I.C For Exit Exam

Module I.
Internal Combustion Engine 01/02/2023
Bonga University
Engineering And Technology College
Departments Of Mechanical Engineering
Module I. Internal Combustion (IC) Engine and
Reciprocating Machines (Meng4202)
Prep. By Nuri Jemal
December/2022
Bonga, Ethiopia
January 2, 2023
Prep. By Nure Jemal
Module I. Internal Combustion Engine 01/02/2023
Table of Contents Page

CHAPTER ONE .................................................................................................................... 6
INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 6
1.1 Historical Overview of IC Engine Development ......................................................... 6
1.2 Engine Components, Their Function & Material of Construction .............................. 7
1.2.1 Stationary Parts of Engine ..................................................................................... 7
1.2.2 Moving Parts of an Engine.................................................................................. 10
1.2 Terminology (Nomenclature) used in IC engine: ...................................................... 12
1.3 Classification of IC Engine ........................................................................................ 14
CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................. 21
THERMODYNAMICS OF IC ENGINES .......................................................................... 21
2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 21
2.1.1 Basic Considerations in the Analysis of Power Cycles....................................... 21
2.2 An Overview of Reciprocating Engines .................................................................... 23
2.2.1 Otto Cycle ........................................................................................................... 24
2.2.2 Diesel Cycle ........................................................................................................ 26
2.2.3 Dual (semi Diesel) cycle ..................................................................................... 28
2.2.4 Stirling and Ericsson Cycles ............................................................................... 28
2.2.5 Brayton (Joule) Cycle.......................................................................................... 29
2.3 Air-Fuel Cycle ........................................................................................................... 31
2.4 Actual Cycles and Their Analysis.............................................................................. 32
CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................. 34
ENGINE DESIGN AND OPERATING PARAMETERS .................................................. 34
3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 34
3.2 Geometrical properties of Reciprocating engines ...................................................... 34
3.2.1 Thermodynamic parameters ................................................................................ 35
3.2.2 Testing of Internal Combustion Engines:............................................................ 39
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3.2.3 Measurement of Performance Parameters in a Laboratory ................................. 40
CHAPTER (4) ..................................................................................................................... 41
FUEL FOR IC ENGINES ................................................................................................... 41
4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 41
4.2 Types of Fuel .......................................................................................................... 41
4.3 Fuels for SI engine ..................................................................................................... 43
4.3.1 Fuel Properties..................................................................................................... 43
4.4 Fuels for CI engine (Diesel Fuels) ............................................................................. 45
4.5 Alternative fuels and Additives ................................................................................. 46
CHAPTER FIVE (5) ........................................................................................................... 47
COMBUSTION AND COMBUSTION CHAMBER DESIGN ......................................... 47
5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 47
5.2 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous mixture ............................................................... 48
5.2.1 Homogeneous mixture ........................................................................................ 48
5.2.2 Heterogeneous mixture ....................................................................................... 48
5.3 Combustion in SI engine, Combustion chamber for SI engine ................................. 49
5.3.1 Combustion in SI engine ..................................................................................... 49
5.3.2 Combustion stage in SI engine ............................................................................ 49
5.3.3 Combustion chamber for SI engine ..................................................................... 50
5.4 Combustion in CI engine and Combustion chamber for CI engines ......................... 53
5.4.1 Combustion in CI engine..................................................................................... 53
5.4.2 Stages of Combustion in CI engine: .................................................................... 53
5.4.3 Combustion Chambers for C.I. Engine ............................................................... 56
5.5 Abnormal Combustion: Knock & Surface Ignition ................................................... 57
CHAPER SIX (6) ................................................................................................................ 59
VALVE GEAR AND VALVE TIMING ............................................................................ 59
6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 59
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6.2 Valve gear .................................................................................................................. 60
6.3 Valve operating system .............................................................................................. 60
6.4 Valve Timing and Performance ................................................................................. 62
CHAPTER SEVEN (7) ....................................................................................................... 66
IC ENGINE SYSTEMS ...................................................................................................... 66
Introduction ...................................................................................................................... 66
7.1 Fueling (fuel injection) in SI engine system .............................................................. 66
7.1.1 Components of fuel injection system .................................................................. 66
7.1.2 carburation ........................................................................................................... 67
7.2 Starting system ........................................................................................................... 68
7.2.1 Components of self Start System ........................................................................ 68
7.3 Ignition System .......................................................................................................... 69
7.3.1 Basic Components to a Ignition System ............................................................. 69
7.3.2 Types of ignition system ..................................................................................... 70
7.3.2 Magneto Ignition System: ................................................................................... 73
7.4 Charging system......................................................................................................... 76
7.4.1 Components of Engine Charging System ........................................................... 77
7.5 Lubrication system ..................................................................................................... 79
7.5.1 Major Parts of Engine Lubricating System ......................................................... 79
7.5.2 Types of Engine Lubrication System .................................................................. 81
7.5.3 Lubricating System in Two-stroke and Four-stroke engines .............................. 81
7.5.4 Lubrication in Four-stroke Engine ...................................................................... 81
7.5.5 Two-stroke Engine Lubrication .......................................................................... 82
7.6 Cooling system........................................................................................................... 82
7.6.1 Components of Engine Cooling System ............................................................. 83
7.6.2 Types of Engine Cooling System ........................................................................ 84
7.7 Firing order: ............................................................................................................... 86
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7.8 Ignition Timing ......................................................................................................... 88
7.8.1 Ignition Advancing vs. Ignition Retarding .......................................................... 89
7.9 Engine Timing ........................................................................................................... 89
7.10 Signs Your Ignition Timing Is Off .......................................................................... 90
CHAPTER EIGHT (8) ........................................................................................................ 91
TURBOCHARGERS & SUPERCHARGERS ................................................................... 91
8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 91
8.2 Turbocharger .............................................................................................................. 91
8.3 Superchargers:............................................................................................................ 92
8.3.1 Types of supercharger ......................................................................................... 94
CHAPTER NINE (9) ........................................................................................................... 96
SUMMARY QUESTION.................................................................................................... 96
ENGINE GLOSSARY ...................................................................................................... 110
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Historical Overview of IC Engine Development
Engine is a complex mechanical device which convert energy into useful motion/ phycisac
effect. Is a part of car/ vechile which provide the force for motion, now especially one
powered by ic. Therefore, heat engine is mechanical device which convert heat energy into
mechanical work. It is classified into two types-
(a) External combustion engine
(b) Internal combustion engine
External combustion engine: In this engine, the products of combustion of air and fuel
transfer heat to a second fluid which is the working fluid of the cycle. Combustion of the
fuel take place outside of the cylinder. EC engine require large space and its working fluid
is steam from burning of coal or wood. Its thermal efficiency is low and its capital cost is
relatively high when compared to IC engine. But cost of fuel used is low
Internal combustion engine: is a heat engine that converts chemical energy in a fuel into
mechanical energy, usually made available on a rotating output shaft. Chemical energy of
the fuel is first converted to thermal energy by means of combustion or oxidation with air
inside the engine. This thermal energy raises the temperature and pressure of the gases within
the engine, and the high-pressure gas then expands against the mechanical mechanisms of
the engine. This expansion is converted by the mechanical linkages of the engine to a rotating
crankshaft, which is the output of the engine. The crankshaft, in turn, is connected to a
transmission and/or power train to transmit the rotating mechanical energy to the desired
final use.
Most internal combustion engines are reciprocating engines having pistons that reciprocate
back and forth in cylinders internally within the engine. The modern reciprocating internal
combustion engines have their origin in the Otto and Diesel Engines invented in the later
part of 19th century. The main engine components comprising of piston, cylinder, crank-
slider crankshaft, connecting road, valves and valve train, intake and exhaust system remain
functionally overall similar since those in the early engines although great advancements in
their design and materials have taken place during the last 100 years or so.
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1.2 Engine Components, Their Function & Material of Construction
1.2.1 Stationary Parts of Engine
The stationary parts of an engine include the cylinder block and cylinders, the cylinder head
or heads, and the exhaust and intake manifolds. All movable parts are attached to or fitted
into this framework.
1.Engine Cylinder Block: The cylinder block is the basic

frame of a liquid-cooled engine whether it is in-line,
horizontally opposed, or V-type. The cylinder block is a
solid casting made of cast iron or aluminum that contains
the crankcase, the cylinders, the coolant passages, the lubricating passages, and, in
the case of flathead engines, the valves seats, the ports, and the guides.
2. Engine head: The component that closes the

end of cylinders, usually containing part of the
clearance volume of the combustion chamber is
called head. The head is usually made up of cast
iron or aluminum, and bolts to the engine block.
The head contains spark plug in the SI engines,
and the fuel injectors in CI engines and some SI
engines. Most modern engines have the valves in the head and many have the camshafts also
positioned there (overhead valves and over head cam).
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3. Head gasket: It is the gasket that serves as a sealant between

the engine block and the head where they bolt together to avoid
any leakage and pressure loss.
4. Intake Manifold: Piping system that delivers incoming air

to the cylinders usually made of cast metal, plastic, or composite
material. In most SI engines, fuel is added to the air in the intake
manifold system either by fuel injectors or with a carburetor.
5. Exhaust manifold: Piping system which carries exhaust gases away from the engine
cylinders, usually made of cast iron.
6. Cylinders: The circular cylinders in the engine block in

which the pistons reciprocate back and forth. The walls of
the cylinder have highly polished hard surfaces. Cylinders
may be machined directly in the engine block.
7. Piston: The cylindrically shaped mass that reciprocates

back and forth in the cylinder, transmitting the pressure
forces being generated by the fuel burnt in the combustion chamber for rotating the
crankshaft is called piston. The top of the piston is called crown and the sides are called skirt.
Pistons have lower thermal expansion which allows for higher tolerances.
8. Piston pin: Pin fastening the connecting rod to the piston is called piston pin and also
called wrist pin.
9. Fuel injector: A pressurized nozzle that sprays fuel into the cylinder on CI engines.
10. Fuel pump: Electrically or mechanically driven pump to supply fuel from the fuel tank
(reservoir) to the engine.
11. Glow plug: Small electrical heater resistance mounted inside the combustion chamber
of many CI engines, used to preheat the chamber so that combustion will occur when first
starting a cold engine. The glow plug is turned off after the engine is started.
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12. Spark Plug: The spark plug is Electrical device used to

initiate combustion (generate the spark) in an SI engine by
creating a high voltage discharge spark across an electrode
gap. It should be able to withstand fluctuating pressure and
temperature. So its main function is to conduct the high
potential from the ignition system into the combustion
chamber.
13. Radiator: The radiator is a heat exchanger which eliminates excess

heat from the system and used in engine cooling systems. The radiator
usually mounted in front of the engine in the flow of air as the
automobile moves forward. An engine drive or electric fan is often
used to increase air flow through the radiator.
14. Water jacket: System of liquid flow passages surrounding the cylinders usually
constructed as part of engine block and head. Engine coolant flows through the water jacket
ands keeps the cylinder walls from over heating. The coolant is usually a water ethylene
glycol mixture.
15. Carburetor: Venturi flow device which meters the

proper amount of fuel into the air flow by means of a
pressure differential. For many decades it was the basic
fuel metering system on all automobile (and other)
engines.
16. Choke valve: Butterfly valve at carburetor intake,

used to control amount of air intake (create rich fuel-air
mixture) in intake system by choking/restricting the air
intake for cold weather starting
17. Fan: Most engines have fan to increase air flow through the radiator and through the
engine compartment which increases the heat removal from the engine for cooling purposes.
Fans can be driven mechanically (with belt) or electrically.
18. Oil pan: Oil reservoir usually bolted to the bottom of the engine block, making up part
of the crankcase. It acts as the oil sump for most engines.
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19. Oil pump: Pump used in force feed lubricating system to distribute oil from the oil
sump to required lubrication points is called oil pump. The oil pump can be electrically
driven but in most cases it is mechanically driven by the engine. Some small engines do not
have an oil pump and are lubricated by splash distribution.
20. Oil sump: It is the reservoir for the oil system of the engine, commonly part of the
crankcase. Some automobile engines with overhead crankshafts have a secondary oil sump
in the engine head to supply lubrication to the cam and valve mechanism. Some engines have
a separate closed reservoir called a dry sump.
1.2.2 Moving Parts of an Engine
21. Camshaft: Rotating shaft that is responsible for the opening and closing of the valves at
the proper time in the engine cycle, either directly or through mechanical or hydraulic linkage
(push rods, rocker arms, tappets). Most modern automobile engines have one or more
camshafts mounted in the engine head (overhead cam).
22. Push rods: It is the on over head

valves engines used to operate the valve mechanism. Push rods have oil passages through
there length as part of a pressurized lubrication system.
23. Valves: These are used to allow flow of air and fuel or its mixture into and burnt/exhaust
gases out of the cylinder at the proper time in the four stroke cycle engines. Most engines
used poppet valves which are spring loaded closed, and pushed/open by camshaft action.
Two stroke cycle engines have ports (slots) in the side of cylinder walls instead of
mechanical valves.
24. Cooling fins: The extended surfaces in the form of metal fins used air cooled engine on
the outside surfaces of cylinders and head for cooling purposes by conduction and convection
are known as cooling fins
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25. Connecting rod: connecting rod is used to connect the

with the help of a piston pin and crank pin, usually made of steel or
alloy forging in most engines but may be aluminum. Connecting rod
transmits the reciprocating motion of the piston to into rotary motion
of the crankshaft so this is works as a lever arm that transfers the
motion from one end to another end.
26. Crankcase: Part of the engine block surrounding the rotating crankshaft. In many
engines, the oil pan makes up part of the crankcase housing.
27. Crankshaft: Rotating shaft through which engine work output is supplied to external
systems. The crankshaft is connected to the engine block with
the main bearings. transmits this power of reciprocating motion
of the piston into rotary motion of the crankshaft which is
further connected to the flywheel and transmission shaft which
is used to move the vehicle.
28. Flywheel: Flywheel means fluctuation of energy; it reserves the energy and uses this
energy when requires it. It is the rotating mass with large moment
of inertia connected to the crankshaft of the engine.
The purpose of the flywheel is to store energy and furnish a large

angular momentum that that keeps the engine rotating between
power strokes and smooths out engine operation. In multiple
cylinder engines, the size of flywheel is relatively smaller than the
single cylinder engines. On some aircraft engines the propeller serves as the flywheel.
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1.2 Terminology (Nomenclature) used in IC engine:
➢ Bore (D): Diameter of the cylinder or diameter of the piston face, which is the same
minus a very small clearance.
➢ Stroke (L): Movement distance of the piston from one extreme position to the other i.e.,
TDC to BDC or BDC to TDC. It is equal to twice the radius of crank circle.
➢ Piston area (A): The area of circle of diameter equal to the cylinder bore.
➢ Top-Dead-Center (TDC): Position of the piston when it stops at the furthest point away
from the crankshaft.
➢ Bottom-Dead-Center (BDC): Position of the piston when it stops at the point closest to
the crankshaft.
➢ Clearance Volume: Minimum volume in the combustion chamber with piston at
TDC.
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➢ Displacement or Displacement Volume 𝑉𝑠 : Volume displaced by the piston as it travels

through one stroke. Displacement can be given for one cylinder or for the entire engine
(one cylinder times number of cylinders).
𝑉𝑠 = 𝐴 × 𝐿
➢ Cylinder volume (V): Total volume of the cylinder.
𝑉 = 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑐
➢ Compression Ratio (CR): It is the ratio of the maximum volume formed in the cylinder
to the minimum (clearance) volume.
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑉𝐵𝐷𝑐 𝑉
𝑟𝑐 = = =
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑉𝑇𝐷𝐶 𝑉𝑐
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1.3 Classification of IC Engine
Internal combustion engines can be classified based on number of different criteria.
1. Based on Method of Ignition

(a) Spark Ignition (SI): An SI engine starts the combustion process in each cycle by use of
a spark plug. The spark plug gives a high-voltage electrical discharge between two electrodes
which ignites the air-fuel mixture in the combustion
(b) Compression Ignition (CI): The combustion process in a CI engine starts when the air-
fuel mixture self-ignites due to high temperature in the combustion chamber caused by high
compression.
2. Based on Basic Design

(a) Reciprocating: Engine has one or more cylinders in which pistons reciprocate back and
forth. The combustion chamber is located in the closed end of each cylinder. Power is
delivered to a rotating output crankshaft by mechanical linkage with the pistons.
(b) Rotary: Engine is made of a block (stator) built around a large non-concentric rotor and
crankshaft. The combustion chambers are built into the non-rotating block
3. Air Intake Process

(a) Naturally Aspirated: No intake air pressure boost system exists.
(b) Supercharged: Intake air pressure increased with the compressor driven off of the
engine crankshaft.
(c) Turbocharged: Intake air pressure increased with the turbine compressor driven by the
engine exhaust gases.
(d) Crankcase Compressed: Two-stroke cycle engine uses the crankcase as the intake air
compressor. Limited development work has also been done on design and construction of
four stroke cycle engines with crankcase compression.
4. Position and Number of Cylinders of Reciprocating Engines

(a) Single Cylinder. Engine has one cylinder and piston connected to the crankshaft.
(b) In-Line. Cylinders are positioned in a straight line, one behind the other along the
length of the crankshaft. They can consist of 2 to 11 cylinders or possibly more. In-line
four-cylinder engines are very common for automobile and other applications. In-line six
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and eight cylinders are historically common automobile engines. In-line engines are
sometimes called straight (e.g., straight six or straight eight).
(c) V Engine. Two banks of cylinders at an angle with each other along a single crankshaft.
The angle between the banks of cylinders can be anywhere from 15° to 120°, with 60°-90°
being common
5. Based on Type of Cooling
a. Liquid Cooled, Water Cooled: Water is made to flow through the water jackets provided
along the surface of cylinders or liners to absorb the heat. Further the heated water is
cooled with the help of radiator.
b. Air Cooled: Circulating air is used to dissipate the heat from the fins on an engine. Mostly
small engines are used with air cooled engines. Example motorcycle, 3-wheel vehicle
(Bajaj).
6. Based on fuel used

Petrol Engine (Gasoline engine): The petrol engine uses petrol for its running. Petrol or
gasoline is a hydrocarbon, made up of hydrogen and carbon compounds. Air-petrol mixture
is sucked into the cylinder during the suction stroke of the piston. The correct air-petrol
mixture is obtained from the carburetto The mixture is compressed during the compression
stroke, ignited during the power stroke and the exhaust gases pushed out during the exhaust
stroke. A spark plug is fitted at the top of the cylinder which gives a spark to ignite the
mixture.
Diesel Engine: In these types of engines, diesel oil is used for its running. Diesel oil is light,
with low viscosity and high cetane number. In the diesel engine, only air is sucked into the
cylinder during the suction stroke and compressed to high pressure, the compression ratio is
as high as 22:1. Its temperature also rises by about 1,000°F. The diesel oil is injected by an
injector at the end of the compression stroke which catches fire and burns due to the high
temperature of the compressed air. No separate ignition system is required. The burnt gases
expand pushing the piston down during the power stroke and finally, the gases are pushed
out during the exhaust stroke.
Gas Turbine: A gas turbine essentially consists of two sections-a gasifier section and a
power section. The fuel used in a gas turbine can be gasoline, kerosene, or oil. The gasifier
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section burns fuel in a burner and delivers the resulting gas to the power section, where it
spins the power turbine. The power turbine then turns the vehicle wheels through a series of
gears.
The gasifier consists of a compressor which has a rotor with a series of blades around its
outer edge. As the rotor rotates, the air between the blades is carried around and thrown out
by centrifugal force into the burner. Thus air pressure rises in the burner. The fuel is injected
in the burner where it burns and further raises the pressure.
7. Based on engine Cycle

