SOKOINE UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE

DEPARTMENT OF CROP SCIENCE AND

HORTICULTURE

NOTES CS 302

SEED TECHNOLOGY
 PROF. D.G. MSUYA

INTRODUCTION
What is seed?
General scientist’s perspective:
Highly compressed or highly compacted and detached structure of a plant that contains a very small
plantlet which can grow and form the normal plant.

Biologist’s perspective:
Mature fertilized ovule or embryo (mature) from which new plants arise.

Seed is important in sexually propagated crops. Asexual propagation has little importance in terms of
seed, except in apomictic seeds.

What is seed technology?

That discipline of study dealing with seed production, maintenance, processing, quality control and
preservation. It is the study of methods and techniques of producing and ensuring supply of seeds of
approved planting materials; or in other words a study of methods through which the genetic and
physical characteristics of seeds could be improved.

Role of seed in agriculture

Seeds have very important role in agricultural development and sustainability. Seed is the basic
agricultural input
- It is a carrier of other technologies and inputs
- It is a medium for rapid rehabilitation of agriculture in times of natural disaster
- It is a principal means of securing crop yields in less favourable production areas; for example
seeds of early maturing varieties grown in areas where rains last for only a short period
- It is a principal means of increasing crop yields. Due to improved seed, yield increases of more
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 than 100% have been realized in cereals

Components of seed technology

• Variety development
• Variety evaluation
• Variety release and registration
• Seed multiplication
• Variety maintenance
• Seed processing and storage
• Seed quality control, certification and legislation
• Seed marketing and distribution
• Seed extension
• Seed science research

QUALITY SEED
In simplest terms seed quality means suitability of seeds for sowing and establishing a sufficiently
performing crop field
It is comprised of 10 attributes (components) of un-equal importance. The importance varies
depending on prevailing circumstances

1. Analytical purity
Is the percentage weight of seed sample that is intact seed of the species named on the label after
laboratory analysis, i.e. how much of it is seed.
It is weighed after separation of all impurities.
Impurities are seeds of other crop species, weed seeds and inert matter such as broken seeds, chaff,
pieces of leaves, soil particles etc.
Seed purity mainly depends on the success of the cleaning operations after harvest. Percentages of
98 or more are expected in most crop species but may be lower in some grasses because of empty
florets which are difficult to remove

2. Species purity
It is the number of seeds of species other than the one indicated in the label for the weight submitted
for analysis; example 2/kg

3. Freedom from weed seed

Number of weed seeds per weight of sample examined.
Condemnable weeds are those which once established are difficult to eradicate. They are referred to
as noxious weeds.
Expressed in numbers because weed seeds may be so much different in size from the crop seed that
% by weight may be of no real significance. What is important is not weight but number of weed seeds
that is sown with the crop

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4. Cultivar purity
Measures the seed’s genetic quality as developed by the breeder; i.e. freedom from seeds of other
cultivars of the same species.
Cultivars are more certainly identified by examination of growing plants, during DUS (Distinctiveness,
Uniformity, Stability) test

5. Germination capacity
It is the percentage by numbers of pure seeds which produce normal seedlings in a laboratory test. It
indicates potential of a seed lot for establishing in good field conditions. It is influenced by harvesting
and subsequent storage conditions and by the dormancy status of the seed.
Germination capacity can be combined with analytical purity and expressed as one value. The value
is known as PURE LIVE SEED.

Pure live seed = (% Analytical purity x % Germination capacity)/100.

Pure live seed indicate how much % by weight of the seed lot consists of seeds of the named species
which are capable of germinating and produce robust seedlings

6. Vigour
Is the ability to establish good seedlings even under poor conditions. It is usually associated with high
germination capacity but seeds of high germination may have low % of vigorous seeds. Vogour can
be influenced by:- Damage to embryo incurred during harvesting or subsequent processing
- Environment and nutrition of the mother plant
- Stage of maturity at harvest
- Seed size
- Storage conditions, for example humidity and presence of pathogens
- Genetic factors, for example Hybrid cultivars

7. Seed size
Large seed size is an indication of vigour. The bigger the seed the lager the size of the seedling and
leaf area for photosysnthesis. Larger seeds have greater potential to emerge if deeply buried. Small,
shriveled seeds have no practical planting value.
Seed size is usually expressed as weight or percentage of 100 or 1000 seeds.
Uniformity of seed size influences:- The effectiveness of seed cleaning operations
- Uniformity of growth of seedling
- Effectiveness of mechanical drilling during planting
8. Uniformity
It is nearness to identical characteristics when samples are drawn from different points in the same
lot, i.e. seed size, colour, shape etc. It may vary due to poor grading and mixtures.

9. Seed health
Presence or absence of seed-borne pathogen in the seed; that is seed-borne fungi, bacteria and
viruses. It is best checked by harvesting seed from healthy plants only. This is achieved by imposing
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certification standards of seed health either based on incidence of diseases in the crop or on laboratory
tests of seeds to be certified.

10. Moisture content

It is the percent of water per unit weight of seed on wet or dry basis. The moisture content of seeds is
very important especially for effective storage of seed.

SCOPE OF THE STUDY

Seed technology is a very interdisciplinary subject and yet a highly specialized discipline. It
encompasses a broad range of subjects and practices including:
• Development of superior varieties : Breeding, Agronomy, Entomology, Food technology, etc
• Variety evaluation, release and registration: Botany, Agronomy, Statistics, etc
• Variety maintenance: Botany, Genetics, Breeding, Biotechnology, etc
• Seed production (multiplication) : Botany, Agronomy, Mechanization, etc
• Seed processing and storage : Botany, Physiology, Engineering, etc
• Seed testing, quality control and certification : Physiology, Botany, Pathology, Law etc
• Seed extension : Agricultural extension, Sociology etc
• Seed marketing and distribution : Agricultural extension, Marketing, Sociology etc
• Seed science research : Physiology, Botany, Genetics, Biochemistry, Pathology etc

SEED GERMINATION AND DORMANCY

GERMINATION
It is the resumption of active growth of the embryo that results in the rupture of the seed coat leading
to the emergence of a young plant. As it emerges the young plant is called a radical.

Prior to germination a viable seed is rather in-active and the metabolic processes are to a large extent
arrested until conditions become favourable for germination. Some seeds can germinate soon after
harvest or even before their normal harvesting time. Others may be dormant and require an extended
resting period or additional development before germination can occur.

Pattern of seed germination

The major events occurring during seed germination are water imbibition, initiation of embryo growth,
rupture of seed coat, emergence of seedling and finally seedling establishment.

