cantabrian Basin, inoceramids were scarce
in the lower Upper Turonian, and are represented by
endemic (?) taxa, which resisted specific interpretation
(K.-A. Tröger, pers. comm.). At the end of Phase III,
inoceramids became more common and are represented by
Mytiloides incertus and Mytiloides scupini, which occur
both in northern Germany and northern Spain, indicating
comparable assemblages. In the Austrian Gosau, the Late
Turonian and early Coniacian inoceramid assemblages also
show northern affinities, thus indicating clear north–south
faunal exchange (Voigt, 1996; Tröger and Summesberger,
1994; Herm et al., 1979).
6. Sea-level development
Sequence stratigraphic comparison at a high stratigraphic
level is hampered by scarce literature data. The ‘global’
sea-level curves (e.g., Haq et al., 1988; Hardenbol et al.,
1998) as a possible standard is of limited value due to its
lack of accuracy in the interval considered. The data
collected from the literature are of regional significance;
72 F. Wiese, S. Voigt / Geobios 35 (2002) 65–77
however, due to the stratigraphic resolution, they can be put
into an interbasinal context for the areas considered.
Early Phase I coincides with progressive shallowing and
coincides approximately with a terminal Mid-Turonian
sequence boundary. It is recorded from northern and south-
eastern Germany (Tröger and Voigt, 1995; Ernst and Wood,
1995), England (Gale, 1996), parts of France (Juignet and
Breton, 1994) and northern Spain (Gräfe, 1999; Wiese and
Wilmsen, 1999). It is also recorded by Haq et al. (1988),
where it is marked as a major, short-term regressive pulse.
At the top of Phase II, there is a short-term regressive
pulse in northern Germany, indicated by a well developed
thickening-upward sequence, which terminates in a marker
fossil bed (costellatus/plana Event; Ernst et al., 1983). Its
top marks a turnover towards renewed transgression. Based
on δ13C correlation (Voigt and Hilbrecht, 1997), this bed
correlates with the Caburn Sponge Bed of England, which
is, based on its lithology (nodular chalk, sponge accumula-
tions) also interpreted as a regressive event here. In northern
Spain, the same event is expressed by a facies change from
nodular limestones towards turbidites of a lowstand fan
(Wiese and Wilmsen, 1999).
Phase III is associated with a progressive–regressive
pulse in Germany and England (Tröger and Voigt, 1995;
Gale, 1996; Voigt and Hilbrecht, 1997). In northern Spain,
sediments representing Phase III are characterized by tur-
biditic sequences of an expanded lowstand fan (Wiese and
Wilmsen, 1999). In England, it is expressed as a major
hardground (Hitch wood Hardground, Bromley and Gale,
1982), interpreted by Hancock (1987) as a ‘trough of
regression’ and thus, the inflection point from an overall
regressive development towards an overall transgressive
situation. Contrary to Gale (1996), who interpreted the
Hitch wood Hardground as a transgressive surface, we
interpret it here as a complex surface, representing both a
sequence boundary and a transgressive surface.
7. Discussion
While the pre-Phase I situation was characterized by
more or less latitudinally orientated faunal
provinces/subprovinces in wide parts of Europe, this com-
paratively well defined situation became unstable with the
onset of Phase I, and a bimodal—southward and northward
directed—faunal mixing occurred. Thus, the interpretation
of the southward spread of Boreal taxa to result exclusively
from cooling, indicated by the δ18O fluctuations, is too
simple. The faunal data indicate that non-pelagic ammonite
morphotypes (Westermann, 1996), some benthic organisms
(inoceramids, echinoids) and possibly belemnites (although
the data set is too poor for unequivocal statements) spread,
when regression produced areas on the European shelf in
communication with each other. In fact, the northward
spread of Romaniceras and Coilopoceras, and vice versa,
the southward shift of collignoniceratid ammonites, which
avoided pelagic settings (Kennedy and Cobban, 1976;
Tanabe et al., 1978; Tanabe, 1979; Kaplan, 1988), during
terminal Phase I/Phase II took place in context with regres-
sion and low relative sea level. With Phases II and III, the
northward shift of southern taxa ceased, and an exclusive
southward spread of Boreal taxa as far south as Tunisia is
recorded. This happened also during relative sea-level
lowstands. Thus, migration may have been initially trig-
gered by relative sea-level fluctuations, and resultant, pos-
sible modifications in the current systems and/or swell-basin
configurations (Voigt and Wiese, 2000). A comparable
mechanism was suggested by Bengtson and Kakabadzé
(1999). The magnitude of the faunal exchange may second-
arily have been controlled by palaeotemperature gradients.
