Comprehensive Practical Physics—xy (1) (working formula for unknown resistance) (ii) Por Specific Resistance. From resistance formula, L Kapa or pe Fora wire of length L and of radius r or diameter D = 2r, Hence, p= (2) Ge sEXPERIMENT{ AIM: To determine resistivity of two/three wires by plotting a graph for potential difference versus current. APPARATUS A resistance wire (of different material such as copper, iron, constantan, etc.), a voltmeter (0-3) Vand an ammeter (0-3) Aof appropriate range, abattery (battery eliminator), atheostat, a metre scale, one-way key, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper. THEORY According to the Ohm's law, the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across its ends, provided the physical conditions (temperature, dimensions, pressure, etc) of the conductor remain the same. If be the current lowing through a conductor and Vbe the potential difference across its ends, then according to Ohm's Law, TeV or Vel or V=RI where, Ris the constant of proportionality. It is known as resistance of the conductor, or ‘We know, R depends upon the nature of material, temperature and dimensions of the conductor. In SI units, the potential difference V is measured in volt and the current J in ampere, the resistance R is measured in ohm. Scanned with CamScanner‘Measurement of Resistance ar (1) Toestablish the current-voltage relationship, it isto be shown that the ratio V/ remains constant for a given resistance. Therefore, a graph between the potential difference (V) and the current (I) must be a straight line. v (2) ‘The constant ratio gives unknown value of resistance, { T CIRCUIT DIAGRAM Fig. Circuit diagram. PROCEDURE ‘Arrange the apparatus in the same manner as given in the arrangement diagram. 2. Clean the ends of the connecting wire with sand paper to remove the insulations, if any. 3, Make neat, clean and tight connections according to the circuit diagram. While making connections ensure that +ve marked terminals of voltmeter and ammeter are joined towards the ve terminal of the battery. 4. Determine the least count of voltmeter and ammeter, and also note the zero error, if any. 5, Insert the key K, slide the rheostat contact and see that ammeter and voltmeter are working properly. 6. Adjust the sliding contact of the rheostat such that a measurable current passes through the resistance coil or the resistance wire. 7. Note down the value of potential difference V from voltmeter and current I from ammeter. 8 Shift the rheostat contact slightly so that both ammeter and voltmeter show full divisions readings and not in fraction. 9. Record the readings of the voltmeter and ammeter. "Note. In case of battery eliminator, follow these steps: ‘Tur the knob at 2 Vin battery eliminator and put the constant point in theostat at fixed position. [Now record the reading in voltmeter and ammeter. Without disturbing the rheostat, turn the knob of battery to different voltage, say 4,6, 8, 10 and 12 volts and record corresponding readings in voltmeter and ammeter. 10, Take at least three sets of independent observations. 11, Cut the resistance wire at the points where it leaves the terminals, stretch it and find its length by the metre scale. 12. Record your observations. 13, Next repeat the above steps by taking other wires. Scanned with CamScannerComprehensive Practical Physies—p 48 Battery eliminator or Battery Resistance wire Ammeter Voltmeter Fig. Arrangement diagram. OBSERVATIONS 1. Length Length of the resistance wire] = ..... 2, Range Range of the given ammeter Range of the given voltmeter 3, Least count Least count of ammeter = Least count of voltmeter =... 4. Zero error Zero error in ammeter, Zero error in voltmeter, 5. Zero correction Zero correction for ammeter, ¢, = ~e, Zero correction for voltmeter, ¢, = ~, Scanned with CamScannerMeasurement of Resistance 6. Table for Ammeter and Voltmeter Wire 1 Ammeter Reading I (A) Serial No. of the. Corrected Ts1,+6, (2b) ‘Mean value of resistance, R =... ohms, CALCULATIONS 1. 2 Find the ratio of V and I for each set of observations. Plot a graph between potential difference V (column 3b) and current I (column 28), taking Valong X-axis and I along Y-axis. The graph comes to be a straight line. From the graph, the resistance can be calculated. AB_ Al === o) In ABC, tan 8 = GE ay (1) av = — (2 or cote Tr ) av But, R=— 3) jut if (3) R= cot (4) Re iO. Graph between Potential Difference and Current Scale cm = 0.5 V of potential difference 25 mA of current 0 00 10 20 30 Potential diference (V) in volts» Fig. Graph between potential difference and current, It is a straight line. Scanned with CamScannerComprehensive Practical Physics—¥) 0 Constant ratio ‘ gives resistance of the wire. 4. Restetance of the wi... 5. Pinding the Diameter of wire 1. ‘Table for diameter (D) of the wire 1. ‘Serial ‘Cirelar Scale Reading | Observed diameter | Corrected No. Tee DyzNenxbc. diameter of 0bs. rry, (nm) D=D,te (mm) (mm) ai ) lee a) D, (= | o D,W= 2 @ D,(a)= tO) D,0)= 3 @) D,@= . [a= 6, Finding the lengths ofthe wire 1. Mean length, te tater lt by ate lengths of wire. beeen Table for unknown resistance (X) SerialNo.of | Resistance fromthe | LengthAB=1 | Length tne Obs. resistance box (on) Be= (100-1) | resistance (em) x=R (100-D 7 (ohm) a ® o @ 1 2 eee (0) Resistivity of the wires... m. i) ‘The graph between Vand Iis a straight line. ‘Note. By noting the resistivity (or specific resistance) from the table, percentage error can be calculated. PRECAUTIONS 1 2 3. 