Imbibition
It is a process whereby water passes through natural openings in the seed coat then diffusing into the
seed tissues. The imbibed water performs several functions:-
• Causes cells to become turgid and colloids to be hydrated causing the seed to swell
• Softens the seed coat rendering it more permeable to oxygen and carbon dioxide
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 • The swelling causes rupture of the softened seed coat
• Stimulates enzymatic activity

Enzyme activation
When water is imbibed three types of enzymes are activated:-
- Enzymes that aid transfer of nutrients from storage tissues to growing points
- Enzymes that break down stored food in tissues
- Enzymes that trigger chemical reactions for synthesis of new materials

Embryo growth
It is growth of the root-shoot axis that results into differentiation of the epicotyl, hypocotyls and radical.
It occurs at the expense of the storage tissues which are degenerated to release food reserves.
Depending on species, embryo growth may be by cell division or cell elongation. In species like lettuce
root protrusion is primarily the result of cell elongation.

Rupture of seed coat and seedling emergence

The rupture is caused by internal pressure from enlarging root-shoot axis and partly by action of
imbibed water. Ordinarily, the primary root is the first structure to emerge. In some species, the shoot
emerges first. The imbibed water also causes softening of the seed coat. In some species for example
coconuts seedling emergence is made possible after disintegration of the seed coat under action of
decomposing micro organisms.

Seedling establishment
This starts when seedlings begin water uptake and photosynthesis. This is when the seedlings
become firmly supported in the soil medium.

Requirements for seed germination

• Viability and absence of dormancy
• Favourable environmental conditions : Water, Temperature, Oxygen, Light, Suitable medium

Water
Is especially important for enzyme activation. The amount required for seed to start germination
depends on species.
• Optimum amount is that which completely saturates the seed
• Maize germination begins germination when seed absorbs 30.5% of its own weight of water.
The seed is saturated at 43% m.c.
• Extreme moisture may inhibit germination as in dwarf bean and sugar beet

Oxygen
It is necessary for respiration. Most species require the normal atmospheric oxygen concentration
(21%). Few species germinate better at higher or lower concentrations.
• Nitrogen has no effect
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 • Carbon dioxide concentration above 0.03% hinders germination while lower concentration has
no effect.

Temperature
A specific continuous or alternating temperature range may be necessary for germination.
Temperature influences the rate of water uptake and metabolism. Response depends on species and
sometimes cultivar and time from harvest (thermo-dormancy). Optimum for most
species `is between 15 – 30oC, 20 – 30oC for tropical species.

For most species the maximum range is 35 – 40oC. Minimum can be down to 0oC. Some species
require diurnally fluctuating (during the day) temperatures for optimum germination, for example many
tree and grass species. The need for fluctuating temperature is associated with dormancy

Light
It is a requirement for some species. The mechanism is similar to that controlling floral induction, stem
elongation and formation of pigments in certain fruits and leaves, radical development in certain
seedlings and unfolding of the epicotyls in bean seedlings. Both light quantity and
quality are important.

Other factors influencing germination

• Chemicals, example KNO3 and H2O2
• Osmotic pressure
• pH
• Pre-harvest and storage conditions
• Radiation
• Mechanical damage

SEED DORMANCY
Dormancy is a period of rest in the life cycle of plants during which growth is suspended. Dormant
seeds fail to germinate in favourable environmental conditions (favourable temperature and water
supply). However, such seeds will germinate under similar conditions after a storage period of time
up to several months.

Causes of seed dormancy

These are related to morphology and physiology of the seed.
• In legumes, the seed coat or testa may be impermeable to water. For example, germination of
white clover may require breaking of the seed coat, where concentrated acids are usually used
• Immaturity of the embryo due to prematurely harvested seeds, example poor germination of
sugar beets
• Presence of germination inhibitors in the pericarp or testa. This is solved by washing the
inhibitors by soaking the seeds before planting. The inhibitors are water soluble.
- Seed dormancy can also be broken by light treatment, example in lettuce
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 - Other seeds require low temperature treatment, example chilling in woody species

SEED PROCESSING
It is the preparation of seed after harvest for eventual marketing and distribution. It is one of most
important and most difficulty functions of seed business
Basically seed processing has 5 fundamental objectives/purposes/functions
(1) To free good seed from adulterants (cleaning)
(2) To grade for size
(3) To dry seeds
(4) To treat seed with protective chemicals
(5) To prepare lots suitable for handling during marketing (packing)

PRE-CONDITIONING OF SEEDS
Refers to those activities or operations that prepare seed for cleaning; example shelling, de-awing,
threshing etc. (Shelling in maize, for example, is a critical operation. To minimize seed damage maize
should be shelled at 16-17% mc.)

SEED DRYING
When seed comes off the thresher or combine harvester it usually possesses more moisture than it
should for safe storage. Maize, for example, is best shelled at 16-17% m.c to minimize damage. Such
seed needs to be dried to required m.c for storage within 24hrs after shelling. Drying is very important
to prevent mould growth. Deterioration of seeds during or even before storage is greatly related to
m.c.

The influence of m.c. on longevity of seeds makes artificial drying mandatory. Normally at m.c between
35-60% the seed may germinate.
At 16% m.c and above heating begins due to in creased rates of respiration and microbial activity.
Mould growth can begin at 12-14% m.c.
It is therefore necessary to dry seed to as low m.c as possible to minimize deterioration losses.

Drying systems:
There are many systems depending on type of seed, weather, amount of seed, availability of
resources for example fuel/power, etc.
Traditional methods
Utilize the sun or natural ventilation. May involve
(1) Threshed seed spread in thin layer on smooth floor
(2) Spreading on straw matting on the floor
(3) The matting on a horizontal platform (vichanja) to improve ventilation and evaporation
(4) Unthreshed inflorescences hung on frames or wooden supports
(5) Unthreshed inflorescences placed in ventilated cribs.

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1. BATCH DRIER
This is a bin with perforated floor through which air blows. The dry air is blown through a layer of
seed until drying is completed. The drier is then emptied and a new batch filled in. It is a simple method
suitable for small quantities of seed, where also it is easy to clean the bin after drying.

2. CONTINUOUS FLOW DRIERS

This is a method in which seed moves horizontally or vertically through a stream of hot-air then into a
cooling chamber. It is a continuous process on a factory scale suitable for large quantities. It dries in
a shorter time and air temperature can be higher than in batch drier.

3. BAG DRIER (SACK DRIER)

Seed in sacks is placed on top of a grid from which air is blown. It is a method well adapted for use
when many varieties are handled or when seed lots are small in size and received in bags. The drying
bed is only one sack deep therefore excellent air flow and minimum static pressure. Construction of
this system is simple and in expensive.

Drying temperature:
In artificial drying higher temps are most occasionally used to speed up the drying. Optimum temps
for drying differ according to types of seed.
Normally the optimum temp range will depend on moisture content of the seed. Recommended temp.
maxima for drying most seeds are 32.2oC for seed at 18-30% m.c., 37.8oC for 10-18% m.c. and 43.4oC
for less than 10% m.c. for slow drying. Seed at higher m.c. are dried more slowly to avoid too quick
drawing of moisture from the seed which may lead to seed damage.