No plausible, widely accepted general models to explain
high frequency 3rd order sea-level changes in an ice-free
greenhouse world have been presented yet. While some
workers infer glacio-eustatic impulses as a possible driving
mechanism (e.g. Pitman and Golovchenko, 1983; Plint,
1991; Malatre et al., 1998), others suggested intra-plate
stress as a possible triggering mechanism (Cloethingh,
1988; see summary with further references in Price, 1999).
Stoll and Schrag (2000) discussed the temporal coincidence
of increasing oxygen isotope values (1–2‰) and falling sea
level (40–80 m) for an interval corresponding to our Phase
III as glacio-eustatic-induced climate cooling. However, the
Mid-Cretaceous period is interpreted as unusually warm
with ice-free polar regions. Physiognomic leaf analyses of
Late Turonian to Early Coniacian floras from the northern
hemisphere suggest overall warm temperatures at palaeo-
latitudes around 80°N with more than 8 months warmer
than 10 °C and polar nights rarely reaching –4 °C (Herman
and Spicer, 1996). Data on vertebrates support the impres-
sion of comparatively warm temperatures for the intervals
in question (Tarduno et al., 1998). From Antarctica, only
very few data are available for the Turonian, but a cool
temperate, moist climate may be inferred from palynologi-
cal data (Askin and Spicer, 1995). Thus, the polar regions
seem to have been characterized by moderate temperatures
and not by glaciation.
Geochemically, more detailed statements are possible.
Oxygen isotope data from the Indian Ocean (Exmouth
Plateau; ∼ 47°S) suggest warm ocean surface water condi-
tions with approximate palaeotemperatures around 15 °C
(Clarke and Jenkyns, 1999). Huber et al. (1995) pointed at
the possibility of warm waters in high southern latitudes in
the South Atlantic. Upper Turonian oxygen isotope data
from diagenetically unaltered brachiopod shells of Phase III
(Voigt, 2000b) show an δ18O increase of ∼ 1‰, and there-
fore a lower magnitude of cooling (∼ 2–4 °C) than estimated
by Stoll and Schrag (2000) from bulk-rock data (4–8 °C).
Assuming a glacio-eustatic mechanism for the Late Turo-
nian cooling, about 0.2–0.5‰ of the δ18O increase should
account for a modified isotope composition of seawater
because of the storage of isotopically light oxygen in
high-latitude ice caps. Assuming a δ18Oice value of –20
 F. Wiese, S. Voigt / Geobios 35 (2002) 65–77
to –30‰, an increase of 0.2–0.5‰ in δ18Oseawater would
require an ice-shield the size of ∼ 40% of the present
Antarctic and Greenland ice-shields (Shackleton and Ken-
nett, 1975). Formation of such large ice caps should have
had considerable impact on the planetary radiation balance
due to high ice-albedo and would have forced additional
cooling. Such a scenario is hardly to maintain with the
palaeontological record, which indicates a vegetation cover
with evergreen conifer, and temperate deciduous forests.
