Heat – study of thermal science

1.1 Temperature
Temperature is the measure of hotness and coldness of an object.
[However, coldness and hotness depends on our objective sense.
Therefore, we should define temperature in another subjective way]
Examples of temperature
Body temperature =
Room temperature =
Sun’s surface temperature =
Earth’s core temperature =
Melting point of water =
Boiling point of water =

1.1.1 Temperature Scale

Temperature scale is obtained by choosing two fixed points
There are two common temperature scale.
One is Celsius scale. The other is Kelvin scale
- Celsius Scale
Low fixed point = melting point of water at s.t.p.= 0 oC
Upper fixed point = boiling point of water at s.t.p. = 100 oC
(s.t.p. is standard temperature and pressure)
- Kelvin Scale
Absolute zero: the lowest possible temperature an object can
attain = 0 K = - 273 oC
- Used to define the lower bound of the Kelvin scale
- Atoms freeze at absolute zero
- By Thermodynamics 3rd Law , no object can attain absolute zero
Lower limit for temperature : YES
Upper limit for high temperature : NO

~ Temperature interval of 1 oC = temperature interval of 1 K

~ Kelvin Temperature = 273 + Celsius Temperature

Exercise:
0 oC = ______ K 100oC = ______ K 300K = _______ oC 273K =
_______ oC

1.2.2 Thermometer
Thermometer is the apparatus to measure temperature.
There are various kind of thermometer.
Liquid-in-glass thermometer makes use of the thermal expansion of
material.
Hot objects expand; Cold object contract.

Thermome Mercury-in-glass Alcohol-in-glass

ter
Color Silvery Colorless but dyed in red
Safety Poisonous OK Safe (but flammable)
Response Quick (Hg is metal) Slow
Range - 30 oC to +400 oC - 100 oC to 110 oC
Boils at 110 oC
Price More expensive Cheaper

Q: Which one is better to use in laboratory?

A: Alcohol-in-glass thermometer is better.
Small range of temperature is measured in most of the
experiments
Broken mercury-in-glass thermometer is difficult to handle.

Other kinds of thermometer

Thermometer Working Principle Application
Liquid-in-glass Thermal expansion Laboratory use
of liquid when
heated
Resistance (metal) Resistance increases Industry
with temperature
Thermistor Resistance Electronic devices
(semiconductor) decreases with
temperature
Thermocouple Current flows Industry
between 2 junctions
at diff. temp.
Rotary Bending of Freezer or oven
bimetallic strips
when heated
Liquid crystal Color change with Aquarium or body
temp. temp.
Infrared Frequency changes astronomy
with temp.

Heat – specific heat capacity and internal

energy

Heat is the energy transferred due to temperature difference

When a hot object is in contact with a cold object, heat is
transferred from hot object to cold object. This processes is called
heating.
By Conservation of energy , Energy is conserved.
Energy cannot be created or destroyed. Energy can only be
transferred and transformed.

Here are some examples of energy

Kinetic energy – energy of motion (if move faster, kinetic energy is
larger)
Potential energy – energy related to the position
(e.g. gravitational potential energy, elastic potential energy)
Internal energy – total kinetic and potential energy of an object
(microscopic)

Temperature measures the average kinetic energy of all

molecules
Molecules of an object with higher temperature move faster

Potential energy is related to position and relative distance between

molecules
When the distance increases, the potential energy increases
Solid state has the least potential energy because the molecules are
the most closely packed.
Gas state has the largest potential energy because the molecules
are the least closely packed.

Summary
Solid state Liquid state Gas state
distance Least Middle Largest
between
molecules
Potential Least Middle Largest
energy
Kinetic energy Least Middle Largest

Kinetic energy depends on the temperature

Potential energy depends on the state of matter.
Internal energy depends on the kinetic energy and potential energy

Therefore,
When we compare the energy of 1kg 00C ice and 1kg 0oC water
Their temperatures are the same and hence their kinetic energy are
the same.
However, the distance between molecules in liquid state is larger
than that in solid state. Water has a higher potential energy than
ice.
Therefore, internal energy of water is larger

True and False

1) (T/F) Energy of a hot object decreases when it is in contact with a
cold object
2) (T/F) There is no heat transferred when two objects at the same
temperature are in contact.
3) (T/F) Energy of two objects remains unchanged when they are in
contact.

Several points needed to be reminded.

Temperature measures the average kinetic energy.