Table: Maximum temperature levels for drying different crop seeds

Crop %m.c. Max temp Max oC
oC Crop % m.c.
Rice < 15 60 C
o Beans < 24 32.2
15-20 51.7 > 24 21.1
G/nut 36-60 32.2 Brassicas < 18 37.8
Soya > 25 43.4 > 18 26.7
Mustard <18 37.8 Onion < 20 32.2
>18 26.7 > 20 21.1
Wheat 38-43 Peas > 24 37.8
> 24 26.7

Drying time:
This is influenced by many factors:
1. Seed properties: Seed size, m.c., oil content, seed coat permeability
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 2. Drying air temperature
3. Drying airflow rate (m3/min/m3 seed)
4. Seed depth.

High temperatures allow quick movement of moisture from seed. Normally, for every 1 oC rise in temp
RH is reduced by about 4%

Drying time (h) = 1.80 x m.c. to be removed (l/m3 seed)

Airflow (m3/min/m3 seed X temp drop through seed

= Amount of water removed (kg)

Rate of water removal [kg/unit time(h)]

Drying time for wheat in batch drier (o.6m grain depth)

Airspeed Hours to dry from 24 – 14% mc wb
Air temperature
(m/s) 38oC 48oC 60oC
0.15 11.2 8.9 6.1
0.20 8.4 5.9 4.6
0.25 6.6 4.8 3.7
0.30 5.6 4.1 3.1

Drying depth
Affects the rate of bulk drying. Seeds near the heat source usually dry much more quickly than those
near the evaporation surface.
For effective drying in batch drier the following depths have been recommended:-

CROP MAIZE WHEAT BARLEY OATS RICE SOYBEAN PEANUT SORGUM

Max depth 50cm 50cm 50cm 90cm 45cm 50cm 150cm 50cm
Temp oC 43.3 43.3 40.5 43.3 43.3 43.3 32.2 43.3

Source of heat for drying

- Electric hearters:- safe & clean. Expensive.
- Gas burners: Natural gas, petroleum gas, butane etc.
- Kerosene and similar liquid fuels
- Oil burners e.g. diesel
- Solid fuel burners e.g. coal, wood, sawdust etc.

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STORAGE DRYING (Keeping the seeds dry during storage or equilibrating the seed m.c while
in storage)
Can be practiced for small quantities of seed (<100kg). It is a suitable method for heat-sensitive seeds
such as vegetables.
Many people use dehumidifiers or desiccators..

Dehumidified cabinets:
Dehumidifiers apply the principles of air-conditioning where R.H. is reduced without the application of
heat. They operate in same way as refrigerator but work at higher temperatures; suitably where
ambient temp. is above 210 C. Below 21oC best to use desiccators.

Desiccators
Use silica gel (or other desiccant). They are more effective at lower temps. As temp. falls, ability to
hold water increases.

Storage drying also suitable for large-seeded crops like beans. These need slow drying and air
conditioned rooms are suitable.
Batch driers (high temp driers) will damage the seeds because it pulls water out of the seed too quickly.

PRE-CLEANING OF SEEDS:

Removal of the most bulky materials (larger, sometimes lighter than seed) and rubbish that is most
likely to shake up conveyors and sieves (affect flowability). Those are materials such as pieces of
trash & plant materials, stones, clods, rodent faeces etc. It consists mainly of an air blast and large-
meshed screens or cylinders. The process of removing large particles is called SCALPING. It is best
to pre clean before seed enters the driers.

BASIC CLEANING:
This is actual cleaning. It is necessary for all seeds. It removes all adulterants and impurities: - weed
seeds, other crop seeds, immature seeds, damaged seeds etc.

Basic cleaning is performed by air- screen cleaners, the basic equipment in seed cleaning plants. The
cleaner usually uses 3 cleaning elements
1. Aspiration – Removing light seeds and chaffy materials
2. Scalping – separation of larger materials
3. Grading – separation of smaller particles (undersized, cut, shrivelled, broken seeds)

A typical air screen cleaner has 4 screens. In actual sense the screen provides the means for both
pre-cleaning and basic cleaning.
If the two operations need to be separated this may be done just by changing the sieves. The seed
flows by gravity from the hopper to the feeder mechanism. The feeder directs the seed to an air stream
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and removes light and chaffy materials. Larger particles slide over the scalping screen and are
collected in a trough.

The screens are usually shaken in a reciprocating motion to enhance separation. There could also be
mechanisms to knock the screens from beneath to free trapped seed/particles. Sieves are available
of various hole types/shapes – round-holed, slatted-shaped, oblong, square, triangular-shaped. They
can be changed depending on the kind and number of crops dealt with. There are over 200 screen
specifications (size, shape) in the seed industry.

UPGRADING:
Seed cannot always be adequately processed using air sieve cleaner alone. Sometimes the
differences in size (breadth) between seed and contaminants are not large enough to effect
separation. For example if seeds are of same width sieve cleaners can not adequately separate short
and long seeds because the longer seeds may be tilted from horizontal position and fall through. To
have a more complete separation sometimes the process needs to go beyond the basic cleaning –
i.e. air-screen cleaning. Various machines are available for upgrading seed. These include.

1. Indented cylinders:
This is for separation between long and short seeds e.g. wheat and oat. It has pockets (indentations)
in inner surface and revolves round a sloping axle. Along its length in the upper half there is a fixed
trough. Seed is fed into the higher end of cylinder and slowly moves towards the lower end.
Short seeds are trapped into the pockets while long seeds slide over. As the cylinder rotates the short
seeds are carried into the upper half of the cylinders rotation where they fall by gravity into the troughs.
Long seeds fall out in the lower part of the rotation and remain in the cylinder. The cylinder can be
adapted to have projecting pins instead of indentations. These pins can enter into holes left by insects
(e.g. pulses) on seeds thus picking damaged seeds.

2. Gravity separators:
This is also called the gravity table. It separates on basis of specific gravity (weight), example empty
from full seeds such as in pulses and flax; also stones and heavy objects. Seed is spread in layer over
a perforated plate or table set at a slope. A current of air is blown vertically through the table (deck),
strong enough to lift light seeds slightly off the surface. Heavy seeds remain firm on the deck. The
deck shakes backward & forwards in jerking movements. Each jerk moves heavy seeds slightly up
the slope. Light seed floats in air and tends to more down the slope as it is not affected by jerking
movements.

3. Spiral separator:
Separates flat seeds from round seeds. Flat seeds follow the spirals down the chute, round seeds
slide quickly and off the spirals.