4 ‘The connections should be neat, clean and tight. ‘Thick wires should be used for the connections after removing the insulations near their ends by rubbing with sand paper. Voltmeter and ammeter should be of proper range. ‘A low resistance rheostat should be used. Scanned with CamScannerMeasurement of Resistance A 5. The key should be inserted only while taking observations to avoid heating of resistance (otherwise its resistance will increase). 6. Theelectric current through resistance wire should not be very high, s0 as to avoid heating effect of current. 7. The switch should be open when you are not taking readings. SOURCES OF ERROR 1. The instrument screws may be loose. 2. ‘Thick connecting wires may not be available. 3. Rheostat may have high resistance. Gm EXPERIMENT 2 AIM: To find resistance of a given wire/standard resistor using metre bridge. APPARATUS ‘A metre bridge (slide wire bridge), a Leclanche cell (Battery eliminator), a galvanometer, a resistance box, a jockey, a one-way key, a resistance wire, a screw gauge, a metre scale, a set square, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper. THEORY ‘The unknown resistance Xis given by, ke Gen Pacr where R is known resistance placed in the left gap and unknown resistance X in the right gap of metre bridge. lcm is the length of metre bridge wire from zero end upto balance point. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM Known resistance Unknown resistance x LLeclanche cell (Battery eliminator) Fig. Circuit diagram—Metre bridge. Scanned with CamScanner82 Comprehensive Practical Physics—y PROCEDURE For Resistance 1. Arrange the apparatus as shown in the diagram. 2. Connect the resistance wire whose resistance is to be determined in the right gap between ¢ and B. Take care that no part of the wire forms a loop. Connect resistance box of low range in the left hand gap between A and B. Make all the other connections as shown in the circuit diagram. ‘Take out some resistance (say 2 ohms) from the resistance box, plug the key K. ‘Touch the jockey gently first at left end and then at right end of the bridge wire. Note the deflections in the galvanometer. If the galvanometer shows deflections in opposite directions, the connections are correct. Ifthe deflection is one side only, then there is some fault in the circuit. Check or take help of your teacher and rectify the fault. Move (slide) the jockey gently along the wire from left to right tll galvanometer gives zero defiection. The point where the jockey is touching the wire is null point D. Choose an appropriate value of R from the resistance box such that there is no deflection in the galvanometer when the jockey is nearly in the middle of the wie (ie, between 45 to 55cm). 10, Note position of point D (with the help ofa set square) to know balancing length, AD « I. 11, Take at least four sets of observations in the same way by changing the value of Rin steps. 12, Record your observations. Coll or battery One aletY One-way key Battery eliminator or Leclanche cal Resistance box } Bridge wire ad be feeuy: torn. Galvanometer ‘Arrangement diagram, Scanned with CamScannerMeasurement of Resistance o For Specific Resistance 13. Cut the resistance wire at the points where it leaves the terminals, stretch it and find its length by using a metre scale 14. Measure the diameter ofthe wire atleast at four places, in two mutually perpendicular directions at each place with the help of screw gauge. 15. Record your observations as given in tables. ‘OBSERVATIONS 1. Length of given wire, L =....m. 2, Table for unknown resistance (X) Serial No. of Resistance fromthe | Length AB=1 Length Unknown Obs. resistance box (em) Be= (100-1) resistance R (om) x=R (100-1) (ohm) @) @) @ serra 3. Least count of the screw gauge Pitch of screw gauge =... mm Total no. of divisions on the circular scale = Pitch .C. of the gi = Licmpsaeree No. of divisions on the circular scale Zero error, @= x mm Zero correction, ¢= = € =o... mm 4, Table for diameter (D) of the wire Serial | Linear Scale Circular Seale Reading Observed diameter | Corrected No. | ReadingN |~ Wo, of circular aie D,=N+nxL.c. diameter of Obs. | (mm) | scale divisionon | nx(L.C.) fm. Pape reference line (n) (mm) a) @) Ga) (3b) @ 1 @ D,(@)= ® D,0)« 2 @ D,@= © D,)= 3 @ D,(@= ® D,O= 4 @ D,(a o D,W= Scanned with CamScanner54 Comprehensive Practical Phys, CALCULATIONS 1, Calculation for X (a) From position of D, find lem and write in column 3 of Table 1. (b)_ Find length (100 - I) em and write in column 4. (0) Calculate X and write in column 5. XytXy +X +X 4 Mean X= ‘ohm 2. Calculation for D Doan corrected unetay = DLA1+DRLH) nt Bult Did) thio a) mm = om Calculation for Specific Resistance Specific resistance ofthe material of the given wire, 2 Percentage error PPo 100 Po RESULT 1, The value of unknown resistance, X =....