(a) Four-Stroke Cycle: A four-stroke cycle experiences four piston movements over two
engine revolutions for each cycle.
(b) Two-Stroke Cycle: A two-stroke cycle has two piston movements over one engine
revolution for each cycle.
Most internal combustion engines, both spark ignition and compression ignition, operate on
either a four-stroke cycle or a two-stroke cycle.
Four stroke SI engines

1. First Stroke: Intake Stroke or Induction: The piston travels from TDC to BDC with the
intake valve open and exhaust valve closed. This creates an increasing volume in the
combustion chamber, which in turn creates a vacuum. The resulting pressure differential
through the intake system from atmospheric pressure on the outside to the vacuum on the
inside causes air to be pushed into the cylinder.
2. Second Stroke: Compression Stroke: When the piston reaches BDC, the intake valve
closes and the piston travels back to TDC with all valves closed. This compresses the air-
fuel mixture, raising both the pressure and temperature in the cylinder. The finite time
required to close the intake valve means that actual compression doesn't start until sometime
aBDC. Near the end of the compression stroke, the spark plug is fired and combustion is
initiated.
3. Combustion stroke: Combustion of the air-fuel mixture occurs in a very short but finite
length of time with the piston near TDC (i.e., nearly constant-volume combustion). It starts
near the end of the compression stroke slightly bTDC and lasts into the power stroke slightly
aTDC.
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4. Third Stroke: Expansion Stroke or Power Stroke With all valves closed, the high pressure
created by the combustion process pushes the piston away from TDC. This is the stroke
which produces the work output of the engine cycle. As the piston travels from TDC to BDC,
cylinder volume is increased, causing pressure and temperature to drop.
Four stroke CI engines, and two stroke Engines

Four-Stroke CI Engine Cycle
1. First Stroke: Intake Stroke The same as the intake stroke in an SI engine with one major
difference: no fuel is added to the incoming air.
2. Second Stroke: Compression Stroke The same as in an SI engine except that only air is
compressed and compression is to higher pressures and temperature. Late in the compression
stroke fuel is injected directly into the combustion chamber, where it mixes with the very
hot air. This causes the fuel to evaporate and self-ignite, causing combustion to start.
3. Combustion stroke: Combustion is fully developed by TDC and continues at about

constant pressure until fuel injection is complete and the piston has started towards BDC.
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4. Third Stroke: Power Stroke The power stroke continues as combustion ends and the piston
travels towards BDC.
Two stroke engine:
-No piston stroke for suction and

exhaust operations
-Suction is accomplished by air

compressed in crankcase or by a
blower
-Induction of compressed air

removes the products of combustion through exhaust ports
-Transfer port is there to supply the fresh charge into combustion chamber
8. Based on Classification by Cycle of Operations

According to the cycle of operations, the automobile engines may be of the following three
types:
1. Otto Cycle or Constant Volume Cycle. This cycle was introduced in practical form by a
German scientist Otto, in 1876, although it was described by French scientist Beaude
Roches in 1862. The engines operating on this cycle are known as Otto-cycle engines.
The petrol engines operate on this cycle. An I.C. engine does not undergo a cyclic change
but it is assumed here that the working medium is pure air which does not undergo any
chemical change. The ideal Otto cycle consists of the following operations
1-2 Adiabatic compression.

2-3 Heat addition at constant
volume.
3-4 Adiabatic expansion.
4-1 Heat rejection at constant
volume
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2. Diesel Cycle or Constant Pressure Cycle: Diesel cycle was introduced by Dr.
RudolphDiesel in 1897. The engines operating on this cycle are known as Diesel engines.
The figure shows the p-v diagram for a Diesel cycle.
It consists of the following operations:
1-2 Adiabatic compression.

2-3 Heat addition at constant pressure
3-4 Adiabatic expansion.
4-1 Heat rejection at constant volume
In the Diesel cycle, the heat is added at

constant pressure instead of a constant
volume. The air is compressed in the cylinder during the compression stroke from point 1 to
2. Now the heat is added at constant pressure from point 2 to 3, and then the air is expanded
adiabatically from point 3 to 4. Finally, the heat is rejected at constant volume from point 4
to 1. The air returns to its original condition and the cycle is complete.
3. Dual Cycle (or Dual Combustion Cycle): In these types of engines, more time is allowed
for the combustion of fuel in the Diesel engine without adversely affecting the
efficiency.The fuel is injected in the cylinder before the end of the compression stroke
so that combustion proceeds partly at constant volume and partly at constant pressure.
Such a cycle is known as Dual cycle. In fact, all the Diesel engines actually operate on
this cycle. The figure shows the dual
cycle on the p-v diagram.
It consists of the following operations.
✓ 1-2. Adiabatic compression

✓ 2-3. Heat addition at constant
volume
✓ 3-4. Heat addition at constant
pressure
✓ 4-5. Adiabatic expansion
✓ 5-1. Heat rejection at constant
volume.
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Because the fuel is injected in the cylinder before the end of the compression stroke in the
dual cycle, it takes care of ignition lag characteristic of fuel.
➢ Several or all of these classifications can be used at the same time to identify a given
engine. Thus, a modern engine might be called a turbocharged, reciprocating, spark
ignition, four-stroke cycle, overhead valve, water-cooled, gasoline, multipoint fuel-
injected, V8 automobile engine.
Table: Comparison of S.I. and C.I. Engines
s/no Parameter S.I. Engines C.I. Engines
1 Fuel used Gasoline (petrol) Diesel
Thermodynamic Otton Diesel

cycle
2 Compression is low, about 10:1 limited by is higher, about 15:1 to 18:1

ratio Detonation
3 Method of By spark plug By injecting fuel on highly compressed air

ignition
4 Ignition temp. High self-ignition temperature. Low self-ignition temperature
5 Efficiency Theoretically more efficient Theoretically less efficient
6 Operating speed High speed engine (5000 rpm) Low speed engine (3000 rpm)
7 Combustion Homogeneous Mixture Heterogeneous Mixture
Phenomenon
8 Exhaust Gas Higher exhaust Gas temperature Lower exhaust Gas temp.
Temperature (low thermal efficiency )
9 Starting Easier starting due to lesser Difficult to start due to requirement of

greater cranking effort to over come
cranking effortCold starting
circuit in carburetor provides higher compression. Glow plug is required
cold starting in cold weather (for IDI engines)
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CHAPTER TWO
THERMODYNAMICS OF IC ENGINES
2.1 Introduction
In gas power cycles, the working fluid remains a gas throughout the entire cycle. Spark-
ignition engines, diesel engines, and conventional gas turbines are familiar examples of
devices that operate on gas cycles. In all these engines, energy is provided by burning a fuel
within the system boundaries. That is, they are internal combustion engines. All internal
combustion engines are working on an open cycle. Because the working fluid does not
undergo a complete thermodynamic cycle. It is thrown out of the engine at some point in the
cycle (as exhaust gases) instead of being returned to the initial state.
2.1.1 Basic Considerations in the Analysis of Power Cycles
Ideal cycle: A cycle that resembles the actual cycle closely but is made up totally of
internally reversible processes. Reversible cycles such as Carnot cycle have the highest
thermal efficiency of all heat engines operating between the same temperature levels. Unlike
ideal cycles, they are totally reversible, and unsuitable as a realistic model.
𝜂𝑐𝑎𝑟𝑛𝑜𝑡 > 𝜂𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 > 𝜂𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
➢ Because of Carnot cycle is totally reversible while, ideal cycles are internally reversible
The idealizations and simplifications in the analysis of power cycles and the study of power
cycles is an exciting and important part of thermodynamics.
1. The cycle does not involve any friction. Therefore, the working fluid does not
experience any pressure drop as it flows in pipes or devices such as heat exchangers.
2. All expansion and compression processes take place in a quasi-equilibrium manner.
3. The pipes connecting the various components of a system are well insulated, and heat
transfer through them is negligible
January 2, 2023
Prep. By Nure Jemal
The actual gas power cycles are rather complex. To reduce the analysis to a manageable
level, we utilize the following approximations, commonly known as the air-standard
assumptions:
1. The working fluid is air, and always behaves as an ideal gas.

2. All the processes that make up the cycle are internally reversible.
3. The combustion process is replaced by a heat-addition process from an external source.
4. The exhaust process is replaced by a heat-rejection process that restores the working fluid
to its initial state
A cycle for which the air-standard assumptions are applicable is frequently referred to as an
air-standard cycle. Another assumption that is often utilized to simplify the analysis even
more is that air has constant specific heats whose values are determined at room temperature
(25°C, or 77°F). When this assumption is utilized, the air-standard assumptions are called
the cold air-standard assumptions
Fig: The combustion process is replaced by a heat-addition process in ideal cycles.
January 2, 2023
Prep. By Nure Jemal
2.2 An Overview of Reciprocating Engines
Reciprocating engine (piston–cylinder device) is the powerhouse of the vast majority of

automobiles, trucks, light aircraft, ships, and electric power generators, as well as many other
devices. The basic components of a reciprocating engine are valves, piston, cylinder and
etc…
➢ (TDC)—the position of the piston when it forms the smallest volume in the
cylinder—and
➢ BDC—the position of the piston when it forms
the largest volume in the cylinder
➢ Stroke- the distance between the TDC and the
BDC is the largest distance.
➢ Bore: the diameter of the piston.
➢ Intake valve: valve through which air or air–fuel
mixture is drawn into the cylinder
➢ Exhaust valve: valve through which combustion
products are expelled from the cylinder.
Another term frequently used in conjunction with
reciprocating engines is the mean effective pressure (MEP). It is a fictitious pressure that, if
it acted on the piston during the entire power stroke, would produce the same amount of net
work as that produced during the actual cycle.
𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑀𝐸𝑃 × 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒 × 𝑃𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝑀𝐸𝑃 × 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡

𝑀𝐸𝑃 = = =
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑤𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑀𝐸𝑃(𝑣𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑣𝑚𝑖𝑛 )
Reciprocating engines are classified in to two depending on how the combustion process in
the cylinder is initiated.
1. spark-ignition (SI) engines: the combustion of the air–fuel mixture is initiated by a spark
plug. Example Otto cycle, ideal cycles for the SI
2. compression-ignition (CI) engines: the air–fuel mixture is self-ignited as a result of
compressing the mixture above its self-ignition temperature. Example diesel cycle, ideal
cycles for CI.
January 2, 2023
Prep. By Nure Jemal
2.2.1 Otto Cycle
The Otto cycle is the ideal cycle for spark-ignition reciprocating engines In most spark-
ignition engines, the piston executes four complete strokes (two mechanical cycles) within
the cylinder, and the crankshaft completes two revolutions for each thermodynamic cycle.
These engines are called four-stroke internal combustion engines.
Fig. Actual and ideal cycles in spark-ignition engines and their P-v diagrams
General working principles of the above diagram: Initially, both the intake and the exhaust
valves are closed, and the piston is at its lowest position (BDC). During the compression
stroke, the piston moves upward, compressing the air–fuel mixture. Shortly before the piston
reaches its highest position (TDC), the spark plug fires and the mixture ignites, increasing
the pressure and temperature of the system. The high-pressure gases force the piston down,
which in turn forces the crankshaft to rotate, producing a useful work output during the
expansion or power stroke. At the end of this stroke, the piston is at its lowest position (the
completion of the first mechanical cycle), and the cylinder is filled with combustion
products. Now the piston moves upward one more time, purging the exhaust gases through
the exhaust valve (the exhaust stroke), and down a second time, drawing in fresh air–fuel
mixture through the intake valve (the intake stroke). Notice that the pressure in the cylinder
is slightly above the atmospheric value during the exhaust stroke and slightly below during
the intake stroke.
January 2, 2023
Prep. By Nure Jemal
Ideal Otto cycle, consists of four internally reversible processes:
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant-volume heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant-volume heat rejection
Fig. P-v and T-s diagram of the ideal Otto cycle.
The Otto cycle is executed in a closed system, and disregarding the changes in kinetic and
potential energies, the energy balance for any of the processes is expressed, on a unit-mass
basis, as
No work is involved during the two heat transfer processes since both take place at
constant volume. Therefore, heat transfer to and from the working fluid can be expressed
as
Then the thermal efficiency of the ideal Otto cycle under the cold air standard assumptions
becomes
Processes 1-2 and 3-4 are isentropic, and 𝑣3 = 𝑣2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣4 = 𝑣1 . Thus
Substituting these equations into the thermal efficiency relation and simplifying give
where
r is the compression ratio and k is the specific heat ratio 𝑐𝑝 ⁄𝑐𝑣 .
January 2, 2023
Prep. By Nure Jemal
The thermal efficiency of the ideal Otto cycle increases with both the compression ratio and
the specific heat ratio. The thermal efficiency of an actual spark-ignition engine is less than
that of an ideal Otto cycle because of the irreversibility’s, such as friction, and other factors
such as incomplete combustion. when high compression ratios are used, the temperature of
the air–fuel mixture rises above the auto ignition temperature of the fuel (the temperature at
which the fuel ignites without the help of a spark) during the combustion process, causing
an early and rapid burn of the fuel at some point or points ahead of the flame front, followed
by almost instantaneous inflammation of the end gas. This premature ignition of the fuel,
called auto ignition, produces an audible noise, which is called engine knock. Auto ignition
in spark-ignition engines cannot be tolerated because it hurts performance and can cause
engine damage.
2.2.2 Diesel Cycle
The Diesel cycle is the ideal cycle for CI reciprocating engines and its very similar to the
SI engine but differing mainly in the method of initiating combustion.
➢ In spark-ignition engines (also known as gasoline

engines), the air–fuel mixture is compressed to a
temperature that is below the autoignition temperature of
the fuel, and the combustion process is initiated by firing
a spark plug.
➢ In CI engines (also known as diesel engines), the air is
compressed to a temperature that is above the autoignition
temperature of the fuel, and combustion starts on contact
as the fuel is injected into this hot air. Therefore, the spark
plug and carburetor are replaced by a fuel injector in diesel engines
➢ In gasoline engines, a mixture of air and fuel is compressed during the compression
stroke,
➢ In diesel engines, only air is compressed during the compression stroke,
➢ diesel engines operate at much higher compression ratios, typically between 12 and 24.
➢ Diesel cycle is approximated as a constant-pressure heat-addition Process, while
gasoline cycle is approximated as a constant-volume heat-addition process.
➢ In fact, this is the only process where the Otto and the Diesel cycles differ is process
2-3 only. The remaining three processes are the same for both ideal cycles. Process
January 2, 2023
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1-2 is isentropic compression,
2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition
3-4 is isentropic expansion, and
4-1isconstant-volume heat rejection.
Amount of heat transferred to the

working fluid at constant pressure and
rejected from it at constant volume can
be expressed as
and
Then the thermal efficiency of the ideal Diesel cycle under the cold-air standard assumptions
becomes
We now define a new quantity, the cutoff ratio 𝑟𝑐 , as the ratio of the cylinder volumes after
and before the combustion process:
𝑉3 𝑣3
𝑟𝑐 = =
𝑉2 𝑣2
Then thermal efficiency relation reduces to
The efficiency of a Diesel cycle differs from the efficiency of an Otto cycle by the quantity
in the brackets. This quantity is always greater than 1.
𝜂𝑡ℎ,𝑜𝑡𝑡𝑜 > 𝜂𝑡ℎ,𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑙
January 2, 2023
Prep. By Nure Jemal
2.2.3 Dual (semi Diesel) cycle
Approximating the combustion process in internal

combustion engines as a constant-volume or a constant-
pressure heat-addition process is overly simplistic and
not quite realistic. Probably a better (but slightly more
complex) approach would be to model the combustion
process in both gasoline and diesel engines as a
combination of two heat-transfer processes, one at
constant volume and the other at constant pressure. The
ideal cycle based on this concept is called the dual cycle.
2.2.4 Stirling and Ericsson Cycles
There are two other cycles that involve an isothermal heat-addition process at TH and an
isothermal heat-rejection process at TL: the Stirling cycle and the Ericsson cycle. They differ
from the Carnot cycle in that the two isentropic processes are replaced by two constant-
volume regeneration processes in the Stirling cycle and by two constant-pressure
regeneration processes in the Ericsson cycle. Both cycles utilize regeneration, a process
during which heat is transferred to a thermal energy storage device (called a regenerator)
during one part of the cycle and is transferred back to the working fluid
Stirling cycle, is made up of four totally reversible processes:
1-2 T= constant expansion (heat addition from the external source)
2-3 v= constant regeneration (internal heat transfer from the working fluid to the regenerator)
3-4 T= constant compression (heat rejection to the external sink)
4-1 v= constant regeneration (internal heat transfer from the regenerator back to the working
fluid)
Stirling and Ericsson cycles are difficult to achieve in practice because they involve heat
transfer through a differential temperature difference
January 2, 2023
Prep. By Nure Jemal
Fig: T-s and P-v diagrams of Carnot, Stirling, and Ericsson cycles.
2.2.5 Brayton (Joule) Cycle
Today, brayton cycle is used for gas turbines only where both the compression and expansion
processes take place in rotating machinery. Gas turbines usually operate on an open cycle.
Fresh air at ambient conditions is drawn into the compressor, where its temperature and
pressure are raised. The combustion process is replaced by a constant-pressure heat-addition
process from an external source, and the exhaust process is replaced by a constant-pressure heat-
rejection process to the ambient air.
1-2 Isentropic compression (in a compressor) 2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion (in a turbine) 4-1 Constant-pressure heat rejection
An open cycle Gas turbine engine A closed cycle Gas turbine engine
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Hence: Thermal efficiency of ideal Brayton cycle is a function of pressure ratio.
The two major application areas of gas turbine engines are aircraft propulsion and electric
power generation. The highest temperature in the cycle is limited by the maximum
temperature that the turbine blades can withstand. This also limits the pressure ratios that
can be used in the cycle. The air in gas turbines supplies the necessary oxidant for the
combustion of the fuel, and it serves as a coolant to keep the temperature of various
components within safe limits. An air–fuel ratio of 50 or above is not uncommon.
January 2, 2023
Prep. By Nure Jemal
2.3 Air-Fuel Cycle
The main difference between air-standard cycles (theoretical cycles) and fuel-air cycles is in the
process of heat addition to the cycle. In the former, heat is added from an external source and is
independent of the source. In the latter, the added heat is generated internally from the chemical
reaction (combustion) of a mixture of a liquid or gaseous hydrocarbon fuel and air within the
flammability limits. This chapter discusses fuel-air cycle assumptions of reciprocating engines;
compression process; combustion process; expansion process; and mean effective pressure. During
the compression process in actual engines, heat exchange between the cylinder gases and the
surroundings is continuously changing with time, both in magnitude and direction. The introduction
of fuel reaction with air and allowance for heat exchange during the compression and expansion
processes results in significant differences between the air-standard cycles and fuel-air cycles.
The theoretical cycle based on the actual properties of the cylinder contents is
called the fuel – air cycle. The fuel – air cycle take into consideration the following:
1- The actual composition of the cylinder contents.
2- The variation in the specific heat of the gases in the cylinder.
3- The dissociation effect.
4- No chemical changes in either fuel or air prior to combustion.
5- Combustion takes place instantaneously at top dead center.
6- All processes are adiabatic.
7- The fuel is mixed well with air.
8- The variation in the number of moles present in the cylinder as the pressure and
temperature change.
January 2, 2023
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2.4 Actual Cycles and Their Analysis
The actual cycles for IC engines differ from the fuel-air cycles and air-standard cycles in
many respects. The actual cycle efficiency is much lower than the air-standard efficiency
due to various losses occurring in the actual engine operation. The major losses are due to:
➢ Variation of specific heats with temperature

➢ Dissociation of the combustion products
➢ Progressive combustion
➢ Incomplete combustion of fuel
➢ Heat transfer into the walls of the combustion chamber
➢ Blowdown at the end of the exhaust process
➢ Gas exchange process
An estimate of these losses can be made from previous experience and some simple tests on
the engines and these estimates can be used in evaluating the performance of an engine.
Comparison of Air-Standard and Actual Cycles

The actual cycles for internal combustion engines differ from air-standard cycles in many
respects. These differences are mainly due to:
(i) The working substance being a mixture of air and fuel vapour or finely atomized liquid
fuel in air combined with the products of combustion left from the previous cycle.
(ii) The change in chemical composition of the working substance.
(iii) The variation of specific heats with temperature.
(iv) The change in the composition, temperature and actual amount of fresh charge because
of the residual gases.
(v) The progressive combustion rather than the instantaneous combustion.
(vi) The heat transfer to and from the working medium.