SCIENTIFIC PRINCIPLES OF SEED SEPARATION:

Cleaning or separation is based primarily on differences in physical properties between desirable
seeds and adulterants:- Size (length, width, thickness or girth).
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 • Density (weight) – shape - colour
• Surface texture – Electrical charactreristics etc. Includes:
: Cloth covered rolls (dodder mill) against rough seeds
: Magnetic separators (iron powder mixed with seed and sticks on rough
seed against smooth seed
• Separation by size: using air screens
• Separation by length: Indented cylinders, disc separators
• Separation by shape, eg round seeds from irregular seeds using spiral separators; triangular
screens for triangular seeds
• Specific gravity –Gravity tables (separators)
• Floating – In water. Used in Brassicas.
• Colour separation – Electronic eye. It is limited to large seeds e.g. peas and beans. Colour
sorting machines work on reflected light
Density

SEED TREATMENT
Practically all seeds come in contact with pathogens or with organs in soil that attack seed and young
seedlings. It is the application of protectant chemical or physical techniques (e.g hot H 20; radiation
etc) to get rid of and prevent colonization of seed by seed-borne pathogens and insect pests. Seed
treatment is: a very common operation in seed processing. Treatment is mostly by chemicals. The
purpose is:
1. To protect seed from seed rot and seedling blight
2. To protect seed against storage pests and soil insects
3. To prevent spread of plant disease.
Treatment may sometimes be optional. It is, however, a good insurance against disease and soil-
borne organisms. Treatment chemicals may be both fungicides and insecticides.

Fungicides
a) Mercurials (Mercuric compounds)
These are most widely used fungicides. They may be organic or in-organic. In-organic forms include
mainly the chlorides and oxides
Mercuric chloride is injurious to most seeds if not used with caution. Over treatment with organic
mercurials is also injurious.

b) Non – mercurials
These can also be organic and in-organic. In-organic forms include CuS04, Cu20, CuC03 and NASCO-
4 (mixture of Zn oxide and Zn hydroxide).
Cuprous oxide prevents seed decay and damping off in vegetables, but it injures lettuce, onion and
crucifers. NASCO-4 is effective in vegetables seed sensitive to CU 20. Captan and thiram are also
non-mercurials.

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Insecticides
May be combined with fungicide or applied individually. They protect against storage and soil insects.
Some may be applied to protect growing plants through systemic action, for example some organic
phosphates in cotton.

Formulations:
- Dusts – Wettable powders (slurry. Soup-like H20 suspension)
- Liquids (quick-wet application method.

Equipment:
SLURRY TREATERS
These are adaptable to all types of seeds and application rates. They possess a metering mechanism
which rates the application. The small amount of H20 added to the seed does change the m.c of seed
as it is lost soon from seed surface: Usually 0.5 – 1% moisture added. No drying is required after
treatment

DRUM MIXERS:
These involve a simple drum e.g. concrete mixer or a home made drum with rotating handle and
auger.

Dipping mechanisms
- For liquid formulations
- Drip chemical on seed as it passes through certain parts e.g. conveyors. Quick-wet seed
treaters
Application of chemical on seed may also be manual by stirring up the mixture (seed + chemical) with
shovel.

Treatment colours:-
Most treatments contain dyes. These serve 3 purposes:-
1. Warning against food uses
2. As a visible means of evaluating completeness of treatment coverage.
3. Company identity

Precautions in seed treatment:-

Most products are harmful to humans and animals. They may also harm seed. Therefore:-
1. Treated seed must be clearly labelled as dangerous if consumed
2. Necessary to apply correct dosage
3. Correct seed m.c. seed with high mc is very susceptible to injury with conc. Liquid chemicals.
4. Seed to be stored beyond next season shouldn’t be treated with phytotoxic compounds.

SEED PACKAGING
This may be packaging or bagging. It is the last operation in which seeds are handled in bulk flow. It
involves filling and weighing; attaching labels and certification tags on the bags, sewing the bags.
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Equipment for bagging is usually the bagger weigher. In this equipment an empty bag is suspended
on the weigher, then seed is allowed to flow into the bag by trip lever. As seed flows a scale counter
balance is actuated so as to stop seed flow by the tripping lever when desired weight is reached. The
bag is then removed.
Bagger weigher may be manual, semi-authomatic or automatic. The manual bagger weigher is usually
mounted on a portable platform. Most scales are semi-automatic, attached to the bottom of the
bagging bin. A feed gate is opened manually but may be closed automatically when the weight is
measured. The bagger weigher can pack 4-5 bags of 50kg/min. Automatic scales are mostly used for
small packages e.g. vegetable and lawn seeds.

CONVEYORS AND ELEVATORS IN SEED PROCESSING:

Conveyors and elevators an integral part of seed processing line. They must be present at some part
in almost every plant. They move seed into, through or away from the processing plant; in vertical,
horizontal or inclined directions. When vertical, they are elevators. When horizontal or inclined, they
are conveyors. They are of many types
- most common elevator is bucket type with centrifugal discharge (against internal discharge
type).
- Most common conveyor is the belt type
- Others:-Screw conveyors, vibrating conveyors, pneumatic conveyors (orga) drag flight
conveyors, chain conveyors, lift trucks etc.

CONCLUSION: THE SEED PROCESSING LINE:

A processing line is usually a complex of different machines and facilities:- separators – elevators –
conveyors and storage bins. Arrangement of these should be such that the seeds flow continuously
from the beginning to the end; and must be flexible enough to by pass a machine or return to a part
for re-cleaning. All parts must be designed to match in capacity. A processing plant layout may be
Multistorey, single level or combined.

SEED STORAGE AND SEED DETERIORATION

Seed often has to be packaged, shipped and held in store for several weeks or months before it is
actually sold or planted. Maintenance stocks may be held for years. During storage deterioration
occurs. The rate of deterioration is determined by many factors.

Factors influencing seed longevity in store:

1. Type of seed (species, variety)
Among seeds there are seeds which are naturally short lived, eg onion, soybean, peanut. Viability of
some vegetable seeds under optimum storage can be :-
- Cucumber, eggplant, lettuce, melon - 5 yrs
- Cabbage, cauliflower, spinach, pumpkin - 4 yrs
- Tomato, bean, peas, carrot, pepper - 3 yrs
- Okra, parley - 2 yrs
- Onion, pasnip - 1 yr
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 2. Initial seed quality. Initial deterioration during harvesting and processing
3. Moisture content. Probably most important factor
4. Air RH in storehouse
Related to seed moisture content. Every time the air RH changes the seed m.c also
changes to attain equilibrium; example:-
Crop Equilibrium seed m.c at given RHs
RH 15% 20% 30% 45% 75% 100%
Maize, milled 6.5 - - 10.5 14.8 23.8

Rice, milled 6.8 - - 10.7 14.4 23.6

Sorghum 6.4 - - 120.5 15.2 21.9

Wheat 6.4 - - 10.5 14.6 25.0

Beetroot - 4.0 5.8 7.6 11.2 -

Cabbage - 4.6 5.4 6.4 9.6 -

Okra - 7.2 8.3 10.0 13.1 -

Onion - 6.8 8.0 9.5 13.4 -

Peas - 7.3 8.6 10.1 15.0 -

5 . Temperature
Within normal range of biological activity of seeds, insects and moulds increase as temp increases.
The higher the mc of seed, the more they are adversity affected by temp. Physiologically higher temps
lead to higher metabolic rates in seeds. The relationship between seed m.c and temp forms the basis
of long – term storage. There are 2 simple rules regarding effects of mc and temp on seed ageing
and deterioration in storage (Harrington Rules):- i. For every 1% decrease in seed mc the storage
life of seed is doubled (within 5-14% mc).
ii. For every 5oC decrease in storage temp the life of the seed is doubled.