- 2. ‘The specific resistance of the material of the given wire = PRECAUTIONS ‘The connections should be neat, clean and tight. All the plugs in the resistance box should be tight, Move the jockey gently over the bridge wire and do not rub it. ‘The plug in key K should be inserted only when the observations are to be taken. ‘Null point should be brought between 45 em and 55 cm. Set square should be used to note null point to avoid error of parallax. At one place, diameter of wire should be measured in two mutually perpendicular directions. ‘The wire should not make a loop. SOURCES OF ERROR 1, The instrument screws may be loose, 2. The plugs may not be clean, 3. ‘The wire may not have uniform thickness. 4, ‘The screw gauge may have faults lke back lash error and wrong pitch. Scanned with CamScannerGalvanometer, Ammeter and Voltmeter 88 lm sEXPERIMENT7 im AIM: aes meee os etme ha peer te ti emi ‘merit. APPARATUS ‘A weston type galvanometer, a voltmeter, a battery or battery eliminator, two (10,000 0 and 200 0) resistance boxes, two one-way keys, a theostat, a screw gauge, a metre scale, an ammeter of given range, connecting wires and a piece of sand paper. THEORY (The resistance of the given galvanometer as found by half-defiection method is given by, Rs Ge A) R-s (1) where Ris the resistance connected in series with the galvanometer and Sis the shunt resistance. i a i E (ii) The figure of merit, "moe 2) where Fis the e.mJ. of the cell and 0 is the deflection produced with resistance R. (iii) The maximum current that can pass through the galvanometer, =k (3) where n is the total number of divisions on the galvanometer scale on either side of zero. CIRCUIT DIAGRAM Fig. (a) Resistance of galvanometer. Fig, (6) Figure of merit. Scanned with CamScanner86 Comprehensive Practical Physies—mi) PROCEDURE (a) Resistance of galvanometer by half-deflection method 1. Make the connections accordingly as shown in circuit diagram. 2. See that all plugs of the resistance boxes are tight. 3. Take out the high resistance (say 2000.0) from the resistance box R and insert the key K, only. 4. Adjust the value of R so that deftection is maximum, even in number and within the scale 5. Note the deflection. Let it be 6. 6. Insert the key K, also and without changing the value of R, adjust the value of 5, such that deflection in the galvanometer reduces to exactly half the value obtained in step 5 i.e., 8/2. 7. Note the value of resistance S. 8. Repeat steps 4to7 three times taking out different values of R and adjusting S every time. (b) Figure of merit 9, ‘Take one cell of the battery (battery eliminator) and find its E.M.F. by a voltmeter by connecting +ve of the voltmeter with +ve of the cell and -ve of voltmeter with -ve of the cal. Let it be B, 10, Make connections as in circuit diagram, 11. Adjust the value of R to obtain a certain deflection 0 (say 30 divisions) when the circuit is closed. 12, Note the values of resistance R and deflection 0. 13. Now change the value of R and note the galvanometer deflection again, 14, Repeat the steps 9 to 13 with both cells of the battery with different voltages like 2,4, 6, 8, volts from battery eliminator, Find the figure of merit kusing the formula. OBSERVATION AND CALCULATION, 1. Table for resistance of the galvanometer by half-deflection method SerialNo. | Resistance Deflection ‘Shunt Half Galvanometer of Obs. Rg inthe resistance deflection vesistance (chm) | Galvanometer 8 £ wt Hiss. (om) s as (ohm) w @ abl © © 1 2 3. 4. | Scanned with CamScanner2, Table for figure of merit Serialno. | Numberof | E.mf.ofthecells | Resistance | Deflection of Obs. cells E(V) or reading of | fromR.B. 0 (div.) (Battery | batteryetiminator | R (ohm) eliminator) @ ® w ©) © perele Number of divisions in the galvanometer scale, n 1. Calculation for G (i Calculate G, using formula, G = and write it in column 6 of Table 1. 3 (ii) Take mean of values of G recorded in column 6 of Table 1. 2. Calculation for k E (@) Calculate k, using formula, k = @+O0 and write it in column 6 of Table 2. (ii) Take mean of values of k recorded in column 6 of Table 2. RESULT 1. Resistance of given galvanomete 2. Figure of merit of given galvanometer = A/div. PRECAUTIONS 1, All the connections should be neat, clean and tight. 2. All the plugs in resistance boxes should be tight. 3. The emf. of cell or battery should be constant. 4, Initially a high resistance from the resistance box (R) should be introduced in the circuit (otherwise for small resistance an excessive current will flow through the galvanometer or ammeter can be damaged). SOURCES OF ERROR 1, The screws of the instruments may be loose. 2. The plugs of resistance boxes may not be clean, 3, The em. of battery may not be constant. 4 . The galvanometer divisions may not be of equal size. Scanned with CamScanner| Frequency of A.C (Alternating Current) Mains 99 6.07. DEMERITS (DISADVANTAGES) OF A.C. OVER D.C. A.C. has following demerits (disadvantages) over D.C.: 1. A.C. attracts a person who touches its line, whereas D.C. gives a repelling shock. 