(vii) The substantial exhaust blowdown loss, i.e., loss of work on the expansion stroke due
to early opening of the exhaust valve.
(viii) Gas leakage, fluid friction etc., in actual engines.
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Prep. By Nure Jemal
➢ Comparison of all the three cycle
Air Standard Cycle (Ideal Gas Cycle) Fuel-Air Cycle Actual Engine Cycle
Idealized processes Idealized Processes Accurate Models of Processes
Idealize working Fluid Accurate Working Accurate Working Fluid

Fluid Model Model
Petrol Cycle Diesel Cycle
Here as we observe from the above cycle actual cycle starts from 0 (suction stroke), but in
idealized one we neglect it as well the line (indicating process) is straight which not true
for actual cases.
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CHAPTER THREE
ENGINE DESIGN AND OPERATING PARAMETERS
3.1 Introduction
Engine performance is more precisely defined by:
I. The maximum power (or the maximum torque) available at each speed within The useful
engine operating range
2. The range of speed and power over which engine operation is satisfactory
Thefol1owing performance definitions are commonly used:
Maximum rated power. The highest power an engine is allowed to develop for short
periods of operation.
Normal rated power: The highest power an engine is allowed to develop in Continuous
operation.
Rated speed. The crank shaft rotational speed at which rated power is developed.
3.2 Geometrical properties of Reciprocating engines
The following parameters define the basic geometry, of a reciprocating engine
Compression ratio rc: where Y is the displaced or swept volume and Vc is the clearance
volume. Ratio of cylinder bore to piston stroke: The performance of the internal combustion
engine is characterized with several geometric and thermodynamic parameters.
 The following geometric parameters are of particular interest:
➢ Bore(B),
➢ Connecting rod length (l),
➢ Crank radius (r),
➢ Stroke (S)
➢ Crank angle (𝜃)
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 For any single cylinder, the cranks shaft, connecting rod, piston, and head assembly can
be represented by the mechanism shown to the left.
𝑙 sin 𝜙 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃
𝑠 = 𝑙 cos 𝜙 + 𝑟 cos 𝜃
𝑟
sin 𝜙 = sin 𝜃
𝑙
cos 𝜙 = √1 − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜙 since 𝑐𝑜𝑠 2 𝜙 + 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜙 = 1
3.2.1 Thermodynamic parameters
1. Indicated power (𝑷𝒊 ): is actual power developed by the engine or It is the actual rate
of work done by the working fluid on the piston. The physical equation for the 𝑃𝑖 . is:
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑃𝑚 × 𝐿 × 𝐴 × 𝑁
where: A is area of piston; L is length of stroke, 𝑃𝑚 is mean effective pressure and N is the
number of machine cycles per unit times, which is 1/2 the rotational speed for a four- stroke
engine, and the rotational speed for a two- stroke engine.
2. Brake power (𝑷𝒃 ): This is the measured power output of the engine. It is usually
obtained by a power absorption device such as a brake or dynamometer which can
be loaded in such a way that the torque exerted by the engine can be measured. The
break power is given by:
𝑃𝑏 = 2𝜋𝑁𝑇
Where T is the torque developed by engine
3. Friction power (𝑷𝒇 ): friction power is the difference between indicated power and
brake power. That is the power required to overcome the frictional resistance of the
engine parts.
𝑃𝑓 = 𝑃𝑖 − 𝑃𝑏
4. Mechanical efficiency (𝜂𝑚 ): is the ratio of brake power to indicated power.

brake power 𝑃𝑏
𝜂𝑚 = =
indicated power 𝑃𝑖
January 2, 2023
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5. Indicated mean effective pressure (imep): It is a hypothetical pressure which if

acting on the engine piston during the working stroke would results in the indicated
work of the engine.
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑚
𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑃 = × 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒
𝑆𝑤𝑒𝑝𝑡 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Consider one engine cylinder:
Work done per cycle = 𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑃AL

Work done per min. = work done per cycle ×active cycles per min.
𝑃𝑖 = 𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑃𝐴 ×active cycles/ min
To obtain the total power of the engine this should be multiplied by the number of cylinder
n, i.e.:
Then total 𝑷𝒊 = 𝒊𝒎𝒆𝑷𝑨𝑳 𝑵𝒏/𝟐 for four stroke engine
𝑷𝒊 = 𝒊𝒎𝒆𝑷𝑨𝑳 𝑵𝒏 for two stroke engine
6. Brake mean effective pressure (bmep): its mean effective pressure acting on the
pistons which would give the measured 𝑷𝒃 ., i.e.
𝑷𝒃 = 𝒃𝒎𝒆𝑷 × 𝑨𝑳 × 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒄𝒚𝒄𝒍𝒆⁄𝒎𝒊𝒏

7. Specific fuel consumption (s.f.c.): It is the mass of fuel consumed per unit power
output per hour, and is a criterion of economic power production.
𝑚̇𝑓
𝑠𝑓𝑐 = 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑘𝑊ℎ
𝑃𝑏
Low values of 𝑠𝑓𝑐 are obviously desired. Typical best values of 𝑠𝑓𝑐 for SI engines
are about 270g/kW.h, and for C.I. engines are about 200g/kW.h.
8. Brake thermal efficiency (𝜼𝑩𝑻 ): The overall efficiency of the engine is given by the
brake thermal efficiency,
𝐵𝑟𝑎𝑘𝑒 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
𝜂𝐵𝑇 =
𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑
𝑃𝑏
=
𝑚̇𝑓 × 𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡
January 2, 2023
Prep. By Nure Jemal
where 𝑚̇𝑓 is the mass of fuel consumed per unit time, and 𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡 is the lower calorific
value of the fuel.
9. Indicated thermal efficiency (𝜼𝒊.𝑻):
𝑃𝑖
𝜂𝑖.𝑇 =
𝑚̇𝑓 × 𝑄𝑛𝑒𝑡
Dividing 𝜂𝐵𝑇 by 𝜂𝑖.𝑇 gives
𝜂𝐵𝑇 𝑃𝑏
= = 𝜂𝑚
𝜂𝐵𝑖 𝑃𝑖
𝜂𝐵𝑇 = 𝜂𝑚 × 𝜂𝑖.𝑇
10.Volumetric efficiency (𝜼𝒗 ): Volumetric efficiency is only used with four- stroke
cycle engines. It is defined as the ratio of the volume if air induced, measured at the
free air conditions, to the swept volume of the cylinder:
𝑣̇
𝜂𝑣 =
𝑣𝑠
The volumetric efficiency of an engine is affected by many variables such as compression

ratio, valve timing, induction and port design, mixture strength, latent heat of evaporation of
the fuel, heating of the induced charge, cylinder pressure, and the atmospheric conditions.
Example 1. In a four stroke single cylinder gas engine he indicated mean effective pressure
is 0.46𝑀𝑁⁄𝑚2 , the brake power 9 kW, speed 250 rpm, mechanical efficiency, 𝜂𝑚 = 0.8, and
bore to stroke ratio = 0.66. Calculate cylinder diameter and mean piston speed.
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Prep. By Nure Jemal
Example 2. The air flow to a four cylinder four – stroke engine is 2.15 m3/min. During a test
on the engine the following data were recorded: Bore 10.5cm; stroke 12.5cm; engine speed
1200 rpm, torque 150 N.m, fuel consumption 5.5 kg/h, calorific value of fuel, 43124 kJ/kg,
ambient temperature and pressure are 20 0c and 1.03 bars. Calculate: The brake thermal
efficiency, the brakes mean effective pressure, and the volumetric efficiency.
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3.2.2 Testing of Internal Combustion Engines:
There are a wide variety of engine tests, starting from simple fuel and airflow
measurements.
Measurement of speed: A wide variety of speed measuring devices are available they range
from a mechanical tachometer to digital and triggered electrical tachometers. The best
method of measurement is to count he number of revolution in a given time; this could be
done either mechanically or electrically.
Fuel consumption measurement: The fuel consumption of an engine is measured by

determining the volume flow in a given time interval, or to measure the time required for the
consumption of a given volume (or mass) of fuel.
Measurement of engine torque and power: Any apparatus that permits the measurement
of torque and power of the engine is called a "dynamometer". Engine Torque. Engine torque
is used to indicate the power that is developed by a turbo-propeller engine, and the indicator
is known as a torquemeter. The engine torque or turning moment is proportional to the
horsepower and is transmitted through the propeller reduction gear.
Engine torque is produced on the crankshaft by the cylinder pressure pushing on the piston
during the power stroke. In an IC, engine torque is produced at the crankshaft as explained
January 2, 2023
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below. The torque that is applied to the crankshaft is called “indicated torque Ti.” The output
torque from the engine at the transmission end of the crankshaft differs from Ti due to friction
and pumping losses and is called the brake torque (denoted Tb).
3.2.3 Measurement of Performance Parameters in a Laboratory
1.3.1. Measurement of Friction Power Friction power includes the frictional losses and the pumping
losses. During suction and exhaust strokes the piston must move against a gaseous pressure and power
required to do this is called the “pumping losses”. The friction loss is made up of the energy loss due to friction
between the piston and cylinder walls, piston rings and cylinder walls, and between the crank shaft and
camshaft and their bearings, as well as by the loss incurred by driving the essential accessories, such as water
pump, ignition unit etc. power: Following methods are used in the laboratory to measure friction
(i) Willan’s line method;
(ii) From the measurement of indicated power and brake power;
(iii) Motoring test;
(iv) Retardation test;
(v) Morse Test.
Willan’s Line Method:- This method is also known as fuel rate extrapolation method. In this method a
graph of fuel consumption (vertical axis) versus brake power (horizontal axis) is drawn and it is extrapolated
on the negative axis of brake power (see Fig. 1).The intercept of the negative axis is taken as the friction power
of the engine a
Morse Test:- This method can be used only for multi – cylinder IC engines. The Morse test consists of
obtaining indicated power of the engine without any elaborate equipment.
From the Measurement of Indicated Power and Brake Power:-

This is an ideal method by which friction power is obtained by computing the difference between the
indicated power and brake power. The indicated power is obtained from an indicator diagram and brake
power is obtained by a brake dynamometer. This method requires elaborate equipment to obtain accurate
indicator diagrams at high speeds.
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CHAPTER (4)
FUEL FOR IC ENGINES
4.1 Introduction
Since the heat energy is derived from the fuel, a fundamental knowledge of the types of fuels
and their characteristics is essential to understand the combustion phenomenon. The
characteristic of fuel has a considerable influence on the design, efficiency, output and
particularly the reliability and durability of the engine.
4.2 Types of Fuel
Internal combustion engines can be operated on different types of fuels such as
✓ Solid fuels
✓ Liquid fuels
✓ Gaseous fuels
a. Solid fuels
This type of fuel was used in early engines. During the initial stages of engine
development, solid fuels (such as finely powdered coal) were used. However, due to the
problem of handling the fuel as well as in disposing off the solid residue or ash (after
combustion).
b. Liquid fuels
The liquid fuels are mostly used in modern internal combustion engines. Basically, they are
the derivatives of liquid petroleum. The commercial types are: Benzyl, Alcohol and
Petroleum products. Petroleum (obtained from crude oil) is a mixture of many hydrocarbons
with varying molecular structure. It also contains small amounts of Sulphur, oxygen,
nitrogen, impurities (such as water, sand etc.)
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Advantages of liquid fuels over solid fuels
s/no Advantages of liquid fuels over Disadvantages

solid fuels
1 High calorific value Highly expensive
2 Low storage capacity required. High risk of fire.
3 Cleanliness and free from dust. Expensive containers are required for
storage and transport
4 Practically no ashes.
5 Non-deterioration in storage.
6 Non-corrosion of boiler plates
c. Gaseous fuels
Gaseous fuels are ideal for internal combustion engines. They mix more
homogeneously with air. However, their use is restricted in automobiles due their storage
and handling problems. Gaseous fuels are suitable for stationary power plants near the
source of availability of the fuel. They can be liquefied under pressure to reduce the
storage volume, but this process is very expensive and risky.
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s/no Advantages of gaseous fuels Dis-Aadvantages of gaseous

fuels
1 The high temperature is obtained at a moderate They are readily inflammable.

cost by pre-heating gas
2 They do not produce ash or smoke Air requires large storage

capacity
3 They are directly used in internal combustion

engines.
4 They are free from solid and liquid impurities.
5 They undergo complete combustion with

minimum air supply.
6 The supply of fuel gas, and hence the

temperature of furnace is easily and accurate
Controlled.
4.3 Fuels for SI engine
Gasoline which is mostly used in the present-day SI engines. Some of the important qualities
of gasoline are discussed below.
4.3.1 Fuel Properties
a. Heat value or Calorific value: It is the indicative of heat energy being produced by the
fuel when it is burnt inside the cylinder/combustion chamber of an engine. It is expressed
in J/kg of fuel and is measured in the device which is known as calorimeter. The
impurities in the fuel leads to decrease in its heat value.
b. Specific gravity: It is expressed as the ratio of the density of fuel to the density of water.
The specific gravity affects the fuel atomization in the nozzles and spray
penetration/injection in the engine cylinder/combustion chamber.
c. Volatility: volatility is defined as the tendency to evaporate at a temperature lower than
their boiling temperature. It is the most dominant factor that controls the air-fuel ratio
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inside the combustion chamber. A highly volatile fuel generates a rich fuel air ratio at
low starting temperature. But, it will creates vapour bubble which choked the fuel pump
delivery system. This phenomenon is known as vapour lock. Lower volatility in fuels leads
to increase in carbon deposits, smoke content and also wear of engine components.
d. Flash point: It is the temperature at which the fuel must be heated to get flammable
vapors and is driven off to ignite when brought into contact with the flame.
e. Fire point: It is the higher temperature at which the vapors will continue to burn after
being ignited. Generally, the fire point is 100 to 210 C higher than the flash point and it
is the indicator of fire hazards. The lower the flash point, the greater is the fire hazard.
In general, the flash point should be high enough to avoid producing flammable vapors.
f. Pour point: It is the temperature at which the fuel becomes insoluble to pevent flow
under specified conditions. A higher pour point implies that in cold weather the fuel will
not flow easily through the filters and fuel system and also the atomization/spray
characteristics are affected.
g. Viscosity: It is the property of fluid/liquid that resists the force which makes the
liquid/fluid to flow. It is measured by the instrument known as viscometer in which the
time required by certain volume of fluid to flow is measured under stated conditions. It
affects the spray pattern of fuel in the combustion chamber. Low viscosity produces a
fine mist, whereas high viscosity leads to coarse atomization.
h. Octane number: It is a standard used for determining the knock characteristics of fuels
(petrol) and it refers to the percentage by volume of iso-octane (C8H18) in a mixture of
iso-octane and normal heptane (C7H16). Fuel knock is prevented by the fuel’s ability not
to self-ignite in the combustion process.
i. Cetane number: It is the measure of fuel property in which it is measured that how
easily and fast the fuel (diesel) is ignited when reaches into the engine combustion
chamber/cylinder. A cetane number rating is obtained by comparing the fuel with cetane,
a colorless liquid hydrocarbon, which has excellent ignition qualities and is rated as 100.
j. Carbon residue: Carbon residue refers to matter left after combustion is an indication
of the amount of combustion chamber deposits when the fuel is burnt in the engine
combustion chamber/cylinder. This property is more critical in small high-speed engines
than in large, low speed engines.
k. Sulphur content: The presence of sulphur in high quantity in the fuel is not desirable as
it increases the wear of engine components specifically, the piston rings and the cylinder
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walls. It also causes the formation of hard coatings on the piston and oil sludge in the
engine crankcase. The sulphur in fuel after burning combines with the water to form
corrosive acids which further damages the finished surfaces. Sulphur content varies from
0.5 to 2% on weight basis.
l. Gum content: Gum in the fuels is formed by the polymerization of some unsaturated
hydrocarbons. To have good quality of fuel, the gum content should be minimum.
In IC engines, the chemical energy contained in the fuel is converted into mechanical power
by burning (oxidizing) the fuel inside the combustion chamber of the engine. As a result of
the chemical reactions which occur inside the cylinder, heat is released. The fuel-air mixture
(the working fluid before combustion) must stay in the cylinder for a sufficient time so that
the chemical reactions can be completed.
4.4 Fuels for CI engine (Diesel Fuels)
Oil is the undisputed largest source of energy for internal combustion engines (ICE).
However, rapid depletion of the oil due to the increasing number of vehicles, the pollutant
emissions within its combustion products that threaten the ecological system and the
concerns about the security of supply due to the oil reserves unevenly distributed over the
globe,
Important qualities of CI engine fuels
1. Satisfactory handling & storage
1. Flash and fire points: indicates the temperature below which oil can be handled without
danger of fire.
2. Viscosity: should be low enough for easy pumping and high enough to provide some
lubrication.
3. Cloud point: The temperature below which the wax content separates out as solid is called
cloud point. This waxy solids can clog fuel lines and filters. This should be low.
4. Pour point: The temperature below which the fuel freezes making flow impossible. This
should be low. Smooth and efficient burning
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5. Volatility: should be high for proper mixing, burning and starting characteristics. Lower
volatility  less fuel boil off from injector  less HC emissions. Lower volatility  less
NOx emissions. High volatility also slightly affects smoke density and odour of exhaust.
6. Ignition delay: too long  high knocking. Too short  smoke due to insufficient mixing.
7. Anti knock characteristics: should be good.
8. Specific gravity: should be high  high energy density.
9. Heat of combustion: should be high. Continued cleanliness during usage
10. Contamination: sand/rust/abrasive particles/ice can clog or damage parts.
11. Sulphur: causes corrosion, wear, sludge/sticky deposits
4.5 Alternative fuels and Additives
The increased use of automobiles and the rapid rate of industrial development in the world
made petroleum supplies unable to keep up with demands. Moreover, petroleum fuels pollute
the environment with their combustion products. Two categories of alternative fuels are
investigated yet. That is alcoholic fuels and gaseous fuels. Alcohols could be produced from
renewable resources and produce less exhaust pollutants. Gaseous fuels offer, cleaner
combustion due to improved fuel-air mixture preparation and higher H/C ration than in
conventional liquid fuels. Ethanol
Ethanol is generally produced from renewable sources such as biomass and agricultural
feedstock. So, ethanol has been used widely as alternative fuel in internal combustion
engines. The octane number of ethanol is higher than the octane number of the gasoline. The
high octane number of ethanol allows the use of ethanol as fuel in an SI engine with a higher
compression ratio.
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CHAPTER FIVE (5)
COMBUSTION AND COMBUSTION CHAMBER DESIGN
5.1 Introduction
Combustion is a chemical reaction in which certain elements of the fuel like

hydrogen and carbon combine with oxygen liberating heat energy and
causing an increase in temperature of the gases.
Necessary condition for combustion to take place: Fuel Heat
1. The presence of combustible mixture Oxidizer