A combination of the above rules states that “Good storage is achieved when % RH and ambient oF
temp in the storage environment add up to 100”

6. Oxygen pressure. Increased pressure tends to decrease viability.

7. Chemical treatment
Chemicals used for seed dressing are sometimes phytotoxic and reduce viability in long-
term storage
Frequency of fumigation increases deterioration in stored seed

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 8. Storage pests
- Fungi: Penicillium, Aspergillus, Alternasia, Fusarium, Cladosporium and Rhizopus.
Saprophytes
- Insects: Weevils, beetles, moths.

In principle moisture and temperature have great influence on seed deterioration in storage and
therefore greatest attention is paid to them during storage.

CONTROL OF STORAGE TEMPERATURE

Three methods of control are available:-
(1) Ventillation (2) Insulation (3) Refrigeration

1. Ventilation
Ventillation is needed when temp. inside the store is higher than outside. If so ventilating fans are
turned on to expel warm air from the store and draw in cool air.

2. Insulation
It is a very important consideration in construction of storage facilities. Insulator materials are usually
incorporated during store construction, example in walls, floors, roofs. Fibre board glass wool, cock
board etc are among good insulators used. Sometimes false ceilings are provided so as to leave an
air space between storage room ceiling and actual ceiling. Air is also a good insulator. Stores are
usually painted white (silvery) to reflect the incoming radiation and reduce heat absorption.

3. Refrigeration
Low temperatures are very effective in maintaining seed quality even where RH is quite high.
Generally a reliable method of storing small quantities of seed e.g. breeder/nucleus and basic seed;
carryover seed.

The extent to which storage temp can be lowered by refrigeration alone is very limited. As temp drops,
there is a practical minimum level of RH attained, e.g:-

Temp oC 32 27 23 21 19 16 14 10
Min RH % 30 35 40 45 50 60 70 75

It is recommended that storage should not be done where RH exceeds 60%. To be able to achieve
lower temp levels, refrigeration is normally accompanied with dehumidification. Most seeds suffer cold
injury when stored below 4oC

CONTROL OF SEED MOISTURE CONTENT

By Ventilation, Moisture proofing, Dehumidification, Sealed containers and Desiccants

1. Ventilation

17
Ventilation (with dry air) prevents development of damp conditions in the store. May be provided
naturally by allowing air vents and louvers in the storage building; or artificially by use of ventilation
fans. In damp areas natural ventilation may be harmful.

2. Moisture-proofing
Moisture – proofing is provided during construction of storage facility. Materials used for moisture –
proofing include polythene (10 mm) asphalt (3 mm) or aluminium foil. A layer of the material is placed
beneath the floor and overlapped with wall moisture proofing. Metal bins are naturally moisture proof.
Small amounts of seed may be stored in moisture – proof containers e.g. drums and plastic containers
.

3. Dehumidification
Is necessity when RH in store exceeds 60%. Two types of dehumidifiers are known:- Refrigeration
dehumidifiers and Desiccant dehumidifiers.

Refrigeration dehumidifiers reduce RH by condensing H20 vapour on the cooling coils. The condensed
H20 or melted ice is then removed from the storage through a small water pipe or a collection pan.
Desiccants use chemicals, usually silica gel or activated alumina. The method is very effective, can
maintain room RH even below 10%. They work best at lower temps.

STORAGE METHODS:
A: Bulk methods
1. Stacks in protected warehouse
In this method seed is packed in bags or sacks which are arranged on racks/platforms in a
warehouse. It is the best method of holding bulk seed e.g. cereals for short periods of time such
as certified seed. Stacks should be constructed with some skill. They must be:-
- At least 30 cm from walls and not less than 10cm from the floor.
- Stack size of about 2m x 2m and may reach 3.5 – 4m tall.
- A clearance of at least 0..5m should be left between the stack and ceiling.
- Space not less than 0.5m between stacks to enable easy manipulation, sampling, pest control
and ventilation.

THE STORAGE WAREHOUSE: CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES

It must protect against rain, snow, ground moisture, excessive outside heat; thieves, rodents, birds
poultry and insects. Effectively:-
- It’s floor raised 90cm off-ground and moisture proofed.
- Only one entrance, no windows. The entrance should have detachable stairs to minimize possibility
of entry by rats.
- Roof sealed to the walls, no cracks
- Built to ensure good insulation – insulators, false ceiling etc
- Ventilation louvers screened to keep birds and insects out
- Inside of walls and the floor smooth, no cracks
18
- Ventilation fans at one or both ends, with insect–proof screens
- Easy to clean and fumigate.

In ordinary warehouses ventilation may be the only practical and necessary means of controlling the
atmosphere inside. Normally, about 75 – 80% certified seed is sold in the next season after harvest,
within 8 – 9 months. Provided the seed is dry enough (less than 10% mc) it can be adequately stored
in warehouse with rigorous checks in temp. Seed at 9 – 10% mc can be subjected to long term storage
at 20oC and 50% RH.

2. Storage in bins/silos
This is a high capacity method of storage of bulk (example cereal) seed. The method is satisfactory
for long storage, especially in temperate countries. Seed must be well dried. Additional ventilation may
be provided by perforations in the bottom. Bins or silos are usually fitted with thermometers and RH
meters for remote reading.

3. Underground pits
Made of moisture – proof concrete. These have been used successfully in storing cereal seed
(Argentina) and groundnut seed (Tanganyika).

B Storage of small quantities of seed

1. Cold rooms
Can offer long storage if RH is low. They are suitable for breeder, nucleus and even basic seed. Very
long storage of germplasm can be undertaken in cold rooms at 5 oC – 10oC maintained at 30% RH.

Cold rooms at 20oC or less under normal air RH (50% or less) can be used for long storage provided
seed m.c doesn’t exceed 9-10%.

2. Refregerators; For very small quantities e.g. vegetable seed.

3. Dehumidified cabinets

4. Sealed containers (Air and moisture proof)

Most effective method of storing small lots of expensive seeds after proper drying. Dry seed in air
sealed container becomes even less susceptible to high temp. deterioration. Example sealed tins,
aluminium cans, glass jars, aluminium foil laminated or polyethylene etc.

CONCLUSION
Seed m.c and storage temperature are strongest determinants of seed deterioration. Safe mc for
storage can only be determined if temp is known.

19
The higher the temp the lower must be the m.c of the seed. For most seeds the safe m.c. is below
13%. In humid climate 9-10% ms is often the highest allowable for many crop seeds. In colder
(temperate) climates up to 16% may be satisfactory.

STORAGE INSECT PESTS OF SEEDS:

Various insect pests cause damage to seed in store. This is a particularly important problem to
carryover seed which is usually not treated until when due to be sold. Two categories of pests are
known that damage seed in store.