2. A.C. gives a huge and sudden shock which becomes fatal, 3. A.C. is conducted over the surface of a conductor (skin effect). It increases effective resistance of the conductor. ‘Commercial generators do not produce pure A.C. 5. In certain applications like electroplating, battery charging etc. only D.C. is required. 6.08. SKIN EFFECT Itis found that in an alternating current, the tendency ofthe moving electrons isto drift towards the surface of the conductor while moving along its axis. This tendency increases with the frequency of A.C. Invery high frequency A.C,, electrons flow only on the surface of the conductor. This phenomenon (Bow of electron on the surface of the conductor), is called skin effect. Wm EXPERIMENT 10 Bl AIM: To find the frequency of the AC mains with a sonometer, APPARATUS ‘A-sonometer (with soft iron wire) a set of eight tuning forks, } kg hanger, seven } kg slotted weights, clamp, stand, rubber pad, paper rider, metre scale. THEORY Let the alternating current have frequency v so that the frequency of magnetisation of the electromagnet (v,) becomes 2r. Let a loaded stretched soft iron wire have resonant length I, with the electromagnet. Let a tuning fork of frequency v, have resonant length L,- ‘Then from law of length, ¥_l, = Vly or vey Hence, frequency of alternating current, oi shui? which can be calculated. dia ‘The natural frequency of oscillation fora stretched wire of length L and mass mand tension Tis, av dfe 2UV Here, mass _m length © L Scanned with CamScannerFig. Sonometer in experimental setup PROCEDURE Place the sonometer onthe table a shown in figure. ‘Test the pulley and make t frictionless by oiling (ifnecessary). Put suitable maximum weights in the anger. Move wooden bridges P,P outward to include maximum length of wire (AB) between them, Decrease the length ofthe wire by moving both the bridges equally inwardly. Goon decreasing the length til sonometer wire stars vibrating a sound is heard). ‘Adjust the length for maximum amplitude of vibration, (maximum sound). Measure the length ofthe wire Between the edges ofthe two bridges and recorditin Tength decreasing’ column. Bring the two bridges loser and then adjust the length for maximum amplitude by increasing it ‘Measure the length and record it in ength increasing’ column, Now take a tuning fork of minimum known frequency (say 56) and adjust wire length with the vibrating tuning fork. Repeat step 11 above with tuning forks of other known frequencies 288,» 512. ‘Record your observations. OBSERVATIONS Weight suspended to produce sound onthe wit, T= on kg Length of sonomete Wire, Lou. Mass of wie, m# ne Scanned with CamScannerFrequency of A.C (Alternating Current) Mains 401 Table for frequency and length Serial | Prequencyof | Resonant length of wire . St eee vy (He) (em) V (em) Hem) @ @ (a) @b) Go) @ 6) 1 ¥, he 2 256 he 3 288 he 4 5 384 ee 4 6 480 he | 4g9 B= 4 2. 512 ye [sete 4 CALCULATIONS Using formula, v, = th, caleulate v, with observations 2 to 7. h Record these values in column 4 of the table. Find mean of above six values of v,. y ‘Then, frequency of alternating current, = v= z- Usen = z, £ for each set of observation and then take the mean, Compare it with standard frequency (50 Hz). RESULT ‘The frequency of the alternating current =... Hz. Percentage Error The actual frequency = SO Hz Difference © nw Ht Difference Percentage error * Seraatvahe *20® ‘The error is within limits of the experimental error. Scanned with CamScanner102 Comprehensive Practcalp, PRECAUTIONS 1. All precautions of sonometer experiment should be observed. >. The wire should be of soft iron or of any other magnetic material. 3. Tip of electromagnet should be very close to the wire in its middle, 4. Length should be noted when the amplitude of vibration is maximum. SOURCES OF ERROR 1, Wire may not be rigid and of uniform cross-sectional area. 2, Pulley may not be frictionless. 3. Weights may not be correct. 4, Knife edges (bridges) may not be sharp. 5. The main frequency may not be stable. ALTERNATIVE METHOD AIM: To find the frequency of the A.C. mains with a sonometer. APPARATUS Same as in Experiment 8 except that a separate horse-shoe magnet and a separate step transformer. THEORY A low alternating current passed directly through sonometer wire imposes (forces) oni frequency v (nu) of the A.C. main, Leta loaded stretched soft iron wire have resonant length , for the main frequency. Let atw fork of frequency v, have resonant length I, ‘Then, from Law of length, v= v,l, Frequency of alternating current, v= v, # which canbe calculated. h DIAGRAM Scanned with CamScannerfocal Length of ‘Spherical Lenses 149 Mi =EXPERIMENT3 «mm AIM To ind the fol length of «convex es by pleting graph between wand vo tween . . APPARATUS ‘An optical bench with three uprights (central upright fixed, two outer uprights with lateral movement), a convex lens with lens holder, two optical needles, (one thin, one thick) a knitting needle and a half metre scale. THEORY ‘The relation between u,v and ffor a convex lens is, s where, f= focal length of convex lens u= distance of object needle from optical centre ofthe lens v= distance of image needle from optical centre ofthe lens. Note. According to sign-convention, u has negative value and v has positive value. Hence, f comes positive, RAY DIAGRAM PROCEDURE ‘To determine rough focal length 1. Mount the convex lens in lens holder. 