combustion
2. Some means to initiate mixture oxidizer
3. Stabilization and propagation of flame in Combustion Chamber
In S I Engines, carburetor supplies a combustible mixture of petrol and air and spark plug
initiates combustion. Depending on the type of engines, process of combustion generally takes
place either in a homogeneous or a heterogeneous fuel vapor-air mixture.
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5.2 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous mixture
5.2.1 Homogeneous mixture
In spark-ignition engines homogeneous mixture of air and fuel is formed in the (Carburetor,
PFI and DFI) then combustion is initiated at the end of compression stroke. Once the fuel
vapor-air mixture is ignited, a flame front appears and rapidly spreads through the mixture.
The flame propagation is caused by heat transfer and diffusion of burning fuel molecules
from the combustion zone to the adjacent layers of fresh mixture. The velocity at which the
flame front moves, with respect to the unburned mixture in a direction normal to its surface
is called the normal flame velocity
In a SI engine working with gasoline/petrol, the maximum flame speed is obtained when Φ
is between 1.1 and 1.2, i.e., when the mixture is slightly richer than stoichiometric. If the
equivalence ratio is outside this range the flame speed drops rapidly to a low value and ceases
to propagate. Introducing turbulence and incorporating proper mixture movement can
increase flame speed in a mixtures outside the above range. Combustion in the SI engine can
be classified as Normal Combustion and Abnormal Combustion
5.2.2 Heterogeneous mixture
The combustion of heterogeneous fuel-air mixtures occurs in a variety of practical

combustion systems, including diesel and gas turbine engines and industrial furnaces.
However, despite these broad applications, little is known about flame propagation in
heterogeneous mixtures because few experimental studies have been co~ducted, and these
have yielded incomplete and sometimes conflicting results
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5.3 Combustion in SI engine, Combustion chamber for SI engine
5.3.1 Combustion in SI engine
In SI engines or Spark Ignition engines, air and fuel mixture in a proportional ratio
is supplied to the combustion chamber with the help of carburetor. This air-fuel mixture
in the combustion chamber is ignited using a spark plug which provides a high-intensity
spark. This spark initiates the combustion process in the combustion chamber. The full
combustion of the air-fuel mixture depends on the rate of heat transfer between the first
flame and surrounding area of mixture, pressure, and temperature.
5.3.2 Combustion stage in SI engine
Combustion process in SI engines can

be divided into three broad regions
a. Ignition and Flame development

b. Flame Propagation
c. Flame termination
Ignition and Flame development: At the end of compression stroke, an electrical discharge
initiates the combustion process; a flame develops from the kernel created by spark discharge
and propagates across the cylinder to the walls. It’s a time interval between the first spark
given to the mixture (at point A) and the first flame appears out of the mixture (A-
B). This ignition lag represents the preflame reaction. This first phase or preparation phase
in stages of combustion in SI engines depends upon the different factors such as the
temperature of fuel, pressure, molecular structure of fuel, density and air-fuel ratio in the
combustion chamber. Point A is the point of spark initiation (say 20° bTDC). Point B is the
point at which the beginning of pressure rise can be detected (say 80° bTDC) and Point C
the attainment of peak pressure.
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2. Flame Propagation Phase: The second stage (B-C) (flame Propagation) is a physical
one and it is concerned with the spread of the flame throughout the combustion chamber.
The second phase i.e. flame propagation phase starts when the pressure in the combustion
chamber starts rising at point B or at the point where the line of combustion departs from
the compression line (point B) and the phase ends when the highest pressure is achieved
in the cylinder at point C on ( P – θ ) diagram. Curve BC on the diagram represents the rate
of pressure rise. The rate of heat transfer to the cylinder walls is very low at the beginning
of the flame propagation phase. This stage is one the most important stage in the stages of
combustion in SI engine.
The time duration between point B (combustion starts) and point C (Peak pressure) is known
as flame propagation. The most of the heat is generated during this phase. Normally spark
will occur (Point A) approximately 30° to 35° before TDC, so that peak pressure (Point C)
is obtained 5° to 10° after TDC at cruising speed. As speed vary this spark timing should
vary forgetting peak pressure at 5° to 10° after TDC.
5 After Burning: The third stage (C-D) (Wall Quenching) starts at instant at which the
maximum pressure is reached on the indicator diagram (point C). The rate of
combustion becomes low due to lower flame velocity and reduced flame front surface.
The most important factors which affect the flame speed are the turbulence, the fuel-air
ratio, temperature and pressure, compression ratio, engine output and engine speed.
5.3.3 Combustion chamber for SI engine
The design of combustion chamber involves the shape of the combustion chamber, location
of the spark plug, and disposition of inlet and exhaust valves. Basic Requirements of a Good
Combustion Chamber. The three main requirements of a SI engine combustion chamber are
high power output with minimum octane requirement, high thermal efficiency, and smooth
engineoperation.
1. Higher power output requires the following:
✓ High compression ratio

✓ Small or no excess air
✓ No dead pockets
✓ An optimum degree of turbulence and High volumetric efficiency
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2. High thermal efficiency requires the following:

1. High compression ratio
2. Small heat loss during combustion
3. Good scavenging of exhaust gases
3. Smooth engine operation ...
The design of the combustion chamber for an SI engine has an important influence on the
engine performance and its knock intendencies. The design involves
➢ The shape of the combustion chamber,

➢ The location of spark plug and
➢ The location of inlet and exhaust valves.
Major focus is on “faster-burning” i.e., at a given engine speed, combustion is completed at

a shorter interval crank rotation. Different types combustion chambers have been developed
over a period of time.
T-head: The T-head combustion chambers were used in the

early stage of engine development. Since the distance across
the combustion chamber is very long, knocking tendency is
high in this type of engines. This configuration provides two
valves on either side of the cylinder, requiring two camshafts.
From the manufacturing point of view, providing two
camshafts is a disadvantage.
L-head: A modification of the T-head type of combustion

chamber is the L-head type which provides the two valves on
the same side of the cylinder and the valves are operated by a
single camshaft.
The main objectives of the Ricardo's turbulent head design, Fig

(c), axle to obtain fast flame speed and reduced knock.
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I Head Type or Overhead Valve: In which both the valves are located on
the cylinder head. The overhead valve engine is superior to a side valve or
an L-head engine at high compression ratios. Some of the important
characteristics of this type of valve arrangement are:
✓ less surface to volume ratio and therefore less heat loss

✓ less flame travel length and hence greater freedom from knock
✓ higher volumetric efficiency from larger valves or valve lifts.
F-Head Type: The F-head type of valve arrangement is a compromise
between L-head and I-head types. Combustion chambers in which one
valve is in the cylinder head and the other in the cylinder block are
known as F-head combustion chambers Modern F-head engines have
exhaust valve in the head and inlet valve in the cylinder block. The main
disadvantage of this type is that the inlet valve and the exhaust valve are
separately actuated by two cams mounted on to camshafts driven by the
crankshaft through gears
Table: Summary of variables Affecting knock in an SI engine
Increase in variable Major effect on unburned Action to be taken Can operator

reduce charge to knocking usually control?
Compression ratio Increase Temp. & Press. Reduce No
Mass of charge Increase Press. Reduce Yes

inducted
Inlet temperature Increase Temp. Reduce In some cases,
Chamber wall Temp. Increase Temp. Reduce Not ordinarily
Spark advance Increase Temp. & Press. Retard In some cases
A/F ratio Increase Temp. & Press. Make very rich In some cases
Turbulence Decrease time factor Increase Some what
Engine speed Decrease time factor Increase Yes
Distanceofflame travel Increase time factor Reduce No
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5.4 Combustion in CI engine and Combustion chamber for CI engines
5.4.1 Combustion in CI engine
In CI or compression ignition engine, in the compression stroke, only air is compressed at

very high pressure and temperature. The compression ratio used is in the range of 12 to 120.
The temperature of the air becomes higher than the temperature of the fuel which is diesel
in the CI engine. Then diesel fuel is injected in the combustion chamber under very high
pressure about 120 to 210 bar. • In CI engines fuel is injected into the combustion chamber
at about 15°C before T.D.C during the compression stroke. For the best efficiency the
combustion must complete within 15° to 20° of crank rotation after T.D.C in the working stroke.
5.4.2 Stages of Combustion in CI engine:
There are four different stages of combustion in CI engine where proper combustion of air
and fuel takes place as follows:
1. Ignition Delay Period
2. Period of Uncontrolled Combustion
3. Period of Controlled Combustion
4. After Burning
1. Ignition Delay Period
Ignition delay is the period during

which some fuel has been admitted
but has not yet been ignited. It is
counted from the start of injection
to the point where P-θ curve
separates from pure air compression curve. Due to atomization and vaporization, this
fuel disintegrates at the core which is surrounded by a spray of air and fuel particles. In this
vaporization process, the fuel gets heat from the compressed and hot surrounding air. It
causes some pressure drop in the cylinder. You can see this pressure drop (curve
AB) in the above figure. After completion of the vaporization process, the preflame
reaction of the mixture in the combustion chamber starts. During the preflame reaction,
pressure into the cylinder starts increasing with the release of energy at a slow rate. This
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preflame reaction starts slowly and then speeds up until the ignition of the fuel takes place.
You can see this process at point C on the diagram. This time interval between the starting
of the fuel injection and the beginning of the combustion is called the delay period. This
delay period can further be divided into two parts – Physical delay and chemical delay.
Physical Delay: it’s a period between the time of injection of the fuel and its
achievement of self-ignition temperature during vaporization. In the physical delay
period,the fuel is atomized, vaporized, mixed with air , and raised in temperature.
Chemical Delay: its the time interval up to the fuel ignites and the flame of the combustion
appears. In this period, pre-flame reactions start slowly and then accelerate until local
inflammation or ignition takes place. Preflame reaction we discussed above is taking
place during the chemical delay. Due to the complex process of combustion is a CI
engine, it’s difficult to separate these two delay periods. If this delay period performs longer
than usual, then we can here knocking in CI engine.
2. Period of Uncontrolled Combustion
This is the second stage of combustion in the CI engine. After completion of delay period,
the air and fuel mixture will auto-ignite as they have achieved their self-ignition
temperature. The mixture of air and fuel in CI engines is heterogeneous unlike
homogeneous in the SI engines. Due to this heterogeneous mixture, flames appear at more
than one location where the concentration of the mixture is high. The accumulated fuel
during the delay is now started burning at an extremely rapid rate. It causes a rise in
in-cylinder pressure and temperature. So, the higher the delay period, the higher would be
the rate of pressure rise.
During this stage, you can’t control the amount of fuel burning, that’s why this period is
called a period of uncontrolled combustion. This period is represented by the curve CD in
the above figure.
3. Period of Controlled Combustion
When the accumulated fuel during the delay period completely burned in the period
uncontrolled combustion, the temperature and pressure of the mixture in the cylinder
are so high that new injected fuel from the nozzle will burn rapidly due to the presence of
sufficient oxygen in the combustion chamber. That’s the reason we can control the rise
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of pressure into the cylinder by controlling the fuel injection rate. Therefore, this period
of combustion is called a period of controlled combustion.
4. After Burning
This is the last stage of combustion in CI engine. Naturally, the combustion process is
completed at the point when the maximum pressure is obtained in the combustion
chamber at point E as shown in the figure. Practically, the burning of the fuel in the
combustion chamber remains to continue during the expansion stroke. The main reason
behind it is the reassociation of dissociated gases and unburnt fuel. Therefore, this last
phase of combustion is called After Burning.
Factors affecting Ignition Delay period
a. Fuel: Lower self ignition temperature means a lower delay period. Higher Cetane
number means a lower delay period and smooth engine operation.
b. Intake Temperature: Increase in intake temperature would result in increase in

compressed air temperature which would reduce the delay period.
c. Compression ratio: Increase in compression ratio reduces delay period as it raises both
temperature and density .
d. Type of combustion chamber: A pre-combustion chamber gives shorter delay

compared to an open type of combustion chamber .
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e. Injection advance: Delay period increases with increase in injection advance angle.
(with increase in injection angle, pressure and temperature are lower when injection
begins)
5.4.3 Combustion Chambers for C.I. Engine
C.I. Engines are classified on the basis of method of generating swirl. There are four types
of combustion chambers.
1. Open Combustion chambers
2. Divided or turbulent swirl chambers
3. Pre-combustion chambers
4. Air cell combustion chambers.
Open combustion chambers: The method of swirlused in this type of combustion

chamber is induction swirl. In induction swirl, flow of air is directed towards the
cylinders during its entry . is characterized with little restriction and there are no large
differences in pressure between different parts of chamber during the combustion process.
Divided or Turbulent swirl chambers: in this swirl is generating by compression.

Compression swirl is one in which air is forced through a tangential passage into a
separate swirl chamber during compression stroke. Its defined as one in which the
combustion space is divided into two or more distinct compartments between which
there are restrictions or throats small enough so that considerable pressure difference
occurs between them during combustion process.
Pre-combustion chamber: The type of swirl used is combustion induced swirl. A pre-
combustion chamber consist s of pre-combustion chamber or anti-chamber connected
to the main chamber through a number of very small holes. Pre-combustion chamber
contains 20 to 30 % of clearance volume
Air cell combustion chamber: The type of swirl used in this combustion chamber is
combustion induced swirl. Here there is no organized air swirl.
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5.5 Abnormal Combustion: Knock & Surface Ignition
When the combustion gets deviated from the normal behaviour resulting in loss of
performance or damage to the engine.
1.Auto ignition: - During the combustion of charge, the pressure and temperature of
unburned mixture of the end gas becomes very high, so that its value reaches the self-
ignition condition, and this last part of the charge burns.
2.Surface ignition: - if a spot inside the combustion chamber such as spark plug, valves,
carbon deposit be at high temperature, it may act as ignition source for the charge.
3. Diesel Knock:- If the Ignition delay period is long, a large amount of fuel will be injected
and accumulated in the chamber. The auto-ignition of this large amount of fuel may cause
high rate of pressure rise and high maximum pressure which may cause Knocking in diesel
engines. For petrol engine Detonation. A long delay period not only increases the amount
of fuel injected by the moment of ignition,
Methods of controlling Diesel Knock: The diesel knock can be controlled by reducing delay
period. The delay is reduced by the following.
1. High charge temperature 2. High fuel temperature.
3. By using Ignition accelerators like Amyl Nitrate. 4. Good turbulence.
5. A fuel with short induction period.
Abnormal Combustion
A combustion process in which a flame front may be started by hot combustion
chamber surfaces either prior to or after spark ignition, or a process in which some part
or all of the charge may be consumed at extremely high rate
Auto-ignition/Spark Knock Surface Ignition
A knock which is recurrent and Surface ignition is the ignition of fuel-air

repeatable in terms of audibility. It is charge by any hot surface other than the
controllable by spark timing; advancing spark discharge prior to the arrival of the
the spark increases the knock intensity normal flame front. It may occur before
and retarding the spark ignites the charge (pre-ignition)
or after the normal ignition (post-ignition)
the spark reduces the intensity
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Detonation and Knocking Comparison
S/No Detonation in S I Engine Knock in C I Engine
1 Detonation occurs near the end of Knocking occurs near the beginning of
combustion combustion. i.e. at the end of first stage of
combustion.
2 Detonation is easily distinguished Knocking is not easy to distinguish from normal

combustion.
from normal combustion.
3 Larger cylinder promotes Diesel knock is reduced with increase in size of

cylinder.
detonation
4 Compression ratio in S.I. engine Higher compression ratio causes lesser ignition
delay and hence lesser possibility of diesel
is limited by Detonation
knock
5 Pre-ignition may occur. Fuel is injected into the cylinder only at the
end of the compression stroke and there is no
question of pre- ignition or premature ignition.
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CHAPER SIX (6)
VALVE GEAR AND VALVE TIMING
6.1 Introduction
Engine valves are used in engines to allow air or air-fuel mixture to enter into the cylinder
(through inlet valve) and also to push exhaust gases (through outlet valve) from the cylinder
at a specific time during the engine cycle. To have complete contact between the valve and
engine surface (head), an accurately faced surface is provided which is known as valve seat.
For inlet valves. the seat surface is directly machined on the engine head and are also known
as integral seats. However, special seat inserts are used for exhaust valves as these are
continuously exposed high temperature and thermal stress.
The stem of the valve needs to move up and down without any deviation from its axis. Since,
these stems are subjected to side thrust also, the valve guides are provided to maintain its
alignment. Sometimes, these guides are the direct holes in the engine block. However,
separate valve guides have also been used as inserts which are cylindrical in shape. The
clearance between the valve stem and guide is kept optimum/sufficient to maintain
lubrication film around the stem surface.
Valve spring (helical) are used to keep