1. PRIMARY PESTS
a) Those which and can attack undamaged seed. Most species develop in the seeds both before
harvest and during storage. They include:-
. Sitophilus spp (S. zeamais, S. oryzae, S. granaries)
. Colosobruchus spp.
. Acanthoscelides obtectus
. Zabrotes subfasciatus
. Rhizopertha dominica (lesser grain borer)
. Prostephanus truncates (Greater grain borer)

b) Those which cannot attack undamaged dry seed but are able to survive in the seed especially those
lots with high levels of fragments and dusts.
They include:-
. Tribolium spp.
. Cryptolestes spp
. Oryzaephilus spp.
. Tenabroldes spp
. Ephestia spp etc.

2. SECONDARY PESTS
Infest already damaged seeds, and are able to feed on embryo of moist seeds. They include insects
like flour beetles and grain moths. The Angoumois grain moth, however, is a moth but is in
considered to be a primary insect pest of maize

Insect-pest control measures in stores

1. Storing only the seed that is properly dry. Dry seeds are less prone to attack by insect pests
Safe mc with respect to insect attack would be between 10-12% for cereals and 6-8% for
oilseeds.

2. Cold storage
Insect activity is impaired below 20oC and stopped below 10oC. The optimum temperature
condition for most insects attacking seed in store lie between 28-35oC.
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3. Insect proofing of storage building

4. Sanitation
- General cleanliness of store
- Before putting seed in store empty the store completely.
- Clean it thoroughly on walls, the floor and any fixed structures and machines.
- Destroy all the cleanings by burning
- White wash the store (white paint) to seal all crevices
- Spray the store with persistent insecticide such as Lindane, Malathion.

. Do regular inspections of the store for re-infestation.

Symptoms of infestation:-
. Flour
. Sound
. If you tap the sacks you may see insects walking out (severe case)
. Smell (e.g. Tribolium, mites)

. Clean all spilled out seeds and any rubbish accumulating in the store
5. Seed Treatment. Before storage. Pesticide combined and fungicide.

6. Fumigation
May be necessary for insect populations that may build up while seed is already in store. Some insects
are brought into store from infestations that occurred in the field (or another store). Such insects will
multiply inside the store whatever the sanitation, and need to be fumigated.

Fumigants:-
a) Methyl bromide (MeBr)
. Most important fumigant in cold countries
. Most widely used commercial fumigant in mills, warehouses, hips, railway wagons etc.
. Effective against mites, rodents and insects
. Fumigations last 1-2 days
. Toleranc in Trogoderma spp and Tenebroides, resistance in T. confusum.

b) Phosphine (PH3)
- Most imp. Fumigant in hot countries.
- Very toxic to man and a cumulative effect. Explosive.
- Very toxic to insects and mites (except some eggs and pupae e.g. Sitophilus, Trogoderma
and moths e.g. Sitotroga)
- Use in gas tight silo bins, in stacks under tarpaulin, within gas-tight sacks ets.
- Rate 3-4 tables/tone for 3-10 day sin gas-tight containers.

c) Hydrocyanic acid HCN:

21
 - Powerful quick acting poison, very toxic to insects but paralysis reversible. Insects may
recover from a sub-lethal concentrations.
- Effective against mites, rodents and insects.
- Tribollium spp have acquired resistance.

PROCEDURE FOR FUMIGATION:

. Make sure the storage chamber is air-tight: Seal all cracks, openings and ventilators. If seed in
stacks cover the stack completely
with tarpaulin or polythene sheet of proper grade (without holes)
. Wear masks and gloves to protect yourself.
. Apply your fumigant (tablets for PH3; vapor from pressure liquid for MeBr 4 and HCN) in the
closed chamber.
. Put warning signs in the storage chamber
. Get away immediately after application, making sure that no leakage is veering.
. Allow ventilation into the seeds after treatment. Don’t allow insects in.

SEED HEALTH
Many serious plant disease arise from infection carried by seed. This may lead to:-
1. Poor stands due to pre-emergence losses and death of seedlings
2. Spread of disease in later stages.

Seed-borne disease are many and crop losses encountered are great.

Recorded crop losses due to some seed-borne pathogens:-

CROP SCIENCE DISEASE LOSS

Wheat Bunt (Tilletia spp) Up to 80%

Loose smut (Ustillago tritici) Up to 40%
Seedling & ear roots (Fusarium spp) Up to 85%
Foot root (Drechslera spp) Up to 70%
Leaf blight (Alternaria triticina) Up to 93%
Blotch (Septoria nodorum) Up to 65%

Rice Blast (Pyricularia oryzae) Up to 100%

Brown spot (Drechslera oryzae) Up to 90%
Leaf blight (Xanthomonas oryzae) Up to 75%

Maize Ear root (Diplodia spp) Up to 9%

Southern blight (Drechslera spp) Up to 100%
Stalk rot (Fusarium spp) Up to 70%

22
Sorghum Ergot (Claviceps spp)
Kerrel smut (Tolyposporium spp) Up to 70%
Milo dse (Sphacelotheca spp) Up to 100%

Beans Root rots (Fusarium spp) Up to 95%

Anthracnose (Coletotrichum lindemuthianum) Up to 100%
Halo blight (Pseudomonas phaseolicola) Up to 50%
CBB (Xanthomonas phaseoli) Up to 65%

Cabbage Black rot (X. campestris) Up to 100%

Black leg (Phoma lingua) Up to 100%

Tomato Tobacco Music Virus IMV Up to 25%

Early blight (Alternaria spp) Up to 50%
Fusarium wilth (F. lycopersci) Up to 100%
Bacterial cancer (Corynebacterium michiganense) Up to 80%

AVOIDANCE MEASURES TO MANAGE SEED-BORNE DISEASE

Two strategies are commonly employed as avoidance measures to prevent development and spread
of seed-borne disease

1. Seed health testing and certification

2. Plant quarantine

SEED HEALTH TESTING

A very important service. Information obtained can held in:-
1. Implementation of quarantine regulations
2. Seed certification schemes
3. Evaluation of planting value
4. Evaluation of cultivar resistance
5. Advices on seed Rx
6. Effectiveness of seed Rx
7. Judgement on storage potential or feeding quality

TEST METHODS:-
1. Direct visual inspection, example for sclerotia
2. Washing the seed with water and microscopic examination of the suspensions
3. Microscopic examination after staining or cleaning procedures
4. Examination of seeds and seedlings after incubation on blotter, rolled paper towel or agar
media
5. Examination of symptoms developed on seedlings growth in soil, sand or similar material
6. Serological tests (based on biochemical reactions)
23
 7. Tests performed on bioassays (indicator tests; phage tests etc)
8. etc

The blotter and agar methods allow identification of fungi to species level. The seedling symptom test
proves the use value of seed
Serological procedures enable precise identification of bacterial viruses. Choice of method depends
on range of pathogens expected and effectiveness of method for a pathogen.

The blotter method is the most frequently used routine procedure in laboratories. It enhances
sporulation of the fungi hence ease of identification.
Identification of fungi is based on growth characteristics. Sometimes the colour and growth form of a
fungus on agar plate can be indicative of its identity.