2. Go out in the open and face the lens towards distant tree or building. 3. Obtain the image of the tree or the building on a white painted wal (screen) and move the lens forward and backward to get a sharp image on the wall a... Scanned with CamScannerComprehensive Practical Physics—~ny 4, Measure the distance between the lens and the wall (screen). This will be equal to the rough fory length of the lens. To set the lens 5. Clamp the holder with lens in a fixed upright and keep the upright at 50 em mark, 6. Adjust the lens such that its surface is vertical and perpendicular to the length of the opticg bench. 7. Keep the upright fixed in this position throughout. To set the object needle 8, Take the thin optical needle as object needle (0). Mount it in outer laterally moveable upigy near zero end, 9. Move the object needle upright and clamp it at a distance (in full cm) nearly 1.5 times ty obtained rough focal length of the lens. ‘Adjust height of the object needle to make its tip lie on horizontal line through the opi 150 10. centre of the lens. 11. Note the position of the index mark on the base of the object needle upright. To set the image needle 12, With left eye closed, see with the right open eye from the other end of the optical bench. a inverted and enlarged image of the object needle will be seen. Tip of the image must lieinthe middle of the lens. 13. Mount the thick optical needle (image needle) in the upright near the other end ofthe opti, bench. 14, Adjust the height of the image needle so that its tip is seen in line with the tip of the ing when seen with right open eye. 15. Move the eye towards right. The tips will get separated. The image tip and the imageneedep have parallax. 16. Remove the parallax tip to tp. 17. Note the position of the index mark on base of the image needle upright. 18, Record the position of the index marks on the base of upright of the lens, the object needle, the image needle in the table against observation 2. To determine index correction 19. Find the index correction for distance between optical centre of lens and tip of the object nee!’ and also for distance between optical centre of lens and tip of the image needle as describ! To get more observations 20. Move object needle upright towards lens in steps of 1 cm to get observation 2 and 1. Repé the experiment. 21. Move object needle upright away from lens (from position of observation 2) in steps of ¢ to get observations 4, 5 and 6, Repeat the experiment. 22, Record all the observations as given ahead. Scanned with CamScanner_golLength of Spherical Lenses 151 gSSERVATIONS Rough focal length of the given convex lens Actual length of the knitting needle Observed distance between the object needle and the lens ‘when knitting needle is placed between them Observed distance between the image needle and the lens when knitting needle is placed between them 2 Index correction for the object distance u, x-y Index correction for the image distance v, xe 1 1 Table for u,v; and | ~_| Observed distance | Corrected distance | OA-u | oc-v | u | vo i= “ age 2 needle v ce (em) (em) (an) (cm) (an) | (em) | (on) 0 Ga) (3b) (4a) @ | © | @ CALCULATIONS Calculations of focal length by graphical methods. (i) u-v Graph, Select a suitable but the same scale to represent u along X-axis and v along Y-axis, According to sign conventions, in this case, uis negative and vis positive, Plot the various points for different sets of values of u and v from observation table second quadrant. The graph comes out to be a rectangular hyperbola as shown in graph between u and v. Drawalline OA making an angle of 45° with either axis (i., bisecting ZYOX’) and meeting the ‘curve at point A. Draw AB and AC perpendicular on X’- and Y-axes, respectively. ‘The values of u and v will be same for point A. So, the coordinates of point A must be (2f, 2f), because for a convex lens, when u = 2f, v= 2f. Hence, AB=AC=2f or OC=OB=2f Mean value of Scanned with CamScanner152 Comprehensive Practical Physics GRAPH BETWEEN u AND v Scale | X-axis: 1 om =......om of u AY om ofv Fig. Graph between u and v. It is a rectangular hyperbola. (ii) ana = Graph. Select a suitable but the same scale to represent + 4 long -axisand > 2 1 i raxis. Bysign conventions —is negative and + is positive. Pot the various point fo dieee sets of values of 2 © and + from the observation table. The graph comes out tobeastraghtt as shown n graph between + and >, ‘The straight line cuts the two axes OX’ and OY at an angle of 45" at points P and Q, respati® and making equal intercepts on the axes. Measure the distance OP and OQ. Then focal length, f= w = % Scanned with CamScannerve 4, Whya slab does not deviate and disperse light, whereas a prism does? i Inaslab, the refracting faces are parallel, The emergent ray is parallel to the incident ray. There Pismo deviation and dispersion, Inaprism, the refracting faces are not parallel. The emergent ray is not parallel to incident ray ‘There is a deviation and hence dispersion. 