valve in regular contact with the tappet and
the tappet with the cam. These valve
springs should be fatigue resistant and are
made up of high-grade spring steel wire,
hard-drawn steel or chrome-vanadium
steel.
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6.2 Valve gear
A valve gear is a component that controls the intake and exhaust of steam in an engine. The
mechanism is usually connected a steam engine's valves, and was often used in early
locomotives. Such an engine is typically most efficient when the inlet is open for a short
time, before it reaches the cutoff point when no more steam goes into the engine’s cylinder.
There have been several designs over the years, each generally limited by requiring the same
process to work the exhaust and inlet valves.
Steam locomotive nomenclature typically includes a range of parts which include the boiler,
firebox, wheels, and a variety of pumps and valves. The most efficient valve gear is usually
one that lets steam in during the intake so it can expand on the next phase of the cycle.
Various types of mechanisms have been built to control the valve motion. To move a
locomotive from rest, however, more power is generally required, so steam can be let in
during the expansion phase as well. A device called a Johnson bar was often used for steam
control; train engineers could pull on it to stop the flow.
6.3 Valve operating system
An engine valve operating system is provided that includes a variable valve lift mechanism
in which, when there is a possibility that the rotational speed of the engine might increase
beyond an allowed rotational speed due to a downshift error in a manual transmission, etc.,
the amount of valve lift is decreased without changing the opening angle of the valve (19).
By so doing, the curvature at the top of the curve of lift of the valve (19) is reduced, the
inertial force applied to the valve (19) is reduced, and improper movement of the valve (19)
can be prevented. Moreover, it is possible to prevent any increase in the intake air volume
due to a decrease in the amount of lift of the valve (19), and prevent the effectiveness of
engine braking from being degraded, thus enabling the rotational speed of the engine to be
decreased and thereby preventing improper movement of the valve (19) from being
promoted.
Valve actuation: A complete mechanism is involved in actuating the inlet and exhaust
valves (opening & closing) through the motion of different components come in valve train.
A cam is used as a drive to actuate the valve and this cam rotates at half of the speed of
crankshaft in a four stroke engine. Following are the various components of valve train.
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i) Camshaft ii) Tappet iii) Push rod iv) Rocker arm v) Valves
Camshaft: Camshaft is a shaft in which cams are provided as integral part of the shaft.
Separate cam is provided for each valve (inlet and exhaust). Cam has it path profile having
high spot known as nose and the lowest point termed as base. These two points nose and
base corresponds to fully opened and closing of valves respectively. The cam profile is
provided to have smooth rise (opening) and fall (closing) of valves. The cam is a rotating
element which generates the reciprocating motion to the follower which is known as push
rod in a plane at right angle to the cam axis. Cam shaft is also used to drive fuel pump.
Camshaft is made up of forged alloy steel which is case hardened.
Tappet: This is also known as cam follower or valve lifter which follows the shape of the
cam to provide reciprocating motion to the valves by conversing angular/rotating motion of
the cam shaft. The tappet is placed in between the cam and the push rod which helps in
preventing the side thrust to be exerted from the cam on the push rod. Some clearance is
provided between the cam and tappet to take care of thermal expansion and this clearance is
known as valve lash.
Push rod : The reciprocating motion of the push rod actuates the rocker arm which moves
in an arc about its pivot. Push rods are made of carbon-manganese steel.
Rocker arm : The rocker arm is used to convert the upward movement of push rod to the
downward movement of the valve (opening up) and also the downward movement of
pushrod to upward movement of valve (closing down). The rocker arm can be made of either
hollow or solid material. The rocker arms are pivoted to rocker shaft which also provides
lubrication
Valves : Although various types of valves are available but poppet valves are the most
commonly used engines valves being used in engines these days. These poppet valves are
also known as mushroom valves as its shape resembles to the mushroom having head and
stem. Generally, inlet valves are larger in size to enhance the air intake and exhaust valves
are made relatively harder than the inlet valves as these are exposed to hot exhaust gases
always. Exhaust valves are made up of special material i.e austenitic steels and precipitation
hardening steel which should have high strength to resist tensile loads, wear resistance due
to heat, corrosion resistance, low coefficient of thermal expansion and high thermal
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conductivity. Since, the valve temperature reaches to several hundred (7500C), valve cooling
is also essential for which valve stems are sometimes filled with sodium (which has high
thermal conductivity).
6.4 Valve Timing and Performance
A valve timing diagram is a graphical representation of the opening and closing of the intake
and exhaust valve of the engine, The opening and closing of the valves of the engine
depend upon the movement of piston from TDC to BDC. Variable valve timing offers the
possibility of controlling the cylinder filling process solely by means of restricting the
opening of the inlet valve.
Opening and closing of inlet and exhaust valves is a process which are timed to achieve
maximum engine efficiency by completing the various strokes engine cycle at predetermined
time intervals. Theoretically both the valves, inlet and exhaust should open at TDC and BDC
respectively. Similarly, the exhaust valve should remain open till the piston reaches to TDC
during the exhaust stroke and it should be closed fully at TDC. But in practice, due to inertia
the valves can not be opened and closed instantaneously and it is not desired even as the
intake of air/air-fuel mixture and exhaust of burnt gases are required to be completed. The
periodic opening and closing of inlet and exhaust valves is known as valve timing.
The inlet valves is generally opened before 100 of TDC which is known as valve lead and
closes almost 460 after BDC which refers to valve lag. Similarly, the exhaust valve is opened
before 460 of BDC and closed after 100 of TDC. The condition when both the inlet and
exhaust valves are open simultaneously is called valve overlap. The valves are opened and
closed according to the valve timing diagram. The cam shaft which is run through timing
gears rotates at half of the number of rotations per minute of the crankshaft. The valve
mechanism is generally classified by the method of valve arrangement as either side valve
or overhead valves. The overhead valve arrangement is the most commonly used
arrangement these days.
The opening of inlet valve is advanced to use the depression made by the outgoing gases and
hence the fresh air is taken inside the cylinder. But, if the inlet valves are opened very
advanced, it may make some of the exhaust gases to re-enter in the cylinder through the inlet
manifold. Similarly, the closer of the inlet valve is made later than the BDC when the piston
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has already stated moving up for the compression stroke, this is done to achieve the
maximum volumetric efficiency.
Ideally, the exhaust valve should be opened after the piston reaches BDC on completion of
the power stroke, but the exhaust valve starts opening well before the piston reaches BDC.
This makes the exhaust gases to escape from the cylinder with its own energy and hence
reduces the work to be done during the exhaust stroke. The closure exhaust valve is delayed
to the piston reaches TDC making fully removal of burnt gases and creating partial vacuum
inside. But, if the closure of exhaust valve is delayed more, it would result into loss of fresh
air also through the exhaust valve. Thus the advantage of valve overlap is obtained to achieve
maximum engine efficiency.
Theorethical and actual valve timing diagram
If racing is your thing, or you are an automotive hobbyist, then you are most likely not afraid
of swapping cams in your engine. However, the trick to making your car faster is not just
replacing the cam, but replacing it with the "right" camshaft. This is where your
understanding of valve timing becomes crucial in selecting the proper cam. To help you
better understand valve timing, this page will cover blow down overlap and the ram effect.
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BLOW DOWN
On the power stroke, the combustion pushes the piston down in the cylinder. During this
stroke, it is necessary to open the exhaust valve before the piston gets to the bottom of the
cylinder. This will allow the excess pressure in the cylinder to "vent out" just before the
piston reaches the bottom of the stroke. The term "Blow Down" is used to describe this event.
Timing the exhaust valve in this manner assures no pressure is left in the cylinder to push
against the piston on the exhaust stroke. Otherwise, there could be 20 PSI (or so) pushing
against the piston as it starts up the cylinder. This would require some of your engine's power
just to push the exhaust out of the cylinder!
High RPM engines need to have the exhaust valve open sooner so the pressure has a better
chance to exit the cylinder. However, at lower RPMs, opening the exhaust valve too soon
means you didn't take full advantage of the power stroke.
OVERLAP
As the engine cycles, there is a period when both the intake and exhaust valves are open at
the same time. This valve timing is known as "overlap." Think of this as the exhaust and
intake cycles overlapping each other. The valves are timed so the intake valve opens slightly
before the piston reaches top dead center (TDC) on the exhaust stroke. Likewise, the exhaust
valve is timed to close just after the piston starts down on the intake stroke.
The objective of overlap is for the exhaust gas which is already running down the exhaust
pipe, to create an effect like a siphon and pull a fresh mixture into the combustion chamber.
Otherwise, a small amount of burned gasses would remain in the combustion chamber
and dilute the incoming mixture on the intake stroke. This valve timing is a product of the
cam's duration and separation specs. The science involved with overlap is quite complex.
Pressures, runner lengths, temperature, and many other aspects influence how well the
overlap effect works.
RAM EFFECT
When the piston reaches the bottom of the cylinder on the intake stroke, the intake valve
doesn't immediately close at this point. The intake valve remains open even though the piston
is starting up the cylinder on the compression stroke because of inertia effect. The expression
"ram effect" is used to describe this event. Timing the intake valve in this manner allows an
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additional amount of fresh mixture to be rammed into the cylinder. The effect is very similar
to water hammer in plumbing. What happens is that during the intake stroke the fresh mixture
is running fast enough down the intake manifold and into the cylinder that it can not instantly
stop when the piston stops at the bottom of the intake stroke. Just like the water hammer
effect, the incoming mixture is rammed into the cylinder even though the piston may be
starting up on the compression stroke.
High RPM engines can have the intake valve remain open longer to take advantage of this
ram effect. However, at low RPMs, the ram effect is not strong enough and the piston will
start to push the fresh mixture back out of the cylinder. Of all the different valve timing
effects, this one can have the greatest impact on your engine's performance.
Generally theoretical and actual valve timing is indicated below.
Position Theoretical Actual

Low speed High speed
Inlet valve opens TDC 10b TDC 10b TDC
Inlet valve closes BDC 15a BDC 60a BDC
Inlet valve opens for 180 205 250
Exhaust valve opens BDC 25b BDC 55b BDC
Exhaust valve closes TDC 10a TDC 20a BDC
Exhaust valve opens for 180 215 255
Valve overlap Nill (zero) 20 30
Spark advance for TDC 10b TDC 10b TDC
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CHAPTER SEVEN (7)
IC ENGINE SYSTEMS
Introduction
Engine system may involves the following system in it.
1. Fuel injection system

2. Starting system
3. Ignition system
4. Charging system
5. Lubrication system
6. Cooling system
7.1 Fueling (fuel injection) in SI engine system
Engine fuel supply system covers the quality and quantity of fuel, air and air fuel mixture
flow and combustion aspects in efficient operation of an engine by performing following
functions. The fuel system covers the travel of fuel from the fuel tank to injection of atomized
fuel into the combustion chamber/cylinder where the burning of fuel takes place to generate
mechanical work output. Various components like fuel tank, fuel feed pump, fuel pipes, fuel
filters, fuel pump, high pressure pipes, injecting nozzles are the components of fuel line to
be discussed in this module.
7.1.1 Components of fuel injection system
1. Fuel storage : Fuel tank is usually made up of metal or fibre sheet having anti rust and
better heat and shock resistant properties. Fuel tank should prevent fuel to get
contaminated with dust, water or any other foreign material
2. Fuel Filtering Fuel filters (primary & secondary) are
provided to remove the impurities (water or dust) from the fuel
while flowing from tank to reach fuel injection pump. Primary
filter is usually made of wire mesh and used for removing the
coarse particles. It is attached to the fuel feed pump. secondary
filter is used for further removal of fine particles and abrasive
material which is made of fine pores and it is placed after the fuel feed pump.
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3. Air Cleaners: Just like fuel being filtered, air should also be filtered and cleaned before
entering into the cylinder. The dust particles in the air when mixed with oil act like
abrasive material which deteriorates the cylinder walls or liners, pistons or rings and
hence decrease the engine performance.
4. Dry air cleaner: This type of air cleaner consists of a paper filter element with a row of
plastic fins around it. As the air from the atmosphere enters
the cleaner, the plastic fins give it a high rotational speed
between the casting and the filter element. Air without these
dust particles then passes through the paper element, which
removes any further impurities and clean air then goes to
the engine.
7.1.2 carburation
Carburetor is the device which works on Bernoulli’s Principle and is used in petrol engines
to controls the amount of atomized fuel and air in the air fuel mixture to be supplied to engine
combustion chamber. Carburetor is provided with the throat in which the air stream flows.
The velocity of air is more in the throat as compared to velocity at the entrance and this high
velocity reduces the pressure inside the throat which makes the fuel to enter in the throat due
to pressure difference and gets mixed with the air stream. Under all conditions, the engine
carburetor must perform the following:
• Regulate the airflow in the engine

• Supply the required amount of fuel to maintain the level of fuel/air mixture
• Prepare the exact fuel and air mixture
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7.2 Starting system
Self Start System is the method of rotating the crankshaft with the help of a starter motor to
start the engine. The Starter motor helps to rotate the crankshaft, which allows to
reciprocate the piston inside the cylinder to start Engine.
7.2.1 Components of self Start System
is consists of a starter motor, Ignition Switch, Solenoid, Plunger, Lever Fork, Battery and Solenoid.
1) Battery: - Battery supplies the power to the Starter Motor.
2) Ignition Switch: - Ignition switch is used to Connect or

Disconnect the Connection between Battery & Solenoid.
Therefore When Ignition Switch is on, The Current flows from
the Battery to Solenoid therefore Solenoid gets energized.
3) Plunger: - It is located inside the Solenoid. When Current flows from Battery to Solenoid
Creates the magnetic field, Solenoid pushes the Plunger from Left to Right. The plunger has
a contact point on the Right end. Therefore, When Plunger moves from Left to Right, Contact
made between Contact Point & Point 1 & Point 2. Therefore, the current flows from the
Battery to Motor.
4) Lever Fork: - One end of the Lever fork is connected to the Plunger & Another end is
Connected to the Motor Shaft. Liver Fork is Pivoted at the middle part. Therefore, Due to
Plunger movement from Left to Right, Liver Fork pushes the Pinion to Forward to mesh
with the Flywheel.
5. Solenoid: - It is Electromagnet, Winding is used inside the Solenoid. When Current passes
through the winding, it generates a Magnetic field. Therefore, when flows from the battery
to Solenoid, Solenoid pushes the piston Left to Right. Return spring is used inside the
Solenoid. Therefore, when the ignition switch gets off, Plunger comes to its original position.
6. Starting Motor: - It is DC Motor, has Pinion on the Motor shaft End to mesh with
Flywheel. The battery supplies the current to the Motor.
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How self-start system works? When the driver switches on the ignition switch, First Current
flows from the Battery to Solenoid therefore Solenoid gets Energized & Push Plunger from
Left to Right. Then, Due to Plunger movement from Left to Right, Liver Fork pushes the
Pinion to Forward & Contact mades between Contact Point & Point 1 & Point 2. therefore,
the current flows from the Battery to the Motor. Hence, the Motor Starts Rotating. Resulting
in Pinion Starts Rotating & Rotates the Flywheel. In this system, less effort requires to start
the engine as compared to the kick start system.
7.3 Ignition System
Ignition system carries electrical current to the spark plug where spark carries sufficient
energy to increase temperature of surrounding charge to ignition point at which combustion
become self-sustained. Also, its used to initiate combustion in the flammable air-fuel mixture
by igniting it at precisely the right moment. In the spark-ignition (Otto) engine, this is
achieved with an electrical spark, i.e., an arc discharge between the spark plug's electrodes.
• The spark should be delivered on the right moment to maximize the power and minimize
the emissions
7.3.1 Basic Components to a Ignition System
Various ignition circuit components are designed to achieve the specific functions on
the ignition system. That components are:
a. Battery- provides power for the circuit.

b. Ignition switch- allows the operator to turn the circuit and engine
on and off
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7.3.2 Types of ignition system
Basically, convectional Ignition systems are of 2 types:
(a) Battery or Coil Ignition System, and

(b) Magneto Ignition System
Both these conventional, ignition systems work on mutual electromagnetic induction

principle.
Battery or Coil Ignition System: - used in 4-wheelers, but now-a-days it is more commonly
used in 2-wheelers also (i.e., Button start, 2-wheelers like Pulsar, Kinetic Honda; Honda-
Activa, Scooty, Fiero, etc.)
7.3.2.1 Components of battery ignition system

Battery: electrical energy for ignition is provided by battery. Its electrochemical device
which converts chemical energy into electrical energy. Six plate 12v battery supplies steady
current for ignition, starter motor and lighting devices. The battery is used here is a
rechargeable lead-acid battery. The battery is charged by the dynamo which is driven by the
engine. The battery is connected to the Ignition switch and primary winding.
✓ Battery
✓ Ignition switch (contactor):
✓ Ignition coil:
✓ Ballast resistor:
✓ Distributor:
✓ Spark plug:
✓ Primary and secondary
winding:
✓ Contact bteaker
✓ Cam
✓ Condensor
✓ Capacitor
Ignition Switch: It is an important part of the system. It is used for ON and OFF the
system.
Ballast Resistor: The ballast resistor connects in series to PW and controls the current that
passes through the primary winding. It helps to maintain the temperature of ignition coil and
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to prevent damage of spark coil from overheating when engine is running for long period at
low speed or when contact breaker remain in collesed position.
Ignition Coil: is used to step the voltage that means low to high and that is used for
generation of spark in the spark plug. Ignition Coil consists of a magnetic core or soft wire,
and two electrical winding called primary and secondary winding.
Primary Winding: The primary winding has 200-300 turns. The current which is flowing
through the primary winding creates a magnetic field. Its directly connected to battery,
ignition switch, ballast resistor, primary winding, concat breakor, condenser and ground
(earth). Look for the diagrm.
Secondary Winding: The secondary winding has 21000 turns of 40-gauge wire. It is
insulated to withstand high voltage. As you can see in the diagram one end is connected to
the PW and the other ends to the distributor.
Contact Breaker: The name itself indicates ‘contact breaker’ it means adding and breaking
the primary circuit to the ignition coil. The function of the contact breaker is current flows
in an ignition coil when it is closed and flows stop when it is open. When concat breaker is
in open position magnetic field is collapse in primary winding and the current produced
in seconday winding which used to generate spark.
Capacitor: It is similar to an electric capacitor. Generally, it stores electrical energy in an

electric field. The main function of the capacitor is to prevent the arc from across the breaker
point and if it is not connected to the primary circuit the induced voltage would cause an arc
across the breaker point and that is very dangerous.
Distributor: It provides ignition pulses to the individual spark plug-in sequences at the
correct time. There are 2 different types of distributors. Brush Type and Gap Type.
Spark Plug: is connected with the distributor and used for injecting the spark and which
causes the start burning of the air-fuel mixture in the system. Spark plug used in SI Engine.
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C=condenser,
P=primary coil,
S=secondary coil,
R1=ballast resistance, SW1=ignition

switch, SW2=contact breaker
Working:
-When the ignition switch is closed and engine in cranked, as soon as the contact
breaker closes, a low voltage current will flow through the primary winding. It is also to be
noted that the contact beaker cam opens and closes the circuit 4-times (for 4 cylinders)
in one revolution. When the contact breaker opens the contact, the magnetic field begins
to collapse. Because of this collapsing magnetic field, current will be induced in the
secondary winding. And because of more turns (@ 21000 turns of secondary, voltage goes
unto 28000-30000 volts. This high voltage current is brought to center of the distributor
rotor. Distributor rotor rotates and supplies this high voltage current to proper stark plug
depending upon the engine firing order. When the high voltage current jumps the spark plug
gap, it produces the spark and the charge is ignited-combustion starts-products of combustion
expand and produce power. The Function of the capacitor is to reduce arcing at the contact
breaker (CB) points. When contact is closed no current is flow to ground or no e.m f in SW.
Advantage and disadvantage of Battery Ignition System
No Advantage Disadvantage
The battery System gives more power output. It takes more space
Fuel efficiency is also good Battery is essential for generating the

spark when discharged it won’t start
There are no moving parts here It won’t produce a spark when the
spark plug is fouled.
Better combustion (more than 90 % AFm get More Maintenance because of Arcing,
burns.) Pitting of contact breaker point
Spark intensity is also good
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7.3.2 Magneto Ignition System:
Magneto ignition system uses magneto to create high voltage for the generation of electricity.
The electricity generated is further used to run vehicles and other electrical components in
the system. The magneto is a combination of a distributor and generator built as one unit,
making it different from the conventional distributor that creates spark energy without
external voltage. There is a series of rotating magnets that break an electrical field, causing
an electrical current in the coil’s primary windings. The current charge will then multiply
when it transfers to the coil’s secondary windings.
The function of a magneto system is to use a magneto to provide current for the ignition
system which powers the spark plug that further ignites the fuel-air mixture in the
combustion chamber. Another function of the magneto system is performed by the spark
plug as heat can dissipate through the system. The system also causes ionization to be
measured in the cylinders.
7.3.2.1Components of magneto ignition system

Magneto: The magneto is the source of energy generation in the magneto ignition system.
it’s typically a small generator that works on electricity as it produces a voltage when rotated
by the engine. This is to say, the higher the rotation, the greater the voltage produced by the
system. The system has no external
source of energy and does not need
one to start it, the magneto itself is a
source for generating energy. The
winding in the system is of two types
which include; primary binding and
secondary binding. Depending on the
engine rotation, the magneto is of
three types;
• Magnet rotating type