SOTARAGE FUNGI
The main aim of seed health testing is to intercept seed-borne pathogens. Occasionally storage fungi
are also intercepted. Seed so intercepted will usually be a subject of seed treatment and possibly
drying. Their effects to the seed grain can h be dramatic if un-attended. (usefulness in certification
manifested in the effects). They are known to be responsible for about 10-30% loss of the grain crop
in store. The fungi can also cause the following damages in seed:-
1. Decrease in germinability
2. Discolouration of seed and decay
3. Heating and mastiness
4. Loss of weight
5. Various biochemical
6. Production of toxins harmful to man and domestic animals, for example Aflatoxin.

Identity:
Most storage fungi are species of Aspergillus and Penicillium. These are species able to grow without
free water. They are active at RH 70 – 90%
Usually they do not invade before harvest. They may however be on the harvested seed at very low
concentrations. They may be present not only as contaminants but as dormant mycelium within
sometimes the pericarp or seed coat.

Other fungi:
Atternaria, Cladosporium, Fusarium
These are field fungi and are usually the 1st invaders of the stored seed. They are later replaced by
the more thermotolerant species such as Mucor and Absidia; then the typical storage fungi
(Aspergillus, Penicillium).

Predisposing factors:
Mechanical damage in seed, cracks, breaks or scratches in the pericarp of seed coat are conditions
that substantially favour invasion by storage fungi. Other predisposing factors include RH of 65 – 90%
24
(and seed m.c corresponding to these humidities); higher temps (> 15 oC) esp. in moist seed(> 12%
mc) and insect infestation.

Minimum RH ranges for storage fungi are 65 – 85% for Aspergillus and 85 – 95% for Penicillium.
Heating may be a source of additional dampness in the seed. It occurs as a result of respiration by
seed, micro organisms and insects, liberating CO 2 and H20. Respiration by micro organisms is by far
the most important; it can raise temperature up to 70 – 75oC. Insect respiration also contribute
substantially to heating and mastiness. Insects, therefore, predispose more microbial growth.
Respiration by insects can liberate enough H20 for seed germination

QUARANTINE ON SEED
Transportation of seed is by all means the most efficient means of spreading plant disease over long
distances. There is practically no distance limit for transportation of seed allover the world. If seeds
were left to the hands of anybody who wants to send them anywhere in the world the problem of plant
disease control would be greatly magnified. Quarantine regulations are necessary to prevent
introduction of new pathogens to new areas. This is plant disease control measure that has been
learnt through years of bitter experience.

Example of devastating disease introduced into new places

S/N DISEASE FROM TO WHEN
1. Bacterial canker (Corynebacterium michigananse USA UK 1942
(Tomato)
2. Bacterial blight Pseudomonas glycinea (Soybean) Sweden Scotland 1940S
3. Xanthomonas campestris (Black rot) – Cabbage France Portugal 1961
4. Xanthomonas campestris (Black rot) – Cabbage Europe India 1970s
5. CBB X. phaseoli (Beans) Nath4erland N/Zealan 1970
s d
6. Beet rust Uromyces betae (beetroot) Europe Canada -
7. Bunt Tilletia caries (wheat) Australia California 1854
8. Blind seed Gleotinia tamulenta (Ryegran) N/Zealand USA 1940

Quarantine measures are intended to intercept the infected seed before it spreads the disease. Every
seed importing country has controlling agencies for such interception. In Tanzania quarantine is under
the Plant Protection Division of the Ministry of Agriculture. There is a Plant Quarantine Unit at TPRI
(Tropical Pesticides Research Institute) which is competent for health testing for plant quarantine.
Quarantine officers are also stationed at every border point, airports and in post offices. Any imported
seed material is intercepted at these points. Restrictions are usually put on dangerous pathogens (and
pests) which do not occur or have a limited distribution in the importing country. In this case the
tolerance value is ZERO. Other important pathogens may be allowed a higher degree of tolerance,
example 2%. Seed health test procedures are available for quarantine detection of diseases.

25
Quarantine regulations
Most quarantine regulations will involve the following:-
1. Specification of quarantine pests (subjects). Some countries do not specify
2. Pre-entry regulations; for example:-
(a) Phytosanitary certificates
(b) Embargoes; total prohibition of importation of certain kinds of seed or planting material
from certain areas.
(c) Import permits

3. Post – entry inspections, example:-

i. Testing a small representative sample in a laboratory
ii. Post entry growing on test of small seed consignments of special
importance. Open quarantine. In green houses or restricted areas. Seed
harvested from these tests crops also tested to ensure freedom from
diseases.
iii. In interim trade both exporting and importing countries are responsible e.g.
Certification Phytosanitary , Government, Seed treatment.

SEED QUALITY CONTROL, LEGISLATION AND CERTIFICATION

This is the assurance of the planting value of seed for sale. In other words it is the supervision of
activities which are carried out on the seed or the seed crop as it is being produced, harvested, dried,
processed, packaged, marketed, after marketing; until the farmer plants or uses the seed. It involves
checks, counter-checks, inspection tests or retests. It is implemented through certification procedures.
The purpose is to protect the farmer against fraud, negligence or accident.

CERTIFICATION:-
It is a legally sanctioned system for quality control of seed multiplication and production, usually
undertaken by a “Seed certification Agency”
The Agency is usually a Governmental body with the following responsibilities:-
• Establishment of minimum standards
• Registration of varieties for seed multiplication
• Registration of seed growers
• Registration of processing plants for certified seed
• Registration of seed fields
• Field and bin inspection
• Seed sampling and testing
• International agreements for seed certification

CERTIFICATION SYSTEMS:-
- Minimum standards
26
 - Truth in labeling

STEPS IN CERTIFIATION:-
1. Examination of applications – Verification of seed source
2. Inspection of seed fields
3. Seed sampling
4. Seed testing
5. Tagging and sealing
6. Certificate plot testing
7. Offering of certificates

MINIMUM CERTIFICATION STANDARDS:-

Generally the standards are categorized into 2
1. Field standards:- e.g.
- Land requirements e.g. cropping history
- Isolation requirements
- Minimum specific crop standards for off-types, disease, objectionable weeds,
inseparable crop plants etc.

2. Seed standards

Example: min. standards for certified seed - Indian law.

CROP ISOLATION NUMBER PURITY INERT WEED GERMINN M.C.