5: Whylycopodium powder is spread over the glass surface? os. Tofocus the microscope accurately, thebottom surface willbe focussed because of transparency of glass slab, q.6- What is normal shift? ns. Itis the difference between actual depth and apparent depth It SI unit is metre. q.7. Whatis cause of normal shift? ans. Itis mainly due to refraction of light. Q.8. Onwhat factors, does the apparent. depth depend? ‘Ans. (i) nature of medium (R.L) (ii) thickness of medium (actual depth) (Gi) colour of light. Q.9. In general, for which colour do we take the refractive index of a material in lens and glass slabs? ‘ans. Yellow colour, a it is the mean colour of visible spectrum. 0.10. What may be refractive index for hollow glass slab? Ans. n=1. li =EXPERIMENT7 AIM: To find the refractive index of a liquid by using convex lens and plane mirror. APPARATUS ‘A convex lens, a plane mirror, clean transparent liquid in a beaker, an optical needle, (athick knitting needle passed through a rubber cork), anion stand with base and clamp arrangement, plumb line, plane glass slab, a spherometer, half metre scale et. THEORY If, and f, be the focal length of glass convex lens and liquid lens and F be the focal length of their combination then, 1 ali hee haneh Liquid lens formedis plano-concave lens with R, = R (radius of curvature of convex ens surface), Rew, Scanned with CamScannerWG Sein bt From lens maker's formula, ‘We have, or nett Putting value off, ncan be calculated. DIAGRAM Plané mirror Fig. Focal length of glass convex lens and liquid lens combination. PROCEDURE (a) For focal length of convex lens ‘Take any one convex lens and find its rough focal length. ‘Take a plane mirror and place it on the horizontal base of the iron stand. Place the convex lens on the plane mirror. Screw tight the optical needle in the clamp of the stand and hold it horizontally aboveth Jens at distance equal to its rough focal length. Bring the tip of the needle at the vertical principal axis ofthe lens, so that tip of the neede appears touching the tip of its image. Move the needle up and down and remove parallax between tips of the needle and its image. Measure distance between tip and upper surface of the lens by using a plumb line and hal metre sale. ‘Also measure distance between tip and the surface of its plane mirror. Scanned with CamScanner_fctive index of Prism Material, Glass: ‘Slab and Transparent Liquid 417 (@®) For focal length of the combination 9. Take a few drops of transparent liquid on the plane mirror and put the convex lens over itwith its same face above as before (A plano concave liquid lens is formed between plane mirror and convex lens). 10, Repeat steps 6, 7 and 8, 11. Record your observations as given below. (0) Bor radius of curvature of convex lens surface joBSERVATIONS 1, Rough focal length of convex lens = .. ct. 2. Table for distance of needle tip from lens and mirror | Arrangement Distance of needle tip Focal length Fromlens surface | Fromplane atx x | x(a) mirror — | Meame= "2°" | (em | x, (cm) (cm) ie (2a) (2b) (20) @) | Without liquid With liquid Radius of curvature CALCULATIONS R h PRECAUTIONS 1. The liquid taken should be transparent. 2. Only few drops of liquid should be taken so that its layer is not thick, 3. The parallax should be removed tip to tip. SOURCES OF ERROR. 1, Liquid may not be quite transparent. 2. The parallax may not be fully removed. Scanned with CamScannerefractive Index of Prism Material, Glass Slab and Transparent Liquid 165 lm =EXPERIMENT5 i AIM: To determine angle of minimum deviation for a given prism by plotting a graph between angle of incidence and the angle of deviation. APPARATUS Drawing board, a white sheet of paper, prism, drawing pins, pencil, half-metre scale, office pins, raph paper and a protractor. THEORY ‘The refractive index (n) of the material of the prism is given by, where, D, is angle of minimum deviation and Ais angle of the prism. DIAGRAM Fig. Refraction through prism at different angles. PROCEDURE 1. ix a white sheet of paper on the drawing board with the help of drawing pins or tape. 2. Drawa straight line XX’ parallel to the length of the paper nearly in the middle of the paper. Scanned with CamScanner166 Comprehensive Practical Physies—ry * Mark points Q,, Q,, Qy .. on the straight line XX’ at suitable distances of about 5 em, 1 Draw normals N,Q,,,Q,,N,Q,...0n points Q,, Q, Q, .. a8 shown in diagram. Draw straight lines R,Q,, R,Q,, R,Q,, ... making angles of 35°, 40°, ... 60° (write value of the angles on the paper) respectively with the normals. 6. Mark one corner of the prism as A and take it as the edge of the prism forall the observations, 7. Put a prism with its refracting face AB in the line XX’ and point Q, in the middle of AB. 6 Mark the boundary of the prism. ©. Fixtwo or more office pin P, and P, vertically on the ine R,Q,. The distance between the ping should be 10 mm or more, 10. Look the images of point P, and P, through face AC. 11. Close your left eye and bring open right eye in line with the two images. 12. Fix two office pins P, and P, vertically, and 10 cm apart such that the open right eye sees pins P, and P, and images of , and P, in one straight line, 13. Remove pins P, and P, and encircle their pricks on the paper. 