• Armature rotating type
• Polar inductor type
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The difference between the three is just their source of rotation. In the magnet type, the
armature is stationary while the magnets rotate around the armature. Whereas in the armature
type, the armature rotates between the stationary magnet. Finally, in the polar inductor type,
both the magnet and the windings remain stationary but the voltage is generated when the
flux field is reversing. This is achieved with the help of soft iron polar projections which is
known as inductors.
Distributor: The distributor components used in the magneto ignition system can also be
found in the multi-cylinder engine. This multi-cylinder engines are used for the regulation
of spark in the right sequence in the spark plug. It causes the surge of the ignition to be
distributed uniformly among the spark plugs.
Spark plug: The spark plug is a device that is powered by the ignition system to ignite the
fuel-air mixture in the cylinder. It has two electrodes that are parted from each other which
allow a high voltage to flow through it. These electrodes are made of steel shell and an
insulator. The central electrode is attached to the supply of the ignition coil and an outer steel
shell. It’s grounded insulating them.
Capacitor: A capacitor is also a component in the magneto ignition system. it’s just like the
conventional electrical capacitor with two metal plates separated by an insulating material
with a distance. Air is commonly used as insulating material on this system, but to reach a
particular technical requirement, a high-quality insulating material is employed. The
function of this capacitor is to store charge.
Cam: The cam is attached to the north and south magnet.
Contact breaker: This contact breaker is regulated by the cam, which allows current to flow
through the capacitor and charges it when the breaker is open. Switches the primary ignition
circuit on and off to charge and discharge the coil.
Ignition switch: The ignition switch help to start and off the vehicle ignition system. it
controls and set the parallel of the capacitor because it helps to prevent damage of too much
air.
Working principle of magneto ignition system: The working of a magneto ignition system
is less complex and can be easily understood. Its working begins when the engine of the
system starts working, when then rotate the magneto. The magneto then creates energy of
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high voltage. The end of the magneto is grounded at one end through a contact breaker and
the capacitor is attached to it parallelly. The cam helps to regulate the contact breaker and
current flow through the capacitor and charges it when the breaker is open.
With that, the capacitor act as a charger as the primary current flow is reduced, and then
reduces the overall magnetic field created in the system. This increases the voltage in the
capacitor, which acts as an EMF, thus producing the spark. This is achieved with the help of
the distributor.
When the speed of the engine low at the starting stage, the voltage generated by the magneto
is also low. But as soon as the rotating speed of the engine increases, the voltage generated
also increases. If this happen, the flow of the current is also increased.
Advantages and disadvantages of magneto ignition system
S/No Advantages Disadvantages
1 Less maintenance is required Poor quality of spark due to low

speed at first start.
2 Less cost as the battery is not used. Misfiring may occur due to
leakage.
3 Efficient working due to high-intensity spark. More expensive
4 The electric circuit is generated by the magneto
5 It occupies less space.
6 No issues with battery discharge or battery error
In conclusion, a magneto ignition system is a great development on spark-ignition engines,

and other internal combustion equipment. We have look in-depth on the definition, function,
and the component of the ignition system. we also covered its working, as well as its
advantages and disadvantages where we said it requires less maintenance and no battery is
employed.
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Comparison between battery ignition and Magneto ignition system
No Battery ignition system Magneto ignition system
1 Current for primary winding is Magneto is used for the generation of

obtained from battery electricity.
2 Battery is required No battery required
3 Spark intensity ↓ as engine speed ↑ Spark intensity ↑ as engine speed ↑
4 Require large space Very much compact
5 More maintenance is required Less maintenance is required b/c no battery
6 Used in petrol car and light Used in scooters, motor cycle and racing cars
commercial vehicles
7.4 Charging system
The automobile charging system is a set of components working to keep a charge and provide
electrical energy for the vehicle electrical devices.. The charging system powers the
headlights, dashboard indicators light or warning lamps, fuses, relays, engine plugs,
brainbox, ECU, radio, control screen, fuel injector system, sensors etc. All these
components are interconnected to the car battery which is charged by the alternator.
Functions of Charging System
• The primary purpose of the charging system is to provide power to all electrical
components in a vehicle.
• It comprises alternator that maintains and keep the vehicle’s battery charged.
• Charging system supplies electrical current to fire the spark plugs, which ignite the
air/fuel mixture in the combustion chamber,
• Alternators help to charge dead batteries, while the engine is running.
• Charging system help to send the engine mechanical issue to the engines ECU using
a sensing device.
• Vehicles electrical components are powered when the engine is not running
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7.4.1 Components of Engine Charging System
Battery: The battery is another essential of the automobile charging system, as it serves as a
reservoir of electrical power. the engines starter motor is directly connected to the positive
terminal. It helps to crank the component making the engine to start. As the engine is running,
alternator directly charges the battery. The battery can also supply power to the electrical
components when the engine isn’t running
Fuse and Fusible links: Circuit and fusible joins have diverse capacities despite the fact that
have a similar shape. Fusible connection can be called as primary circuit which is set close
to the battery positive terminal. The capacity of this wire is to secure the whole electrical
arrangement of the vehicle from extreme flows. For the most part the fusible connect has a
limit of up to in excess of 60 Ampere. A wire is utilized as a voltage controller meld and
another circuit is utilized to anchor the CHG and Voltage hand-off.
CHG Lights: CHG light or ordinarily likewise called “charging cautioning light” is a pointer light
to demonstrate the nearness disappointment of charging framework. At the point when the start key
ON then this light will illuminate ordinarily, and in addition when the motor existence of this light
should turn on, in the event that it is dead, it could mean the charging framework disappointment.
Start key: The start key fills in as a switch. The charging framework will be initiated consequently
when the motor is running, however to produce an attractive field on the rotor loop must be finished
by a switch. Start switch is utilized as a change to interface and disconnect control (positive battery
curents) from battery to rotor curl. At the point when the start key is ON, at that point the power from
the battery to the loop rotor will be associated. In any case, when the start key is killed then the power
supply will be cut off. So it is absurd the altenator creates power when the start key is OFF even the
motor crankshaft is turn.
Regulator: The capacity of the controller is to manage the voltage produced by the altenator. since
the voltage produced by the altenator depends the motor’s RPM. This implies if the motor RPM is
low, the altenator voltage is likewise low, yet on the off chance that the motor RPM is high, the
altenator voltage is additionally high.
The controller will be utilized to keep the voltage produced by the altenator not surpassing
14 volts regardless of whether the motor keep running in high RPM. This voltage setting
means to ensure the electrical parts of the vehicle to forestalls over-voltage.
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Altenator: The capacity of the altenator is to change over an incomplete motor’s pivoting vitality
into power. The altenator input originates from the motor pulley associated through a V belt, the
pivot of the rotor will cause the crossing point of the attractive power line with the stator curl so the
electrons stream on the stator loop.
The power in the stator curl isn’t straightforwardly associated with the battery, however it
must go through the diode extension to amend the current. This is done in light of the fact
that the current in the stator loop is AC (Alternate Curent).
Charging Wires: The capacity of charging wires are to associate each segment of the
charging framework, there are somewhere around two sorts of wires: standard wire and B +
wire. The standard wire has a little distance across like the vehicle’s electrical wiring when
all is said in done, the capacity of this wire is associating every terminal on the whole
charging framework.
Working principles of engine charging system
At the point when the start switch is in the ON position, current streams from the battery to
the alternator. The purpose behind this is as per the following. The alternator for the most
part utilized for the vehicle produces power by pivoting the magnet. The magnet isn’t the
lasting magnet however the electromagnet that produces attractive power by streaming
power inside. In this manner, it is important to supply power to the alternator before
beginning the motor to plan for producing power.
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7.5 Lubrication system
Engine lubrication is the process in which robing metal parts are separated by the flow of
lubricating substance between them. lubricants are available in liquid, solid or gas, but the
liquid is the most form of lubrication used in engines.
Functions of Engine Lubricating System
• Reduce friction thus increase efficiency

• Reduce wear and tear of moving parts
• Carry away heat and provide a cooling system
• Provides sealing action between cylinder and piston rings, thereby it reduce blow
• Provide protection against corrosion.
• Lubrication film acts as cushion and reduce vibration
• Carrying away the grit & other deposits and provide cleaning
• Reduce noise
7.5.1 Major Parts of Engine Lubricating System
Oil pan/sump: An oil sump is a reservoir in the shape of a bowl that stores the engine oil.
With the sump, the oil circulates within the engine. The part is located below the crankcase
which is the beneath of the engine, making the oil to be easily removed through the bottom.
Oil pan (sump guard) is made from hard material to withstands any hits from the uneven
ground or bad road.
Oil Pump: The oil pump is a component that helps to push the lubricating oil to all the
moving parts in the engine. It’s located at the bottom of the crankcase, close to the oil sump.
It supplies oil to the oil filter before sending it further. Oil pumps can eventually stop
working, which may lead damages to the engine. To avoid this problem, changing engine oil
and filter is very necessary within some period of time.
Oil filter: Oil filter helps to separate small particles from the oil so that clean oil can flow
to the engine parts. The oil pump allows the oil flow through the oil filter to the galleries
before reaching the engine parts.
January 2, 2023
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Oil Galleries: The function of oil galleries is to circulate oil quickly to reach all moving
parts in automobiles. So, the performance of an oil gallery determines how fast your engine
parts received oil.
Oil cooler: An oil cooler is a device that works as a radiator as it cools down the hot oil.
Coolers transfer the heat from the engine oil to the engine coolant using its fins. Oil coolers
stabilize the temperature of the engine oil, keeps its viscosity under control, prevents the
engine from overheating, minimize wear and tear as well as retaining the lubricant quality
During lubrication system lubricating oil circulates through the following parts. Crankshaft
main bearings, Big end bearings, Piston pins and small end bushes, Piston rings, Timing
Gears, Air-compressor piston and bearings (in commercial vehicles for air-brake), Camshaft
and bearings, Valves, Cylinder walls, Oil pump parts, Water pump bearings and etc.
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7.5.2 Types of Engine Lubrication System
1. Mist Lubrication System: is the type used in the two-stroke engines where oil and fuel
are mixed. The mixture is generated through the carburetor. The fuel gets vaporized
while the oil in the form of a mist enters the cylinder through a crank base. In the crank
base, the oil lubricates the connecting rod along with the piston ring, piston, and cylinder.
2. Wet Sump Lubricating System: is generally located next to or near the crankshaft. it’s
the lower part of the engine and it has a single oil pump. This pump moves the oil through
the oil galleries. The construction is easier and it’s unexpansive.
3. Dry Sump Lubricating System: a dry-sump system has an oil reservoir that is not
located at the bottom of the engine. It uses two oil pumps to keep the oil circulating
within the engine. The system is more complex and expensive to design. However,
there’s more flexibility to the design of the pan as it’s located in an unusual place. It is
often found in performance engines.
7.5.3 Lubricating System in Two-stroke and Four-stroke engines
The major difference between the engines is that two-stroke engines have a power stroke or
expansion in each cylinder during each revolution of the crankshaft. The exhaust and the
intake process occur simultaneously as the piston moves through its lowest. While a four-
stroke engine requires two complete turns of the crankshaft to make a power stroke. burnt
gases are firstly displaced by the piston during an upward stroke. Fresh charge enters the
cylinder during the next downward stroke.
7.5.4 Lubrication in Four-stroke Engine
In the lubrication of four-stroke engines, oil is stored in an oil sump or pan. The oil circulates
within the engine through splash lubrication or pressurize lubrication pump system which is
the most preferable choice by manufacturers. Although the two can be featured together in
an engine.
The splash lubrication happens when the crankshaft is partly immersed in an oil sump. The
momentum of the rotating crankshaft splashes oil to other components in the engine such as
the cam lobes, cylinder walls, wrist pin etc.
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Pressurized lubrication is achieved using oil pump to push the film of lubricant between
moving parts such as the main bearings, rod bearings and cam bearings. It also pumps oil to
the engine’s valve guides and rocker arms.
7.5.5 Two-stroke Engine Lubrication
Generally, two-stroke engines tend to wear more quickly as there is no lubrication source in
them. but there is a high-quality oil that significantly reduces engine wear. Two-stroke
engines receive oil beneath the crankshaft using a total-loss lubrication system. This
lubricating system combines both oil and fuel to provide both energies for engine lubrication.
The two agents are combined in the cylinder’s intake tract and lubricate components such as
crankshaft, connecting rod and cylinder walls.
Two-stroke designed with oil injection injects oil directly into the engine where it mixes with
the fuel. In a premix two-stroke engine, oil-fuel is mixed before pouring it into the fuel tank.
7.6 Cooling system
A car engine produces a lot of heat when it is running, and must be cooled continuously to
avoid engine damage The cooling system is a set of components that enables the flow of
liquid coolant to the passages in the engine block and head so as to absorb combustion heat.
The heated fluid will then return to the radiator through a rubber hose, for cooling. As the
heated fluid (hot water) flows into the radiator through the thin tubes, it gets cooled by an air
stream.. Generally this is done by circulating coolant liquid usually water mixed with an
antifreeze solution through special cooling passages. Some engines are cooled by air flowing
over finned cylinder casings.
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Fig: engine cooling system
7.6.1 Components of Engine Cooling System
Radiator: This engine cooling part is made up of aluminium tubes and strips that zigzag
between the tubes.
Cooling Fan: The cooling fan is located a bit after the radiator, which is closest to the engine.
the part is designed to protect fingers and direct airflow. It blows air to the radiator to cool
the hot fluid while the engine is running, so the fan helps to cool down the temperature of
the radiator.
Water Pump: Water pump another important component of an engine cooling system. It’s
mounted on the front of the engine and It keeps circulating the coolant as far the engine is
working. The part is made of cast iron or cast aluminium and an impeller blade that pump
the coolant.
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Thermostat: A thermostat is simply a valve that sense or measures the temperature of the
engine coolant. If the coolant is not hot enough, the thermostat remains close, but as soon as
the coolant temperature reaches some specific temperature, it opens and allows the coolant
to flow through the radiator.
Hoses: The complete circulation of coolant from the radiator to an internal part of the engine
back to the radiator and some associate components is achieved by hoses
7.6.2 Types of Engine Cooling System
➢ Air cooling (small engine, air-craft (low weight), Industrial and Agricultural
➢ Water cooling (large engine)
➢ Oil cooling (Racing etc.)
Air Cooling System: In air types of a cooling system, heat which reflected the outer parts
of the engine is radiated and blown away by the stream of air. This airstream is obtained
from the atmosphere which effectively directed to the engine components by the fins. The
fins are made of metallic ridges, the size determines the amount of heat that will be blown
always during the process. Air cooling system depends upon the total area of the fin surfaces,
the velocity of the cooling air and the temperature of the fins and the cooling air. The cooling
system is suitable for tractors of less horsepower, scooters, motorcycles, small aircraft and
small car engines. Some small industrial engines are also designed to use air cooling system.
Advantages of Air Cooling System:
• The system is cheaper to manufacture.

• It is lighter in weight because the design does not include water jackets, radiator,
circulating pump, and the water itself.
• Less requirement for maintenance.
• Risk of damage from frost like cylinder jackets crack or radiator water tube won’t
occur.
• Air-cooled engines are less complex
Water Cooling System: Water cooling system in automobile serve for two purposes in the
working of an engine which include eliminating excess heat preventing it from overheating
and keeps the engine at efficient working temperature and economical.
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Working Principle: Water cooling system is made of passages inside the engine block and
heads and a water pump that circulate the coolant. It is also made of a thermostat that controls
the temperature of the coolant and a radiator cap to control the pressure of the system. The
coolant flow to all these spots with the aid of interconnected hoses.
Water cooling system work by transferring liquid coolant through passages in the engine
block and heads. The coolant flows from the radiator to absorb excessive heat production
during the combustion process. After the coolant receives the hotness, it’s transferred to the
radiator through a rubber hose. As soon as the hot coolant enters the radiator, cooling begins.
The cooling is achieved by the air stream entering the engine compartment from the front
side of the vehicle.
After the coolant is cooled, it returns to the engine to carry out the same process. The water
pump helps the circulation of coolant to enter toward the hidden passages. There is the
thermostat located between the engine and the radiator to ensure the coolant is heated to a
certain preset temperature before entering the radiator. The thermostat remains close, if it
senses cooled coolant, so instead of stopping the circulation process it then bypasses the
radiator and returns to the engine. The radiator cap is designed to relieve pressure if in case
it exceeds a certain point.
Water cooling system is of four different types which include:
• Direct or Non-return System

• Thermo-Syphon System
• Hopper System
• Pump/Forced Circulation System
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7.7 Firing order:
Firing order is a sequence of power deliver of each cylinder in a multi cylinder of

reciprocating engine. This is achieved by sparking of the spark plug in gasoline engine in
correct order and by sequence of fuel injection in diesel engine. The firing order of an engine
is the sequence in which the power event occurs in the different cylinders. The firing order
is designed to provide for balance and to eliminate vibration to the greatest extent possible.
Firing order of Different types of Cylinders engine
Cylinder specification Firing order Example of engine
3 1-2-3 Saab two-stroke engine
3 1-3-2 BMW K75 engine
4 straight (inline) 1-3-4-2 Ford Taunus V4 engine
4 1-2-4-3 English Ford engines, Ford

Kent engine
1-3-2-4 Yamaha R1 cross plane
1-4-3-2 Volkswagen air-cooled engine
Straight-5 cylinder 1-2-4-5-3 Volvo 850, Audi 100
6-cylinder in line engine 1-5-3-6-2-4 or 1-4-2-6-

3-5
1-5-3-6-2-4 or
1-4-2-6-3-5
1-5-3-6-2-4 or 1-4-2-6-3-5
1-3-2-6-4-5 or 1-2-4-6-5-3
8 cylinder in line engine 1-6-2-5-8-3-7-4or 1-4-7-3-

8-5-2-6
8 cylinder V type 1-5-4-8-6-3-7-2
1-5-4-2-6-3-7-8
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Why 1-3-4-2 firing order is preferred than the 1-2-3-4 in 4 cylinder engines?
The firing order must be considered on the basis of engine vibrations and engine cooling.
Also the firing order affects the balancing of the engine.
Reasons for preferring 1-3-4-2 than the 1-2-3-4 in 4 cylinder engine:
7.3 The power impulses are evenly distributed and are 180 degrees apart. Therefore, the
firing order for the engine is 1-3-4-2.
7.4 This balance load on two bearings would be further reducing the engine vibrations.
7.5 3. It is required to cool the portion of the engine by changing the sequence. So that
problem of overheating can be mitigated.
7.6 To provide sufficient travel time to exhaust gases. So that development of high back
pressure would be avoided.
Advantages of Firing order
(a) A proper firing order reduces engine vibrations

(b) Maintains engine balancing.
(c) Secures an even flow of power
What is happening in each cylinder for crank shaft rotation in 4 cylinder and its firing order
Crankshaft degree Cylinder

0 1 2 3 4
180 Power Exhaust Compression Suction
360 Exhaust Suction Power Compression
540 Suction Compression Exhaust Power
720 Compression Power Suction Exhaust
➢ Hence firing order is for the given 4 cylinder type is 1-3-4-2
If firing order for 6 cylinder is 1-5-3-6-2-4 is given construct table in the same format.
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7.8 Ignition Timing
Ignition timing is an important process when it comes to running an engine. If the spark plug
fires too soon or too late during the compression stroke, damage to the engine can occur over
time
During the process, the following steps occur:
• The spark plug fires during the compression stroke.