OF % MATTER % SEEDS % %
INSPECTI %
ONS
Amaranthu 200 1 95 5 0.1 70 8.0
s 200 1 99 1 none 65 10.0
Okra 10 1 98 2 None 75 9.0
Cowpea 10 1 98 2 None 75 9.0
Beans 25 1 98 2 None 70 8.0
Tomato 3 2 98 2 0.1 80 13.0
Rice

FIELD INSPECTION:-
When to inspect depends on kind of observation to be made: for example botanical characteristics,
diseases etc. It must be before contamination. Selection of inspection points is usually based on a
systematic location of specific of plants/portions within the field in which inspection is concentrated.
The number of field counts depends field size. The number of plants to be observed to complete one
count depends on crop species. Example:-

27
________________________________________________________________________________
________________________________
Area (ha) Up to 2 2-4 4-6 6-8 8-10
> 10
Number of counts 5 6 7 8 9 10

The number of plants (heads) per count also depends on plant species.
For bulb crops, cole crops, cotton, curcubits, groundnut, maize, root crops, tomato etc, the number is
100 plants.
For beans, cowpea, greengram, leaf crops, pea, sesame etc, 500 plants.
For barley, oats, paddy, sorghum, wheat, soybean, etc, 1000 plants

There is no limit to the number of rows covered in one count but the number of plants that the rows
may give. The walking pattern in the fields in such that the whole field is represented. The pattern may
however affect area of the field covered. Sensitive areas for inspection are vicinities of the farm bldg,
threshing places, roads into and through the field, where seeds may have been dropped in waste or
in transport.

SEED SAMPLING:-
To know seed quality it is necessary to obtain samples for laboratory tests. The seed forwarded for
laboratory test must be truly representative. For this reason sampling is a key determinant of the true
quality of seed. Sampling must be able to eliminate all possible sources of variability:- sack to sack
variation; within–sack variation. The composite sample must be made up of portion drawn from as
many sacks as possible and as many points from each sack. To be able to draw seed from any points
of the sack, a sampling stick is used.
The composite sample is usually reduced to submitted sample. The rest is retained. The submitted
sample is reduced to working sample,
the rest is retained.

TAGGING/SEALING AND LABELING:-

Upon certification the seed bag is sealed and labeled. Colour of the label corresponds to the
multiplication stage of the seed. Tagging and labeling of the seed container proves that the seed is
part of a certified lot. The lot number must appear in the label. Tagging and labeling provides the
tangiable document of certification to each buyer

PRRE-CONTROL AND POST-CONTROL PLOTS:-

This is important to check efficiency of field inspection work and seed multiplication. Seed for the
grade/class concerned is sown besides the original material (breeder seed)

Pre-control:-
Sample of seed lot intended for production of certified seed (i.e foundation seed) is grown for test prior
to distribution of the seed for multiplication.

28
Post control:-
Sample of seed certified in previous season is subjected to grow out test to check accuracy and
efficiency of previous certification.

Pre and post control tests:-

Both may be conducted, in a more rigid/strict certification scheme. They would apply for each seed
grade. Thus post control for breeder seed becomes pre-control for foundation seed

SEED LEGISLATION:-
This means restrictions enforced by penal sanctions. It is the legal basis of seed certification. Aim is
to protect the farmer against un scrupulous seed business; and also the seller when failure cannot be
attributed to him or the seed. Because seed quality is mostly internal, there is ample opportunity for
fraud and deception in seed. The law usually aims to exclude seed of low or uncertain quality from the
market (Europe)

American laws are, however, not restrictive of low quality. They are based on truthful labeling. In
Europe many companies strive to achieve the “Higher Voluntary standards” HVS. This system (HVS)
is now an adopted system in many places

Seed legislation usually enacted in 2 phases:-

1. The seed act:- (General principles, powers to regulate)
2. Rules and regulations (elaboration on the act. By Ministry of Agriculture )

LAW ENOFRCEMENT:-
The responsibility of the seed inspector. The inspector is required to:-

1. Inspect as frequently as may be required necessary all places used for growing, storage or
sale of any seed of any notified kind or variety.

2. Procure and send for analysis if necessary samples of any seeds which he has reason
to suspect, are being produced,
stocked or sold or exhibited for sale in contravention of the law.

THE “HVS” AND OTHER SUPPLEMENTARY CERTIFICATION SYSTEMS

We may consider the HVS and the QDS systems as Supplementary seed certification systems. They
are actually “Minimum standard” systems adjusted to suit specific business or service needs

HVS
Is a system practiced voluntarily by commercial seed companies to produce seed of quality higher
than the prescribed minimum standard. The companies request the Certification Authority to grant
certification based on the HVS rather than the usual minimum std prescribed. When seeds are certified
and declared to be HVS Certified they attract more market.
29
QDS
This is “Quality Declared Seed”. It is a minimum certification system adjusted to suit service needs for
resource poor farmers especially in remote areas. The system is less stringent on certification
requirements. QDS is an artisanal seed certification system. It is “seed produced by a registered
seed producer which conforms to minimum standards for the crop species concerned and
which has been subject to the quality control measures outlined in the guidelines”.

Under the QDS Certification system, the Ctrl authority checks 10% of the seed crop during field
inspection, then checks for seed stds 10% of seed produced for commercial use.
The system tolerates seed produced by small scale informal dealers

SEED MARKETING AND DISTRIBUTION

This is the final operation in seed production chain. It is performed on basis of previous assessment
of demand, with distribution to known points.
Sales projections are done before production, based or previous sales and potential new customers

Marketing channels/outlets
1. Companies’ own outlets e.g. Branches, Depots (wholesale); retail shops, retail stockists
(supplied by company)
2. Seed merchants; wholesale, retail wholesale merchants may order contracted supplies
3. Governmental/public establishments e.g. Extension offices
4. Non-governmental community organizations, example:-
- Coop Unions
- Farmer Associations e/.g/. TFA
- Farmer/Producer groups e.g. Wami Magole
5. Any other

It is desirable to sell seeds where other agric. Inputs are also sold, more contact with farmers. Retailers
may also be a source of information and advice to seed customers. It is the role of whoever sells seed
to equip them with technical information.

Pricing
Depends on (1) Production cost
(2) Government Agric. Policy e.g. subsidy on inputs.

Relation with Extension

Seed is an agricultural Extension commodity. The extension service plays a vital role in the creation
and improvement of its demand.
Seed sales promotion must also aim to utilize agricultural extension motivation campaigns aimed at
increasing agricultural production as a whole.

30
Seed promotional activities
Deliberate, planned and sustained activities performed by both the seed suppliers and the extension
service to promote use of good seed.
Functions (of seed promotion service)
1. To inform farmers of the existence and advantages of certified seed
2. To convince farmers to use the seed
3. To avail or advice the farmers on ways and means for requisition of certified seed e.g.
credit, subsidy
4. To train farmers in recommended methods for cultivation of improved seed
5. To provide feedback on usefulness of the certified seed to farmers

Promotional activities may involve the following:-

- Radio and TV broadcasts
- Demonstration farms (e.g. CARGILL, SADAKAWA. On roadsides, near farming
communities
- Exhibitions/Agric fairs/show
- Open/Farmers days/Field days
- Mobile demonstrations e.g. films, slides
- Farmers workshops/seminars (Training the leader)
- Newspapers/Farm Magazines
- Meetings with farmers
- Brochures/pamphlets/leaflets

Conclusion: marketing and quality

Sustained quality is a key factor in marketing. Nothing is worse than distribution of seed c does not in
act meet the std claimed for it.
Farmers are rational. Not ignorant as sometimes claimed to be. Quality sells itself. Quality varieties
– Quality seed.

31