14, Repeat steps 7 to 13 with points Q,, Q,,... fori = 40°, .., 60". To measure D in different cases 15. Draw straight lines through points P, and P, (pin pricks) to obtain emergent rays S,7,, S,T,, SI, 16, Produce 7,$, 1,5, T,Sy ~inwardin the boundary of the prism to meet produced incident rays RQ. R.Q,R,Q) nat points F, Fy, Fy. V. Measure angles K\FS,, KFS, KF,S, .. hese give angle of deviation D,, DD .~ 28, Write values of these angles on the paper. To measure A 19, Measure angle BAC in the boundary of the prism, This gives angle A. 20. Record your observations. OBSERVATIONS Angle of prism'A’«... Serial No. of Obs, Angleofincidence £i__| Angle of deviation 2D 1 3s" 2. 40° 3. 4s° 4 50° 5. 55° 6. ln ” aah Scanned with CamScannerRefractive Index of Prism Material, Glass Slab and Transparent Liquid 167 CALCULATIONS Plot agraph between angle of incidence 21 and angle of deviation 2D by taking Zi along X-axis and ZD along Y-axis. From this graph, find the value of angle of minimum deviation D., corresponding tothe lowest point of the graph. ea | |_| PROBABLE GRAPH BETWEEN 21 ANDZD Seale ! TSB ‘Angle of deviation (0) ool aa ars sesh O17 Fig, Graph between angle of incidence and angle of deviation. Let the value of angle of minimum deviation, D, = ‘Then, RESULT (0 iD graph indicates that as the angle of incidence (i) increases, the angle of deviation (D) first decreases, attains a minimum value (D,) and then starts increasing for further increase in angle of incidence. (ii) Angle of minimum deviation, D, (iit) Refractive index of the material of the prism, m= wu. Scanned with CamScanner168 Comprehensive Practical Physics) PRECAUTIONS 1. The angle of incidence should lie between 35°-60". 2. The pins should be fixed vertical. 3. The distance between the two pins should not be less than 10 mm. 4, Arrow heads should be marked to represent the incident and emergent rays. 5, The same angle of prism should be used for all the observations. SOURCES OF ERROR 1, Pin pricks may be thick. 2. Measurement of angles may be wrong. VIVA VOCE . Define a prism. Read Art. 9.04. . Define edge of the prism. ‘Ans, Read Art. 9.04. Q.3. Define angle of prism. ‘Ans. Read Art. 9.04, Q4, Define angle of deviation. ‘Ans, The angle through which a ray of light turns away from its original path on passing through prism, is called angle of deviation. . On what factors does the angle of deviation depend? ‘Ans. ‘The angle of deviation depends upon the following factors : (i) The angle of incidence, (ii) The refracting angle of the prism. (iii) The material of the prism. (Refractive Index) (iv) The colour of the light used ice., wavelength of light. Q.6, Whatis the relation between different angles involved in refraction through a prism? ‘Ans. Read Art. 9.05, Q.7. Define angle of minimum deviation. e Scanned with CamScanner4 Comprehensive Practical Physics al, 10.11, CHARACTERISTICS OF A TRANSISTOR {o) Definition. The graphs drawn between bins voltage and current in the circuit are calle, characterieticn of the transletor They reveal the character (way of behaviour) of th, transistor (b) Type, These are ef two types. 1. Input Characterietics, In common base circuit, these are obtained by plotting graphy etweren emitter voltage (V) and emitter current (1) for different constant cnlleetin valtape (V) ‘In common emitter circuit, these are obtained by plotting graphs between base voltage (V,) and base current (J, for different constant collector voltage (V). 2. Output Characteristics. In common base circuit, these are obtained by plotting graphy between collector voltage (V) and collector current (for different constant emitter curren 4) In common emitter circuit, these are obtained by plotting graphs between collector voltage (V) ‘nd collector current (1) for different constant base current (I). Mm EXPERIMENTS Ml AIM: To draw the -V characteristic curve ofa p-n junction in forward bias and reverse bias, APPARATUS: ‘App junction (semi-conductor) diode, a3 volt battery, a 50 volt battery, a high resistance theostat, one 0-3 volt voltmeter, one 0-50 volt voltmeter, one 0-100 mA ammeter, one 0-100 pAammeter, one way key, connecting wires and pieces of sand paper. THEORY Forward-bias characteristics. When the p-section of the diode is connected to positive terminal ofa battery and n-secton is connected to negative terminal of the battery then junction i said to be forward biased, With increase in bias voltage, the forward current increases slowly in the beginning and then rapidly, At about 0.7 V for Si diode (0.2 V for Ge), the current increases suddenly ‘Te valu of forward bias voltage, at which the forward curent increases rapidly, is called cut in voltage or threshold voltage. Reverse-bias characteristics, When the p-section ofthe diode is connected to negative terminal of high voltage battery and n-section ofthe diodeis connected to postive terminal of the same battery, then junction is said tobe reverse biased. When reverse bias voltage increases, initially there i avery small reverse current flow, which remains almost