• The air/fuel mixture in the combustion chamber is ignited.
• Pressure is built in the cylinder as the burning gases expand.
• Just as the piston hits top dead center (TDC), pressure is maximized.
• Pressure pushes down on the piston as hard as possible.
After the ignition timing process, the exhaust stroke occurs to release the old gases so the
process can happen again. The timing of the spark is extremely important to maintain high
engine performance. A range of factors can influence the ignition timing in an engine,
including the condition of the spark plugs, the temperature of the engine, and the intake
pressure..
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7.8.1 Ignition Advancing vs. Ignition Retarding
Ignition timing is measured in degrees of a crankshaft rotation before top dead center
(BDTC). Spark plugs need to fire at the right time, which can be achieved by advancing or
retarding the timing of the engine.
Timing advance means that the spark plugs are firing earlier in the compression stroke,
farther from TDC. The air and fuel mixture in the combustion chamber doesn’t burn right
away. Ignition timing advancing might be needed to allow time to get everything ignited.
The major benefit to advancing the timing of a vehicle’s ignition is increasing the
horsepower of an engine. Advancing the ignition timing helps raise the high-end power while
reducing the low end. It also helps get the spark past the ignition delay and run at peak power.
Retard Timing causes the spark plug to fire later in the compression stroke. The effects of
retarding ignition timing include reducing engine detonation, which is combustion inside the
cylinders after the spark plug fires. This is also known as engine knocking.
When it comes to turbocharged or supercharged engines that are running at higher levels of
pressure, retarding the timing of an engine can be more beneficial. Retarding the timing on
these kinds of engines helps compensate for denser air and fuel mixtures and allows them to
run more efficiently.
7.9 Engine Timing
It’s important to consult with your owner’s manual for the details of your specific engine
before determining what can be adjusted with the ignition timing.
When it comes to modern engines or engines without modifications, ignition timing is

typically controlled by the engine computer. It will advance or retard depending on a range
of factors to keep your engine running smoothly.
For engines with distributor timing off symptoms, you can make manual adjustments fairly
easily but will want to have a background of knowledge and the right equipment first. You
can also consult with a repair shop to ensure the procedure is done correctly.
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7.10 Signs Your Ignition Timing Is Off
If the timing of your ignition system is off, there are several performance issues that can
occur. It’s important to pay attention to these signs so you are able to make adjustments or
get your car looked at sooner rather than later.
Problems can occur even if the timing is only slightly off in one direction or the other. Some
things to look out for:
• Engine knocking: Engine knocking occurs when the air-fuel mixture is ignited too soon
in the cylinder. The mixture then pushes against pistons that are still trying to compress
the mixture. This causes loud pinging sounds to come from the engine.
• Decreased fuel economy: The timing of the spark plug is crucial during the ignition
process. When this starts to happen at the wrong time, the combustion process is off.
This causes your engine to use more fuel to compensate for reduced power.
• Overheating: If the air and fuel mixture is ignited too soon in the combustion process,
the heat generated will increase. This can damage different parts of the engine.
• Low Power: Ignition timing that is retarded too far can result in the spark plug igniting
the mixture too late. This can reduce the power of your engine.
These are just a few things you can look out for when it comes to ignition timing and
performance that will allow you to be proactive in maintaining your vehicle.
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CHAPTER EIGHT (8)
TURBOCHARGERS & SUPERCHARGERS
8.1 Introduction
The power and efficiency of an internal combusting engine can be increased with the use of
an air compression device such as a supercharger or turbocharger. Increasing the pressure
and density of the inlet air will allow additional fuel to be induced into the cylinder,
increasing the power produced by the engine.
8.2 Turbocharger
It is a centrifugal compressor driven by turbine which is run by exhaust gases to compress

incoming air into the engine. With increased pressure, the weight or amount of fuel entering
the same space inside the engine is increased. In this way, the burning of fuel is more efficient
inside the engine chamber and it eventually results in greater performance of the vehicle
from the same displacement of engine without need of a larger displacement engine. Exhaust
gases contain a significant portion i.e around 30% of heat energy being generated due to
burning of fuel. In turbocharger, exhaust gasses are used to drive a compressor which has
following advantages to be used in diesel engines.
i) Engine output power is increased ii) Engine torque characteristics are enhanced
iii) Better engine performance at higher altitudes iv) Better fuel economy and exhaust gas
emission
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8.3 Superchargers:
The device (compressor) powered by crankshaft used to compress incoming air of the engine
is called supercharger. Supercharger is used to increase the volumetric efficiency of an
engine by feeding both air and fuel at high pressure. The supercharger is driven directly by
the engine through belts, the response of the same is instantaneous and a sudden increase in
power can be obtained. Generally, in the natural aspirated engines, the charge is sucked in
the cylinder by the vacuum created due to downward motion of the piston in the cylinder.
With supercharger, the charge is induced with pressure which increases the density of the
charge and hence the weight of charge per stroke is increased. As the weight of charge is
increased , the power output also increase upto extent of 40% with supercharging.
At higher altitude, since the air gets thinner, the need of supercharger increases at it
compensates the air intake by making relatively denser/heavier air into the cylinder during
the suction stroke. Since, the supercharger increases the pressure, engine must be able to
sustain the higher forces and also the fuel being used to have better anti-knock properties.
However, in petrol engines when density of fuel is increased keeping the fuel of same octane
number, the compression ratio is to be decreased to avoid detonation. But, with decrease in
compression ratio, the thermal efficiency also decreases which is not preferred.
supercharging is used to increase the power output by forcing the charge into the engine at
pressure above atmospheric”. At high altitude due to less density, available induction charge
is less. Also while climbing hill, racing and air craft it is necessary to produce more power
with less density . It increase volumetric efficiency, performance, reduce knocking,
overheating or failure of some part.
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Working principles of supercharge
Fundamentally, superchargers work as air compressors. A belt or chain connects the engine’s
crankshaft to the supercharger rotor, providing the power necessary for the compressor to
run. The Roots supercharger works through a pair of rotors that blow air at a high speed into
the intake port. As the port then contains a greater quantity of air, it becomes compressed. In
turn, this enables a higher quantity of fuel to be injected into the combustion chamber (and
thus greater power to be generated).
Advantage of supercharging
➢ It increase the power output of engine without increase its weight and size.
➢ increase in volumetric efficiency
➢ the mechanical efficiency of the engine is also increased by supercharging.
➢ Smooth and complete combustion
➢ Less exhaust smokes
Disadvantage of supercharging
➢ Increased heat loss due to increased turbulence

➢ High cooling requirements of engine
➢ Increased thermal stress
➢ High detonation tendency in SI engine
➢ Derive force for super charger is engine itself (power division)
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8.3.1 Types of supercharger
Following are the three types of superchargers are being used.
i) Centrifugal supercharger
ii) Vane supercharger
iii) Root’s supercharger
Root’s supercharger : This

consist of two rotors of
epicycloid shape which are
connected with each other by
gear of same size to make these
rotors run at same speed to generate pressure in the mixture coming out from the outlet just
like it happens in gear type pumps.
Although turbochargers are similar to superchargers as far as the purpose of their usage is
concerned. Both are used for increasing the density of air intake in the engine. But the major
functional difference lies in their mode of driving mechanism. Turbochargers are driven by
the exhaust gasses whereas the superchargers are directly driven by the bet pulley mechanism
by taking a portion of power out of an engine. Although, superchargers are easier to install,
but it costs more.
Centrifugal supercharger : This is one of the most commonly used supercharger which is
driven by belt and pulley. The air fuel mixture enters into the impeller of the supercharger
where this mixture is supercharged with pressure using the kinetic energy. The impeller runs
at sufficiently high speed of around 80000 rpm. The impellers are made of special material
like alloy steel which can with stand the high stress being generated due to such a high speed
of impellers.
Vane supercharger : The rotating drum of supercharger is mounted with number of vanes
which are made of laminates of linen or tufnol as these material have low friction, low
coefficient of thermal expansion and also run without making any noise. As the drum rotates,
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the space between the body and drum decreases from inlet to outlet which decreases the
volume and increase the pressure at outlet.
Comparision of supercharger and turbocharger: The difference between the two devices is
their source of energy. Turbochargers are powered by exhaust gases driving a turbine.
Superchargers are powered mechanically by a belt or chain drive connected to the engine's
crankshaft.
S/No Supercharger Turbocharger

1
2
3
4
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CHAPTER NINE (9)
SUMMARY QUESTION
1. From the following engine parts which guide the proper flow of fuel into air by means of
a pressure differential? A. crankshaft B. cam shaft c. piston d. carburetor
2._______is Rotating shaft that is responsible for the opening and closing of the valves at
the proper time in the engine cycle. A. crankshaft B. cam shaft c. piston d. carburetor
3. from the given alternative wcich one is true about the given device?
A. its piston that connect piston and crank shaft
B. it’s valve that used to allow air fuel mixture into combustion chamber.
C. its spark plug which is used to ignited the combustible mixture within
the combustion chamber
D. it’s a fly wheel
4. from the following alternative which one is not true about in late and exit valves?
A. both of them are controlled by camshaft B. in late valve is larger than exit valve
C. in late valve is smaller than exit valve D. most of the time in late valve is located
to the right of exit valve
5. Rapid explosion of air-fuel mixture within the cylinder, when ignited by a spark is known
as _______ A) constant heat combustion B) constant pressure combustion
C) constant volume combustion D) cut off ratio
6. Which of the following is an indicator of the combustion speed of diesel fuel and
compression needed for ignition?
A) Cetane Number B) Octane Number
C) Calorific Value D) Pre-Ignition
7. The working cycle in case of four stroke engine is completed in following number of
revolutions of crankshaft
A) ½ (B) 1 (C) 2 (D) 4
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8. In a diesel engine, the fuel is ignited by

(A) spark (B) injected fuel
(C) heat resulting from compressing air that is supplied for combustion
(D) ignition in combustion chamber.
9. Scavenging air in diesel engine means

(A) air used for combustion sent under pressure (B) forced air for cooling cylinder
(C) burnt air containing products of combustion (D) air used for forcing burnt gases
out of engine’s cylinder during the exhaust period
10. Supercharging is the process of

(A) supplying the intake of an engine with air at a density greater than the density of the
surrounding atmosphere (B) providing forced cooling air
(C) injecting excess fuel for raising more load (D) supplying compressed air to remove
combustion products fully
11. Does the supply of scavenging air at a density greater than that of atmosphere mean
engine is supercharged? (A) yes (B) no (C) to some extent (D) unpredictable
12. Method of governing used in diesel engine is
(A) quantity governing (B) quality governing
(C) combined governing (D) partial governing
13. An engine has a normal speed of 960 r.p.m. and no load speed of 1000 r.p.m. The speed
drop of governor will be about (A) 2% (B) 4% (C) 8% (D)±4%
14. The ignition quality of a diesel fuel is defined by its_____.
A. cetane number CN B. octane number ON C. both D. none
15. which one is not true about low cetane diesel fuels?
a. the ignition delay is long b.most of the fuel is injected before autoignition and
rapidly burns, c. produces an audible knocking sound referred to as “diesel knock”.
D. better the ignition quality
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16. The pipe which connects the intake system to the inlet valve of the engine and through
which air or air-fuel mixture is drawn into the cylinder is known as _______
A) Spark Plug B) Connecting Rod C) Camshaft D) Inlet Manifold
17. A cycle consisting of one constant pressure, one constant volume and two isentropic
processes is knownas
A. Carnot cycle B. Stirling cycle C. Otto cycle D. Diesel cycle
18. In a diesel engine, the fuel is ignited by
(A) spark (B) injected fuel (C) ignition
(D) heat resulting from compressing air that is supplied for combustion
19. In an engine working on ideal Otto cycle, combustion takes place
(A) at constant pressure. (B) at constant volume. (C) at constant temperature
(D) partly at constant volume and partly at constant pressure.
20. In a petrol engine, if diesel is used, then the engine will
A. not run B. run more efficiently C. run at high speed D. explode
21. Compression ratio of CI. engines is
(A) the ratio of volumes of air in cylinder before compression stroke and after
compression stroke (B) volume displaced by piston per stroke and clearance volume
in cylinder (C) ratio of pressure after compression and before compression (D) cylinder
volume/swept volume
22. The air standard efficiency of an Otto cycle compared to diesel cycle for the given
compression ratio is (A) same (B) less (C) more (D) unpredictable.
23. If the intake air temperature of I.C. engine increases, its efficiency will
(A) increase (B) decrease (C) remain same (D) unpredictable
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24. In a typical medium speed 4-stroke cycle diesel engine the inlet valve
(A) opens at 20° before top dead center and closes at 35° after the bottom dead center
(B) opens at top dead center and closes at bottom dead center
(C) opens at 10° after top dead center and closes 20° before the bottom dead center
(D) may open or close anywhere
25. The thermal efficiency of a diesel cycle having fixed compression ratio, with increase in
cut-off ratio will (A) increase (B) decrease (C) be independent (D) may increase
or decrease depending on other factors
26. Pick up the wrong statement
(A) petrol engines occupy more space than diesel engines for same power output.
(B) In 4-stroke engine, a power stroke is obtained in 4-strokes
(C) thermal efficiency of 4-stroke engine is more due to positive scavenging
(D) petrol engines work on otto cycle
27. The air requirement of a petrol engine during starting compared to theoretical air required
for complete combustion is
(A) more (B) loss (C) same (D) may be more or less depending on
engine capacity (e) unpredictable.
28. The inlet value of a four stroke cycle I.C engine remains open for nearly
(A) 180° (B) 125° (C) 235° (D) 200°
29. Pick up the false statement
(a) Thermal efficiency of diesel engine i about 34%
(b) Theoretically correct mixture of air am petrol is approximately 15 : 1
(c) High speed compression engines operate on dual combustion cycle
(d) Diesel engines are compression ignition engines
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30. If one cylinder of a diesel engine receives more fuel than the others, then for that cylinder
(A) exhaust will be smoky (B) scavenging occurs
(C) exhaust temperature will be high (D) engine starts overheating
31. The output of a diesel engine can be increased without increasing the engine revolution
or size in following way
(A) feeding more fuel (B) supercharging (C) heating incoming air (D) scavenging
32. If the temperature of intake air in IC engines is lowered, then its efficiency will
(A) increase (B) decrease
(C) remain same (D) increase upto certain limit and then decrease
33. For the same compression ratio
(A) Otto cycle is more efficient than the Diesel (B) Diesel cycle is more efficient’ than
Otto (C) both Otto and Diesel cycles are, equally efficient (D) compression ratio has
nothing to do with efficiency
34. Which of the following statements is correct?

(A) All the irreversible engines have same efficiency
(B) All the reversible engines have same efficiency
(C) Both Rankine and Carnot cycles have same efficiency between same temperature limits
(D) All reversible engines working between same temperature limits have same-efficiency
35. Most high speed compression engines operate on
(A) Diesel cycle (B) Otto cycle (C) Dual combustion cycle (D) Brayton cycle
36. Which of the following medium is compressed in a Diesel engine cylinder
(A) air alone (B) air and fuel mixture (B) air and lub oil (D) fuel alone
37. From the given alternative which one is termed as lean burn engine or which operate
under excess air with maximum AF ratio? A. diesel engine B. petrol C. both
38. The air-fuel ratio of the petrol engine is controlled by
(A) fuel pump (B) governor (C) injector (D) carburetor (e) scavenging.
January 2, 2023
Prep. By Nure Jemal
39. Diesel fuel, compared to petrol is

(A) less difficult to ignite (B) just about the same difficult to ignite
(C) more difficult to ignite (D) highly ignitable
40. In diesel engine, the compression ratio in comparison to expansion ratio is
(A) same (B) less (C) more (D) variable
41. Changes ignition timing depending on engine load and engine speed is _respectively.
A. Centrifugal and vacuum advance B. vacuum and Centrifugal advance
C. spark pluging and nozzle injection D. all
42. which one is true about the indicated picture?
A. its occurred when air-fuel mixture is lean mixture
B. its known as Fouling of the plug and occur when ave. temp
drops to the level of 400°C.
C. its electrode gap
D. its spark plug operating in normal condition
43. Number of working strokes per min. for a four stroke cycle engine are ______ the speed
of the engine in r.p.m.
(A) Equal to (B) One-half (C) Twice (D) Four-times
44. Which of the following medium is compressed in a Diesel engine cylinder?
(A) Air alone (B) Air and fuel (C) Air and lub oil (D) Fuel alone
45. A stoichiometric air-fuel ratio is
(A) Chemically correct mixture (B) Lean mixture
(C) Rich mixture for idling (D) Rich mixture for over loads
January 2, 2023
Prep. By Nure Jemal
46. Morse test can be conducted for
(A) Petrol engines (B) Diesel engines
(C) Multi cylinder engines (D) Single Cylinder Engines
47. Combustion in compression ignition engines is
(A) homogeneous (B) heterogeneous (C) laminar (D) turbulent
48. The precess of breaking up fuel into fine droplets by spraying is called
(A)vaporization (B) carburetion (C) ionisation (D) atomisation.
49. Fins are provided over engine cylinder scooters for
(A) higher strength of cylinder (B) better cooling
(C) good appearance (D) higher efficiency
50. Hydrocarbons are decomposed into smaller hydrocarbons by
A) reforming B) refining C) cracking D) polymerization
51. Fuel is injected into the cylinder at the end of ______________ stroke.
A) suction B) compression C) expansion D) exhaust
52. In a four stroke cycle petrol engine, the charge is ignited at
(A) 30° before top dead center (B) 30° after top dead center
(C) 30° before bottom dead center (D) 30° after bottom dead centre
53. ______is the difference between indicated and brake power of an engine.
A) Air flow B) Emissions C) Friction power D) None of the mentioned
January 2, 2023
Prep. By Nure Jemal
54. ________is also known as fuel rate extrapolation method.
A) Morse test B) Motoring test C) Willan’s line method D) Retardation test
55. All are true about battery ignition system, except
A. Battery is required B. Spark intensity increase as engine speed increase
C. Spark intensity decrease as engine speed increase D. Require large space
56. Which one is approximated as a constant-pressure heat-addition Process
A. otton cycle B. Diesel cycle C. dual cycle D. brayton cycle
57. All are true about CI engine except
A. High self-ignition temperature B. Working cycle is diesel cycle
C. Diesel or high cetane fuel is used. D. Low self-ignition temperature
58. which one is mismatched with their name?
A. pressure plate B. ignition switch
C. cam shaft D. ignition coil
59. A period when both the intake and exhaust valves are open at the same time is known as
A. Valve blowdown B. Valve overlap C. Valve rameffect D. Valve timing
60. Which one is not components of engine starting system.
B. Selonoid B. ignition switch C. thermostat D. plunger
January 2, 2023
Prep. By Nure Jemal
61. In a four stroke cycle, the minimum temperature inside the engine cylinder occurs at the
A. beginning of suction stroke B. end of suction stroke
C. beginning of exhaust stroke D. beginning of exhaust stroke
62. The thermal efficiency of a standard Otto cycle for a compression ratio of 5.5 will be
A. 25% B. 50% C. 70% C. 100%
63. The exhaust valve in a four stroke cycle petrol engine
A. opens at 50° before bottom dead centre and closes at 15° after top dead centre
B. opens at 50° after bottom dead centre and closes at 15° before top dead centre
C. opens at bottom dead centre and closes at top dead centre
D. may open and close any where
64. The brake power of a diesel engine, keeping other parameters constant, can be increased
A. decreasing the density of intake air B. increasing the temperature of intake air
C. increasing the pressure of intake air D. decreasing the pressure of intake air
65. In diesel engines, the fuel is injected in the form of very fine spray, into the engine
cylinder, which gets ignited due to high temperature of the compressed air.
A. agree B. disagree C. neither D. both
66. In a diesel engine, the duration between the time of injection and ignition, is known as
A. pre-ignition period B. delay period C. period of ignition D. burning period
67. The self ignition temperature of petrol is __________ as compared to diesel oil.
A. the same B. lower C. higher D. not compared
January 2, 2023
Prep. By Nure Jemal
68. The pre-ignition occurs before the spark is produced whereas detonation develops after
the introduction of spark. A. agree B. disagree C. neither D. both
69. The basic requirement of a good combustion chamber is
A. minimum turbulence B. low compression ratio
C. high thermal efficiency and power output D. low volumetric efficiency
70. In a four stroke cycle petrol engine, the charge is compressed when both the valves (i.e.
inlet valve and exit valve) are closed,
A. True B. False C. both D. neither
71. The knocking tendency in spark ignition engines can be decreased by adding dopes like
tetra ethyle lead and ethylene dibromide
72. Theoretically, a four stroke cycle engine should develop __________ power as that of a
two stroke cycle engine
A. double B. half C. the same D. four times
73. The higher combustion chamber wall temperature in compression ignition engines will
______ knocking tendency
A. increase B. decrease C. no effect D. remain constant
74. The delay period in compression ignition engines depends upon
A. temperature and pressure in the cylinder at the time of injection
B. nature of the fuel mixture strength
C. relative velocity between the fuel injection and air turbulence pressure of residual
gases D. all of the above
January 2, 2023
Prep. By Nure Jemal
75. A carburettor is used to supply
A. air and diesel B. petrol, air and lubricationg oil C. petrol and air D. only air
76. All are true about expansion (power) stroke of SI engine, except
A. theorethical it starts at TDC. B. piston move down ward
C. both P and T increase in the cylinder D. both valve remain close
77. What is the suitable shape of camshaft used in contact breaker for five cylinder engine?
A. Hexagonal . B. Orthogonal C. Pentagonal D. Triangular
78. The increase of cooling water temperature in petrol engine will __the knocking
tendency. A. increase B. decrease C. constant D. no effect
79. The firing order in an I.C. engine depends upon
A. arrangement of the cylinders B. design of crankshaft
C. number of cylinders D. all
80. A two stroke cycle engine gives __________ mechanical efficiency than a four stroke
cycle engine. A. higher B. lower C. same D. unkwon
81. Which of the following statement is wrong ?
A. In compression ignition engines, detonation occurs near the beginning of combustion.
B. Since the fuel, in compression ignition engines, is injected at the end of compression
stroke, therefore, there will be no pre-ignition
C. To eliminate knock in compression ignition engines, we want to achieve auto-ignition