A recent Campanian climate simulation with the GEN-
ESIS v. 2.0 Global Climate Model could demonstrate
climate relevant feedback mechanisms of climate–vegeta-
tion–ocean interactions (DeConto et al., 1999). With defined
climate model boundary conditions (Campanian palaeo-
geography, atmospheric CO2 value of 1.500 ppm, adjust-
ment of ocean heat transport to present values), the resulting
climate model predicted Cretaceous greenhouse conditions,
with polar regions having a low meridional temperature
gradient, warm temperatures and winter temperatures in the
interior of Antarctica only just below freezing point. One
important parameter that prevented Antarctica from cooling
was the presence of vegetation, consisting of high latitude
conifer forests: the lower albedo of a forest canopy has a
positive influence on the radiation balance by preventing
back-radiation of heat to space, especially in the late
winter–early spring time. Furthermore, forests caused an
enhanced latent heat transport via transpiration and main-
tained also warm temperatures in the summer months. A
further interesting result of the Campanian climate simula-
tion was that with slightly decreased atmospheric CO2
values (1350 ppm), and a lower meridional oceanic heat
transport, the high latitude forests had been completely
substituted by tundra vegetation. The albedo of tundra
vegetation is higher than that of forests, which caused a
positive climate cooling mechanism. DeConto et al. (1999)
therefore, argued that a reorganization of high-latitude
terrestrial ecosystems, from evergreen conifer forest to
tundra and back could have contributed to intermittent
cooling periods. Although this model is only valid for the
Campanian, some of the basic principles may also be worth
considering for the Mid-Cretaceous period and its compara-
tively higher temperatures.
The high Mid-Cretaceous temperatures are commonly
interpreted to result from increased volcanogenic CO2
emission due to high oceanic crust production rates at
mid-oceanic ridges and the development of expanded intra-
oceanic plateaus (Kominz, 1984; Larson, 1991). During this
period, the estimated level of the greenhouse gas CO2 was
between 1.5 and 8 times higher than the present, pre-
industrial levels (GEOCARB II; Berner, 1994). In this
context it is puzzling that the cooling phases at 90 Ma
coincide with a period of increased oceanic intra-plate
volcanism and the development of large flood basalts (Kerr,
1998), resulting in an increase of CO2 emission. However,
radiometric ages of these occurrences cover a comparatively
broad time span from 95.3 to 87 Ma (Ontong Java:
73
Fig. 8. Comparison of Late Turonian cooling phases with carbon (Voigt,
2000a; Jenkyns et al., 1994) and strontium isotope curves (McArthur et al.,
1993 Howarth and McArthur, 1997) ages of oceanic intra-plate basalts
(Kerr et al., 1997; Duncan, 1991; Coffin and Eldholm, 1994; Mahoney et
al., 1993; Tejada et al., 1996).
Comparaison des phases de refroidissements du Turonien supérieur avec
des courbes d’isotope du carbone (Voigt, 2000a; Jenkyns et al., 1994) et du
strontium (McArthur et al., 1993; Howarth et McArthur, 1997) âges des
basaltes océaniques intraplaques (Kerr et al., 1997; Duncan, 1991; Coffin
and Eldholm, 1994; Mahoney et al., 1993; Tejada et al., 1996).
Mahoney et al., 1993; Tejada et al., 1996; Caribbean–Co-
lombian plateau: Kerr et al., 1997; Marion hotspot: Storey
et al., 1995; Broken Ridge: Duncan, 1991; Coffin and
Eldholm, 1994; Fig. 8). Within this stratigraphic accuracy, it
is extremely difficult to refer stratigraphically well-dated,
short-term bio- and isotope events at magnitudes of only
few ka to distinct volcanic events with diffuse radiometric
ages.