“Average” means some molecules can move faster than another
The molecules of water at 10oC need not to have same speed

True and False

4) Average speed of water increases when temperature increases
5) Average kinetic energy of 0 oC water is larger than that of oC ice
6) When water boils , the average kinetic energy unchanges

Internal energy – total kinetic and potential energy of an object

(microscopic)
“total” means the summation.

2 kg 20 oC water has double internal energy than 1 kg 20 oC water

Compare the following internal energy

7) 1kg 300K water < or > 2kg 300K water
o
8) 1kg 100 C water < or > 1kg 100 oC steam
o
9) 3kg 0 C ice < or > 5kg 0 oC water

Specific heat capacity

- Symbol : c
- Energy require to change the temperature of 1 kg object by 1 K
- Unit : J kg-1 K-1

For water , c = 4200 J kg-1 K-1

Here comes the most important equation in heat

E=mc ∆ T
E = energy transferred due to temperature difference (heat) (J)
When the temperature changes , there must be heat

m = the mass of the object (kg)

∆T = change in temperature (K) or (oC)

Ex.
Find the energy needed to change
10) 5 kg water from 300K to 350K
11) 0.1 kg water from 30 oC to 100 oC
12) 0.1 kg water from 100 oC to 30 oC

Water at different state has difference specific heat capacity

Specific heat capacity of ice = 2100 J kg-1 K-1

Ex.
Find the energy needed to change
13) 5 kg ice from 250K to 270K
14) 0.1 kg water from - 30 oC to 0 oC
15) 0.1 kg water from 0 oC to -30 oC

When a hot object is in contact with a cold object,

Energy (heat) flows from hot object to cold object.
Therefore,

Hot object loses energy while cold object gain energy

By conservation of energy, energy is neither created nor destroyed.

Energy gained by cold object = Energy lose by hot object

m1 kg cold object with specific heat capacity c1 at temperature T1

is mixed with
m2 kg hot object with specific heat capacity c2 at temperature T2

Let final temperature be T

Cold object:
Temperature change = T - T1
Energy gained by cold object = m1 x c1 x (T - T1)

Hot object:
Temperature change = T2 - T
Energy loss by hot object = m2 x c2 x (T2 - T)

Energy gain = energy lose

m1 x c1 x (T - T1) = m2 x c1 x (T2 - T)
Or simply , by solving the equation

m1 c 1 T 1+ m2 c 2 T 2
T=
m1 c 1+ m2 c 2
E.g.
3 kg 40oC water is mixed with 5kg 60oC water
Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg-1 oC -1

Let final temperature be T

Cold object:
Temperature change = T - T1 = T – 40
Energy gained by cold object = m1 x c1 x (T - T1) = 3 x 4200 x (T –
40)

Hot object:
Temperature change = T2 – T = 60 – T
Energy loss by hot object = m2 x c2 x (T2 - T) = 5 x 4200 x (60 – T)

Energy gain = energy lose

m1 x c1 x (T - T1) = m2 x c2 x (T2 - T)
3 x 4200 x (T – 40) = 5 x 4200 x (60 – T)
12600 T – 504000 = 1260000 – 21000T
33600 T = 1764000
T = 52.5 oC

Or simply

m1 c 1 T 1+ m2 c 2 T 2
T=
m1 c 1+ m2 c 2

3 × 4200 × 40+5 ×4200 × 60

T= = 52.5 oC
3 ×4200+ 5× 4200

Ex.
Find final temperature of the following mixture.
16) 3 kg 60oC water is mixed with 5kg 60oC water
17) 1 kg 80oC water is mixed with 5kg 30oC water
18) 5 kg 30oC water is mixed with 4kg 80oC water

If two different materials are mixed

3 kg 200oC copper is mixed with 5kg 60oC water
Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg-1 oC -1
Specific heat capacity of copper = 386 J kg-1 oC -1

Let final temperature be T

Cold object (water)

Temperature change = T - T1 = T – 60
Energy gained by cold object = m1 x c1 x (T - T1) = 5 x 4200 x (T –
60)

Hot object (copper)

Temperature change = T2 – T = 200 – T
Energy loss by hot object = m2 x c2 x (T2 - T) = 3 x 386 x (200 – T)

Energy gain = energy lose

m1 x c1 x (T - T1) = m2 x c2 x (T2 - T)
5 x 4200 x (T – 60) = 3 x 386 x (200 – T)
21000T – 1260000 = 231600 – 1158T
22158T = 1491600
T = 67.3 oC

Or simply

m1 c 1 T 1+ m2 c 2 T 2
T=
m1 c 1+ m2 c 2

5 × 4200 ×60+3 × 386× 200

T= = 67.3oC
5× 4200+3 × 386

Ex.
Find final temperature of the following mixture.
16) 3 kg 60oC water is mixed with 5kg 60oC copper
17) 1 kg 80oC water is mixed with 5kg 300oC copper
18) 5 kg 30oC water is mixed with 4kg 180oC copper

High specific heat capacity of water

Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 J kg-1 oC -1

Comparing to the heat capacity of other materials, water has a

relatively high specific heat capacity.
(Why? Hydrogen bond is strong and the water molecule is small and
light)

What does high specific heat capacity mean?