not early and desire a long delay period.
D. In compression ignition engines, because of hetrogeneous mixture, the rate of

pressure rise is comparatively lower.
January 2, 2023
Prep. By Nure Jemal
82. In order to mix air and petrol in the required proportion and to supply it to the engine
during suction stroke, then __________ is employed.
A. Fuel pump B. Governor C. carburator D. Fuel injector
83. In compression ignition engines, swirl denotes a
A. haphazard motion of the gases in the chamber
B. radial motion of the gases in the chamber
C. rotary motion of the gases in the chamber
D. none of the above
84. The ratio of the brake power to the indicated power is called
A. mechanical efficiency B. Overall efficiency
C. Volumetric efficiency D. Indicated thermal efficiency
85. A mixture containing 65% of iso-octane and 35% of normal heptane will have
A. cetane number 65 B. octane number 65
C. Octane number 35 D. cetane number 35
86. For the same maximum pressure and heat input, the exhaust temperature of petrol engine
is __________ than that of diesel engine.
A. the same B. lower C. higher D. not compared
87. The colour of exhaust from diesel engine is generally
A. White B. black C. violent D. Bluish
88. Which of the following does not relate to a compression ignition engine?
A. Fuel pump B. Governor C. carburator D. Fuel injector
January 2, 2023
Prep. By Nure Jemal
89. A supercharged engine as compared to an ordinary engine
A. requires less foundation B. consumes less lubricating oil C. is lighter D. all
90. A diesel engine has compression ratio from A. 6-10 B. 10-15 C. 15-25 D. 25-35
91. The compression ratio in petrol engines is kept low as compared to diesel engines
because higher compression ratio in petrol engines would lead to pre-ignition of fuel
92. The working pressure and temperature inside the cylinder of an internal combustion
engine is __________ as compared to a steam engine.
A. Low B. very Low C. High D. Very high
93. The voltage required to produce a spark across the gap, between the sparking points is
A. 20000-4000 volts B. 4000-6000 volts C. 6000-10000volts D. 10000-12000 volts
94. In order to eliminate knocking in compression ignition engines, there should be
A. short delay period B. low compression ratio B. late auto-ignition D. all
95. Number of working strokes per min. for a two stroke cycle engine are __________ the
speed of the engine in r.p.m A. one-half B. equal C. twice D. four-times
96. In a four stroke cycle petrol engine, the pressure inside the engine cylinder during the
suction stroke is __________ the atmospheric pressure.
A. equal B. below C. above D. undetermined
97. Lead-acid battery is mostly used in
A. light and commercial vehicles B. heavy duty vehicles
C. can be used every where D. can be used in trucks and bus
January 2, 2023
Prep. By Nure Jemal
98. Which one indicate the correct sequence of stroke in four stroke engine
A. intake stroke- exhaust stroke- compression stroke- expansion stroke
B. expansion stroke-Power stroke- exhaust stroke-intake stroke
C. exhaust stroke- intake stroke-compression stroke-power stroke
D. intake stroke-compresssion stroke-exhaust stroke-power stroke
99. Which one of the following event would reduce volumetric efficiency of a vertical
compression ignition engine ?
A. inlet valve closing after bottom dead centre
B. inlet valve closing before bottom dead centre
C. inlet valve opening before top dead centre
D. exhaust valve closing after top dead centre
100. The firing order in an I.C engine depends upon
A. arrangement of the cylinders B. design of crankshaft
C. number of cylinders D. all of these
101. A supercharged engine as compared to an ordinary engine
A. is lighter B. requires smaller foundations C. consumes less lubricating oil D. all
102. Which one is fitted between the engine block and cylinder head and used to prevent
the leakage A. cylinder head B. gasket C. ram D. flywheel
January 2, 2023
Prep. By Nure Jemal
ENGINE GLOSSARY
Crankshaft: The crankshaft is the shaft with one or more cranks for multiple cylinders that
helps to convert the reciprocating motion of the piston into the rotary motion. The cranks are
connected to the big end of the connecting rod.
Cylinder: The cylinder is the bore inside a cylinder block in which the piston is allowed to
reciprocate. It also acts as a combustion chamber for the engine.
Engine Block: The engine block is the metal casting component on which the different
components of the IC engine are mounted. The cylinders of the engine are bored into the
engine block or separate cylinder liners are inserted into the bores of a cylinder block.
Head Gasket: It is the gasket fitted between the engine block and cylinder head. Its main
job is to prevent the leakage of the combustion gases outside of the combustion chamber.
Spark Plug: It is the component of the spark-ignition engine that generates a spark to ignite
the air-fuel mixture. It is mounted inside the combustion chamber on the cylinder head.
Fuel Injector: A fuel injector is a mechanically or electronically controlled device that is

used to spray the fuel into compressed air. It is generally used in Compressed ignition (CI)
engines.
Bore: For the internal combustion engines, the bore is the inner diameter of the engine
cylinder.
Stroke: Stroke is the travel of the piston from the TDC to BDC or from the BDC to TDC.
Stroke length is the distance between the TDC and BDC of the engine.
Crankcase: A crankcase is the housing or enclosure made for mounting of the crankshaft.
The crankcase also helps to protect the crankshaft and other engine parts from dirt and other
impacts.
Cylinder head: The cylinder head is mounted above the engine cylinder and it forms an
upper enclosure to create a combustion chamber. It also acts as a housing for mounting intake
and exhaust valves, spark plug/fuel injector, and glow plug.
January 2, 2023
Prep. By Nure Jemal
Piston: Piston is a mechanical device that is reciprocated inside a cylinder and continuously
changes the volume inside the cylinder. Thus it helps to perform different strokes and
converts the pressure energy of the combustion gases into mechanical work.
Combustion Chamber: The combustion chamber is the portion of a cylinder where a

mixture of air and fuel is burned to develop high pressure and temperature.
Block heater: It is an electric heater used to warm the engine components during cold
weather. It preheats the engine and provides ease while starting the engine during the winter
mornings.
Glow plug: Glow plug is the electric heater used in a diesel engine that increases the
temperature of the air inside a combustion chamber thus it helps for starting the diesel engine
during the cold season.
Inlet valve: The inlet valve is the component of a four-stroke engine that controls the
opening between the engine cylinder and intake manifold. During the suction stroke, the
intake valve opens to allow the flow of air-fuel mixture inside a cylinder and it remains
closed during the compression stroke, expansion stroke and exhaust stroke.
Exhaust valve: The exhaust valve is the component of four-stroke engines that controls the
opening between the engine cylinder and exhaust manifold. During the exhaust stroke, the
exhaust valve opens to remove the exhaust gases outside of a cylinder and it remains closed
during the suction stroke, compression stroke, and expansion stroke.
Inlet port: Inlet port is the opening inside of the crankcase of 2 stroke engine for entering
fresh charge into the crankcase.
Exhaust Port: Exhaust port is the opening into the cylinder of the two-stroke engine for
expelling the exhaust gases. The opening of the intake port and exhaust port is controlled by
the movement of the piston.
Transfer port: In a two-stroke engine the transfer port connects the engine crankcase to the
cylinder. Thus, during the downward movement of the piston, the air-fuel mixture present in
the crankcase is pushed into the engine cylinder through the transfer port.
January 2, 2023
Prep. By Nure Jemal
Piston rings: Piston rings are mounted on the piston to seal the gap between the piston and
cylinder. The piston rings are classified as a compression ring, wiper ring, and oil ring. The
main function of the compression ring is to ensure the sealing of the combustion chamber.
The wiper ring helps for sealing as well as for wiping the excessive oil from the cylinder
walls. The oil ring controls the flow of the lubricating oil over the cylinder surface.
Cylinder liner: The cylinder liner is a thin-walled sleeve made up of hard material and fitted
inside a bore made in the cylinder block. It acts as a smooth surface for the reciprocating of
the piston and sustains the higher temperature stresses during combustion.
Intake manifold: It is a component of a multicylinder engine that supplies air-fuel mixture

to all the cylinders. The intake manifold is consists of a plenum and runners. The plenum
takes the air-fuel mixture from the throttle body and distributes the mixture to all the runners
that are connected to the cylinders.
Exhaust manifold: The exhaust manifold is used to collect the exhaust gases from all the
cylinders into the exhaust pipe.
Connecting rod: The connecting rod is the component of the engine that connects the piston
to the engine crankshaft. The connecting rod along with the crankshaft helps to convert the
reciprocating motion into the rotary motion.
Gudgeon pin (Wrist pin): The gudgeon pin is used to connect the piston to the small end
of the connecting rod.
Piston skirt: A cylindrical surface of the piston below piston rings is known as a piston skirt.
Terms related to the engine performance:
Brake power: In IC engines, brake power is the power obtained at the crankshaft of an
engine.
Horsepower: It is a unit used to measure power and is abbreviated as HP. Where 1 HP =

745 watt
January 2, 2023
Prep. By Nure Jemal
BHP: The BHP stands for the brake horse power and it is the unit used to measure power
obtained at an engine crankshaft.
Specific fuel consumption: Specific fuel consumption is the mass of fuel supplied to
produce the unit amount of power from the engine.
Indicated power: It is the power developed inside a combustion chamber of the engine
because of the combustion of the air-fuel mixture.
Mean effective pressure: Mean effective pressure is an average value of pressure inside a
cylinder that gives the same power output as that of actual pressure inside the cylinder.
Volumetric efficiency: Volumetric efficiency is the ratio of the actual volume of air taken
by the piston to the swept volume of the engine cylinder.
Knocking/Detonation: Detonation/knocking is sudden combustion of the end gas which

creates high-pressure waves inside the cylinder that leads to the pinging noise from engine
cylinders.
Scavenging: Scavenging is the process of replacing the exhaust gases present inside the
cylinder with a fresh charge.
Engine surging: Engine surging is the fluctuation of the engine speed caused due to the
malfunctioning of the combustion process.
Terms related to the engine specification:

Compression ratio: Compression ratio is the ratio of volume inside the cylinder when the
piston is at BDC to the volume inside a cylinder when the piston is at TDC.
It is also defined as a ratio of maximum volume inside a cylinder to the minimum volume
inside a cylinder.
Spark ignition: It is the combustion of the intake charge with the help of a spark generated
by the spark plug. The engine that uses a spark plug for combustion is known as a spark
ignition (SI) engine.
January 2, 2023
Prep. By Nure Jemal
Compression ignition: It is the process of combustion in which the air is compressed to

increase its temperature above the self-ignition temperature of the fuel and then the fuel is
spread with the help of an injector to start the combustion. The engines that work on the
principle of compression ignition are known as CI engines.
Engine displacement/ Swept volume: It is the volume covered by the piston while moving
from TDC to BDC or from BDC to TDC. It is also known as the volume of the cylinder
between TDC and BDC.
TDC: Top dead center or TDC is the position of the piston in the cylinder when the piston
is very close to the cylinder head.
BDC: Bottom dead center or BDC is the position of the piston in the cylinder when the
piston is very far from the cylinder head.
Bore-stroke ratio: It is the ratio of the bore diameter of the engine to the stroke length.
Two-stroke engine: It is the internal combustion engine that completes the single power
cycle within two strokes of the piston or within one revolution of the crankshaft.
Four-stroke engine: It is the internal combustion engine that completes the single power
cycle within four strokes of the piston or within two revolutions of the crankshaft.
Direct injection: Direct injection is the type of fuel injection system in which the fuel is
directly injected into the main combustion chamber.
Indirect injection: Indirect injection is the type of fuel injection system in which the fuel is
injected into the pre-combustion chamber. In this, the combustion process starts in the pre-
combustion chamber, and then this mixture is spread into the main combustion chamber.
Terms related to the engine working:
Idle speed: It is the speed of the engine when there is no load is acting on the engine.
Ignition timing: Ignition timing is the position of the crankshaft when the spark is generated
into the combustion chamber of the engine.
January 2, 2023
Prep. By Nure Jemal
Mean piston speed: It is the average speed of the piston while performing reciprocating
motion into the engine cylinder
Air fuel ratio: Air fuel ratio is the ratio of a mass flow rate of air to the mass flow rate of
fuel supplied to the engine for combustion.
Blow-by gases: Blow-by gases are the leakage of the combustion gases from the combustion
chamber into the crankcase. These gases leak from the gap between piston rings and the
cylinder walls.
Power stroke: In IC engines, power stroke is the movement of the piston from TDC to BDC
due to the pressure applied by the combustion products during the expansion stroke.
Compression stroke: It is one of the strokes in the power cycle of an IC engine in which
the piston moves from BDC to TDC to compress the fresh charge before combustion.
Suction stroke: In the IC engine cycle, suction stroke is one of the strokes in which the
piston moves from TDC to BDC to take fresh charge into the cylinder.
Exhaust stroke: In the IC engine cycle, exhaust stroke is one of the strokes in which the
piston moves from BDC to TDC to remove exhaust gases from the cylinder.
Idle stroke: In IC engines, the idle stroke is those strokes that don’t contribute to developing
mechanical power but it consumes power for its completion.
Engine cycle: It is a sequence of processes that are performed repeatedly to convert the
chemical energy of the fuel into mechanical energy.
Other terms related to the engine:
Engine control unit: The engine control unit also known as the engine control module,
which controls the different actuators based on the input from different engine sensors to
ensure the optimum working of the engine.
Naturally aspirated engine: These are the IC engines that use air at atmospheric pressure
during suction stroke and don’t uses forced induction for charging air into the cylinder.
January 2, 2023
Prep. By Nure Jemal
Supercharger: A supercharger is a compressor that is run by the crankshaft to feed

compressed air into the engine cylinder to increase the power output.
Turbocharger: A turbocharger is a turbine-driven compressor unit that is run by the exhaust

gases and forces extra compressed air into the engine cylinder to increase power output from
the engine.
Crankcase ventilation: It is the process that removes the blow-by gases from the engine
crankcase and feeds into the intake manifold of the engine.
Inline engine: It is the multi-cylinder internal combustion engine in which the cylinders are
arranged in a single line.
V engine: V-engine is an IC engine that consists of two-cylinder banks that make a V-shaped
arrangement at the crankshaft.
Cylinder bank: In IC engines the cylinders are arranged in a line parallel to the engine and
each of these lines is known as a cylinder bank.
Example: V-engine has two-cylinder banks arranged parallel to the crankshaft.
IC engine: It is the heat engine in which the air-fuel mixture is combusted into the closed
space and converts the heat and pressure energy developed into mechanical energy.
Ignition: Ignition means to burn. is a simple process to make fire. It is may be generated by
friction between two objects or by other natural resource. Many techniques are used to make
fire which is also called fire making or fire craft etc. ignition by friction is a basic and old
technique to make fire.
Combustion: Combustion is a chemical process in which heat is produced and used in some
chemical process. Combustion is done by reaction between a fuel and an oxidant. The
resulting heat can produce flame.
Detonation: Detonation is a type of explosion occurs in solid, liquids and gases. It produces
a supersonic shock wave which propagate in front of it. The detonation velocity in solid and
liquid explosion is greater then gases. : is a type of explosion, which produces a supersonic
shock wave in front of it
January 2, 2023
Prep. By Nure Jemal
Explosion: If volume is increased rapidly and energy releases in an extreme manner due to
generation of high temperature, than explosion will occur. It produces a shock wave. also
generates shock wave but is a low intensity shock wave then detonation. Both are produced
due to rapid increase in volume and release of energy.
• ignition quality in terms of CN is analogous to that used for determining the

antiknock quality using the ON
January 2, 2023
Prep. By Nure Jemal

I.C For Exit Exam

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Module I.

Internal Combustion Engine 01/02/2023

Prep. By Nuri Jemal

Table of Contents Page

1.1 Historical Overview of IC Engine Development ......................................................... 6

1.2 Engine Components, Their Function & Material of Construction .............................. 7

1.2.1 Stationary Parts of Engine ..................................................................................... 7

1.2.2 Moving Parts of an Engine.................................................................................. 10

1.2 Terminology (Nomenclature) used in IC engine: ...................................................... 12

1.3 Classification of IC Engine ........................................................................................ 14

CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................. 21

THERMODYNAMICS OF IC ENGINES .......................................................................... 21

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 21

2.1.1 Basic Considerations in the Analysis of Power Cycles....................................... 21

2.2 An Overview of Reciprocating Engines .................................................................... 23

2.2.1 Otto Cycle ........................................................................................................... 24

2.2.2 Diesel Cycle ........................................................................................................ 26

2.2.3 Dual (semi Diesel) cycle ..................................................................................... 28

2.2.4 Stirling and Ericsson Cycles ............................................................................... 28

2.2.5 Brayton (Joule) Cycle.......................................................................................... 29

2.3 Air-Fuel Cycle ........................................................................................................... 31

2.4 Actual Cycles and Their Analysis.............................................................................. 32

CHAPTER THREE ............................................................................................................. 34

ENGINE DESIGN AND OPERATING PARAMETERS .................................................. 34

3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 34

3.2 Geometrical properties of Reciprocating engines ...................................................... 34

3.2.1 Thermodynamic parameters ................................................................................ 35

3.2.2 Testing of Internal Combustion Engines:............................................................ 39

3.2.3 Measurement of Performance Parameters in a Laboratory ................................. 40

CHAPTER (4) ..................................................................................................................... 41

FUEL FOR IC ENGINES ................................................................................................... 41

4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 41

4.2 Types of Fuel .......................................................................................................... 41

4.3 Fuels for SI engine ..................................................................................................... 43

4.3.1 Fuel Properties..................................................................................................... 43

4.4 Fuels for CI engine (Diesel Fuels) ............................................................................. 45

4.5 Alternative fuels and Additives ................................................................................. 46

CHAPTER FIVE (5) ........................................................................................................... 47

COMBUSTION AND COMBUSTION CHAMBER DESIGN ......................................... 47

5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 47

5.2 Homogeneous and Heterogeneous mixture ............................................................... 48

5.2.1 Homogeneous mixture ........................................................................................ 48

5.2.2 Heterogeneous mixture ....................................................................................... 48

5.3 Combustion in SI engine, Combustion chamber for SI engine ................................. 49

5.3.1 Combustion in SI engine ..................................................................................... 49

5.3.2 Combustion stage in SI engine ............................................................................ 49

5.3.3 Combustion chamber for SI engine ..................................................................... 50

5.4 Combustion in CI engine and Combustion chamber for CI engines ......................... 53

5.4.1 Combustion in CI engine..................................................................................... 53

5.4.2 Stages of Combustion in CI engine: .................................................................... 53

5.4.3 Combustion Chambers for C.I. Engine ............................................................... 56

5.5 Abnormal Combustion: Knock & Surface Ignition ................................................... 57

CHAPER SIX (6) ................................................................................................................ 59

VALVE GEAR AND VALVE TIMING ............................................................................ 59

6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................ 59

6.2 Valve gear .................................................................................................................. 60

6.3 Valve operating system .............................................................................................. 60

6.4 Valve Timing and Performance ................................................................................. 62

CHAPTER SEVEN (7) ....................................................................................................... 66

IC ENGINE SYSTEMS ...................................................................................................... 66

7.1 Fueling (fuel injection) in SI engine system .............................................................. 66

7.1.1 Components of fuel injection system .................................................................. 66