constant with bias. But when reverse bias voltage increases to sufficiently high value, the reverse current suddenly increases to a large value. This voltage at which breakdown of junction diode occurs (suddenly large current flow) scaled zener breakdown voltage or inverse voltage. The breakdown voltage may stars from one volt to several hundred volts, depending upon dopant density and the depletion layer. Scanned with CamScannertor Diodes and Transistors 105 O00 6 © O® Ol-¢ Fig. pn junction diade—revers biased PROCEDURE Forforward-bias 1 2 3 4 Make crt dagram as shown in diagram. Mate all connections neat, clean and tight Noteleast count and zero eror of voltmeter (V) and millrammeter (mw). Bring moving contact of potential divider (rheostt) near negative end andinsertthekey K Volumeter (V) and mil-ammeter (mA) wil give zero reading More the contac a tle towards positive end to apply a forward-bas voltage (VY) of (11 V.Curret remain zero. Increase the forward bias voltage upto 03 Vfor Ge diode. Current remains zero. (tis due tojunction potential barrier of 03¥). Increase V, 00.4 V, Mill-ammeter records a smal current Increase V in steps of 0.2 Vand note the corresponding current. Current increases fist slowly and then rapidly till V, becomes 0.7. Mae, =0.72V Thecurentincreases suddenly. Thisrepresents “forwardbreakdown” stage lithe, increasesbeyond forard breakdown’ stage, the forward current doesnot change much, Now take out the key at once Record your observations a given ahead. Scanned with CamScanner186 Comprehensive Practical Phy, For reverse-bias 12. Make circuit diagram as shown in diagram, 13, Makeall connections neat, clean and tight. 14, Note least count and zero error of voltmeter (V) and micro-ammeter (yA) 15, Bring moving contact of potential divider (theostat) near positive end and insert, K. Voltmeter (V) and micro-ammeter (uA) will ive zero reading. 16. Movethe contact towards negative end to apply a reverse-bias voltage V, of 0.5¥,x, reverse current starts flowing. 17, Increase V, in steps of 0.2 V, Current increases fist slowly and then rapidly tilV, be, 20V. Note the current. 18. Make V, = 25 V, The current increases suddenly. This represents “reverse break: stage. Note the current and take out the key at once. 19, Record your observations as given ahead. OBSERVATIONS For forward-bias Range of voltmeter Least count of voltmeter Zero erro of voltmeter Range of mill-ammeter Least count of mili-ammeter Zero error of mili-ammeter gpg ss 1, Table for forward-bias voltage and forward current Forward-bias Voltage V,(V) | Forward currentl (al, @ 0 o 0 o 0s 1 2 10 3 12 5 14 hy 16 10 18 Fy 20 a 22 % 24 wnt Scanned with CamScannerfor reverse-bias Range of voltmeter . Least count of voltmeter nad Zero error of voltmeter ssone Range of micro-ammeter = Sok Least count of micro-ammeter Easel Zero error of micro-ammeter aoe 2, Table for reverse-bias voltage and reverse current Serial No. of Obs. Reverse-bias Voltage V,(V) | Reverse current, (uA) @ 2) @ 1 0 0 | 2 50 1 3. 20 2 4, 9.0 3 5. 110 4 6 130 5 1 150 7 8 110 9 9. 190 u 10. 210 B | n. 23.0 8 12. 25.0 25 (Note, The readings are given as a sample) CALCULATIONS For forward-bias Plot a graph between forward-bias voltage V, (column 2) and forward current I, (column 3) taking V, along X-axis and I, along Y-axis. Scanned with CamScanner108 Comprehension Practical Physis ‘ ‘This graph is called forward-bias characteristic curve of a junction diode, FORWARO-BIAS CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF A JUNCTION O100€ Sele Xeanis: tom = 0.2 Vot V; Y-axis : 116m = § mA ot 8 ® 8 RF FS FF SK Forward current (Ig) im mA 08 Forward bias voltage (V,) in V 02 04 12 16 Fig. Characteristic curve of a junction diode (forward-bias). From graph, for change from point A to B, AV, = (24~2.0)V =0.4V, AI, = (30- 20)mA = 10 mA Hence junction resistance for forward-bias, ro Ae SAY 40 chs, ‘lp 10mA For reverse-bias Plot a graph between reverse-bias voltage V, (column 2) and reverse current J, (column 3) taking V, along X-axis and J, along Y-axis. Scanned with CamScannergenntctor| Diodes and Transistors 189 ‘his graph is called reverse-bias characteristic curve ofa junction diode. REVERSE-BIAS CHARACTERISTIC CURVE OF A JUNCTION DIODE Scale X-axis : 1 om = 5.0 Vol Vy Yraxis: 110m = 5A of ky 4— Reverse-bias voltage, (V,) in V X 25 -20 -15 -10-7-5 (-23,-18) (-25,~25), Fig. Characteristic curve of a junction diode (reverse-bias). rom graph, for change from point Ato B, AV, = (7.0-5.0)V = 2V,A1,= (2-1) A=1HA Hence junction resistance for reverse-bias, aN re Al = Ga 24s | RESULT Junction resistance for forward-bias = 40 ohms Junction resistance for reverse-bias = 2 x 10° ohms. PRECAUTIONS 1. Allconnections should be meat, clean and tight, 2, Key should be used in circuit and opened when the circuit isnot being used. 3. Forward-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied. 4, Reverse-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied. SOURCES OF ERROR 1. ‘The junction diode supplied may be faulty. 2, Error may be due to carelessness of the student. 3, The terminals of battery may not be connected properly. Scanned with CamScanner