Material with high specific heat capacity absorb large amount of
heat with a little change in temperature.

Application of High specific heat capacity of water

1) Coolant
Criteria of coolant: absorb large amount of heat with a little change
in temperature.
e.g. coolant in car to cool the engine
(How about air-conditioner? The principle is totally different. Water is
not suitable. This will be explained in the next chapter.)

2) Regulating the human body temperature

70% of human body is made of water.
Why water is so important in human body?
(a) an important solvent to solve minerals, (water-soluble) vitamins
(b) blood, body fluid
………..
In physics,
(..) regulate body temperature
Human is a warm-blooded animal of which the temperature does not
change very much with the environment. This is mainly due to the
high proportion of water in human body. Even in very cold and very
hot environment, temperature of water in the body does not change
very much.

3) Coastal and inland area

Change of temperature of coastal area in the morning and at the
night is less than that of inland area. Land has a lower specific heat
capacity than water.
In the morning, sunlight keeps warming the land. In coastal area,
water near the land has a lower temperature than the land. Heat
flows from the land to the water. Therefore, the temperature of
coastal area does not change with much.
At the night, because there is no sunlight, the land keeps losing
energy (cooling).
In coastal area, the rate of energy loss of land is larger than that of
the water. Water has a higher temperature than the land. Water
warms the coastal area; therefore, the temperature of land does not
change very much.

In the extreme case, in desert, in the day time, temperature can be

as high as 40oC while at night, temperature can be as low as -10oC.
You can see now how important the water is in regulating the
temperature of our city.
Experiment 1 : Specific heat capacity of metal

thermometer

to joulemeter

immersion heater

metal
Precaution:
(1) Add oil to the holes => improve thermal contact
(2) Totally immerse the heater
(3) Insert plastic plate under the metal / wrap with cotton
Error:
Heat loss to the surrounding + heat absorbed by apparatus =>
experimental value > actual value

Experiment 2 : Specific heat capacity of water

 thermometer

joulemeter
polystyrene
power supply cup

stirrer immersion
heater

Precaution:
(1) Totally immerse the heater
(2) Add lid
Error:
Heat loss to the surrounding + heat absorbed by apparatus =>
experimental value > actual value
(Stirrer : make temperature more even)

Latent Heat
= energy needed to change the state

e.g.
Liquid water => Vapor OR Vapor => liquid water
Latent heat of vaporization

Ice => Water OR Water => Ice

Latent heat of fusion

Specific latent heat

= energy needed to change the state of 1kg object
e.g.
Latent heat of vaporization of water = 2.26x106 J kg-1
Latent heat of fusion of water = 3.34 x105 J kg-1

Eqn:
E=ml
Where m is the mass, l is the specific latent heat

e.g.
Try to find the energy required to

(a) change 20oC water to 100oC steam

(b) change 30oC water to 0oC ice

(c) Which gives more harm to the skin? 100oC water or 100oC
steam?
(d) Draw the graph of temperature against time when
(i) -10oC ice is placed on a table for a long time (assume constant
power of heating)
(ii) 20oC water is heated with constant power

Experiment 3 : Specific latent heat of fusion

immersion
heaters

joulemeter

crushed
ice

experimental connected to
control apparatus power supply
apparatus

Control experiment: find the mass of ice melt at room temperature,

then the difference of the mass of ice melt is the mass of ice melt by
heater
Crushed ice: better thermal contact with the heater
Melting ice: ensure 0oC
X stirrer: No need to measure temperature
Precaution: totally immerse the heater

Experiment 4 : Specific latent heat of vaporization

to power supply

500 W electric heater

water

beaker

electronic balance

X stirrer: no need to measure temperature / temperature already

even
X lid: lid prevents vaporization of water
Water splashes out => experimental value < actual value
Water drops back => experimental value > actual value
Heat loss to the surrounding => experimental value > actual value