A different proposed measure for hydrothermal activity,
and therefore for the rate of oceanic crust production and
volcanism is the strontium isotope record of seawater
(Ingram et al., 1994; Jones et al., 1994). Evolution of
seawater strontium isotopes through time reflects the chan-
ging balance between continental weathering (87Sr) and
mid-ocean ridge hydrothermal fluids (86Sr). Both processes
invoke, via the global CO2 cycle, a link between strontium
isotopes and palaeoclimate (e.g., Berner et al., 1983; Raymo
and Ruddiman, 1992). The early Late Cretaceous seawater
87
Sr/86Sr record shows a decrease from the Late Cenoma-
nian to the Middle Turonian and a minimum during the Late
Turonian (Fig. 8), suggesting the onset of enhanced crust
production and release of volcanic CO2 in the Late Ceno-
manian. The residence time of Sr in seawater is in the order
of several million years, which might cause a time lag with
respect to variations in the supply of depleted 86Sr (Bral-
ower et al., 1997). Minimum Sr-isotope values in the higher
Turonian could be the expression for the end of the
Mid-Cretaceous high crust production phase and subse-
quently decreasing volcanogenic CO2 emission. This de-
crease of atmospheric CO2 could affect the global radiation
74 F. Wiese, S. Voigt / Geobios 35 (2002) 65–77
balance, resulting in a climate cooling with corresponding
changes in the terrestrial and marine biota. A longer-term
triggering of early Late Cretaceous climate cooling is also
supported by a first proposed cooling step in relation with
the climate perturbations during the Cenomanian–Turonian
boundary event (Jenkyns et al., 1994). In this context, the
climatic cooling trend may have been normal during the
Turonian–Coniacian interval, and the 90 Ma volcanism and
associated CO2 emissions might have caused short-term
phases of warmer temperatures (and, therefore, oscillating
δ18O fluctuations). Thus, the cooling events observed here,
probably do not reflect distinct deviation from an overall
warm climate but normal cooling trend, periodically inter-
rupted by phases of warming due to volcanogenic CO2
emission.
8. Conclusions
The Late Turonian was a period of significant biogeo-
graphic changes in Europe and parts of northern Africa.
While the middle Middle Turonian was still characterized
by stable, latitudinal biogeographic provinces, the early
Late Turonian showed weakening of these provinces with
bimodal N–S migration. Later, northern faunas (ammonites,
echinoids and inoceramids) migrated southward, reaching
even the southern Tethys shelf, and belemnites slowly began
to re-populate central Europe. These migrations occurred in
context with regressive events at a time of general low
relative sea level. This observation, together with bi-modal
migration, indicates that this is rather the result of changes
in current systems or absolute water depths (connected shelf
areas) than cooling phases that occurred concomitantly.
The cooling phases (positive δ18O fluctuations) can be
determined with geographically widespread bulk rock and
brachiopod calcite data. Their co-occurrence with regres-
sion and biogeographic changes, however, cannot be inter-
preted as indicative of a Late Turonian glaciation, as
documented both by geochemical and palaeontological
data.
In a broader context, the Turonian cooling is part of a
cooling trend that was initiated by the decrease of mid-
Cretaceous volcanogenic CO2 emissions and a decrease in
hydrothermal activity in general, as additionally supported
by the 87Sr/86Sr curves (decrease of activity in the Cenoma-
nian, minimum Sr-isotope values due to time lag in the Mid
Turonian). However, renewed intra-plate volcanism (flood
basalts) may have accounted for increased volcanogenic
CO2 emissions, and thus, short periods of warming. Conse-
quently, there are not cooling phases in the Turonian of the
Circum-Mediterranean and central European Turonian; in-
stead, a general cooling trend is interrupted by short-term
periods of warming.
. Biblios non appelées
(Chancellor et al., 1994; Davey et al., 1992; Fristch and
Schloenbach, 1872; Küchler and Ernst, 1989; Pervinquiere,
1910; Sanders et al., 1997 ; Storey et al., 1995)
Acknowledgements
We thank Jörg Mutterlose (Bochum) for his critical
review of the manuscript and Sarah Aboussalam (Naturkun-
demuseum Berlin) and Michel Guérin (FU Berlin) for
French translations. This work was financially supported by
grants of the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft to Wiese
(Wi 1656/3-1) and Voigt (Vo 687/2).
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