LESSON 1: VOLCANOES, EARTHQUAKES,
AND MOUNTAIN RANGES
● EARTH’S INNER LAYERS
○ Crust
■ Continental - Thicker but less
dense
■ Oceanic - More dense, but
thinner.
○ Mantle
○ Outer Core
○ Inner Core
● LITHOSPHERE - composed of the crust
and the upper mantle.
○ The lithosphere is said to be in
constant but very slow motion. This
movement of the lithosphere is
called tectonics.
● PLATE TECTONICS THEORY - according
to this theory, the lithosphere is broken into
segments called plates.
○ Plates are always in constant
motion because of convection
currents.
○ As they interact along their margins,
geologic processes take place, such
as the formation of mountain
ranges, volcanoes, and earthquake
epicenters. It means that, where
there are earthquakes, crusts can
either meet or move apart and form
mountains and volcanoes.
CONVECTION CURRENTS
The hot material (magma) in the mantle rises to
the top of the mantle, cools, then sinks, reheats,
and rises again. The convection currents cause
changes in the earth’s surface.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT
Alfred Wegener proposed this theory that
explains how continents split apart and shifted
position on earth’s surface.
EARTHQUAKES
● Vibrations caused by rocks breaking under
stress.
● The movement is sudden and release a lot
of energy which is transmitted through
rocks as seismic waves.
FOCUS - the point where an earthquake originates
from underground.
EPICENTER - the point on the earth’s surface
vertically above the focus.
SEISMOLOGY - study of earthquakes and seismic
waves.
SEISMOLOGIST - scientists who study seismic
waves.
SEISMOMETER - device or recorder used to
detect the arrival of seismic waves
SEISMOGRAM - record of ground motion
produced by earthquake. (report printed out by
seismometer).
SEISMIC WAVES
● Waves of energy caused by the sudden
breaking of rock within the earth.
● There are two types of seismic waves:
body waves and surface waves.
BODY WAVES
● Body waves travel through the inner layers
of the planet.
● Arrive before surface waves.
PRIMARY WAVES OR P-WAVES
- Fastest moving waves
- Compressional waves
- Can travel through solids and liquids
- Pushes and pulls the rock it moves
through
- Dogs can hear
SECONDARY WAVES OR S-WAVES
- The second wave you feel in an earthquake
- Moves slower than P-waves
- Can only travel through solids
- Moves up and down or side-to-side
- Lead seismologist to discover that earth’s
outer core is liquid.
 SURFACE WAVES
● Travels only on the surface of the earth. CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES (DESTRUCTIVE)
● Moves slower than body waves.
● Can cause serious damage.

LOVE WAVES
- Named after Augustus Edward H. Love
- Fastest type of surface wave
- Moves from side to side
- Horizontal motion
- Can cause the real damage to structures
during an earthquake ● A convergent boundary is a type of
boundary where two plates meet and push
RAYLEIGH WAVES one another.
- Named after John William Strutt, also ● When the crust is destroyed, the denser
known as Lord Rayleigh. plate sinks in a process called subduction.
- Waves roll in a circular motion ● Subduction is a process of pulling
- Responsible for even greater devastation something down.
during an earthquake
OCEANIC-OCEANIC CONVERGENT
HOW TO DETERMINE HOW FAR AWAY THE BOUNDARY
EARTHQUAKE IS?
- By plotting the difference in arrival time
between p and s waves. (lag time)

HOW TO DETERMINE WHERE THE EPICENTER

IS?
- Use of triangulation method.
- Drawing circles on the map showing
the distance of the earthquake of ● One oceanic plate subducts another
three or more seismic stations. oceanic plate.
- Formula: d = time difference x 100 ● Forms mountains, earthquakes, volcanic
km/8 seconds islands, and trenches when plates collide.

OCEANIC-CONTINENTAL CONVERGENT
BOUNDARY

LESSON 2: PLATE BOUNDARIES

PLATE BOUNDARIES

Tectonic plates interact at locations called plate

boundaries, found at the edge of the lithospheric
plates.

● When one plate is oceanic and the other is

continental, the denser oceanic plate is
subducted, forming an orogenic belt and
associated mountain range.
● Volcanic arc is a chain of volcanoes
formed above a subducting plate.
 This is an underwater mountain system formed
CONTINENTAL-CONTINENTAL CONVERGENT by plate tectonics.
BOUNDARY

CONTINENTAL PLATE DIVERGENT

BOUNDARY
● When continental plates separate,
volcanoes could form to create new crust.

RIFT VALLEY (CONTINENTAL TO

CONTINENTAL)
● Continental collision is when a subduction
zone is destroyed, mountains are produced, A linear-shaped lowland between several
and two continents sutured together. highlands created by the action of a geologic rift or
fault.
EXAMPLES OF CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES
Mount Fuji, Mount Lassen,
EXAMPLES OF DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES
Japan California
East African Mid-Atlantic Ocean
Himalayan Andes, South Rift Ridge
Mountains America

DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES TRANSFORM BOUNDARIES (CONSERVATIVE)

(CONSTRUCTIVE)

● Places where plates slide sideways past

● Regions where a plate moves away from each other.
each other/comes apart. ● The fracture zone that forms a transform
● Most divergent boundaries are found deep boundary is known as a transform fault.
in the ocean floor, hence the separation of
plate is also called “seafloor spreading.” EXAMPLES OF TRANSFORM BOUNDARIES
● Rift valleys and ocean ridges form at Calexico, San Andreas
these boundaries. California Fault

OCEANIC PLATE DIVERGENT BOUNDARY

● Oceanic plates comprise mafic or basaltic
rock.
● When oceanic plates separate, brand new
crust is created. This crust can remain
underwater creating ridges, or can rise to
the surface creating islands.
LESSON 3: Processes and Landforms
Along Plate Boundaries
MID-OCEAN RIDGE (OCEANIC TO OCEANIC)
 CONVERGENT BOUNDARY ● This explains why the Philippines is mostly
loaded with volcanoes. The different islands
were believed to have originated from the
OCEANIC TO CONTINENTAL CONVERGENCE
convergence of two oceanic crusts.
● When an oceanic crust converges with a
continental crust, a crack between the
crusts underwater, called trench, is formed. CONTINENTAL TO CONTINENTAL
CONVERGENCE
● Subduction is the process by which a plate
dives under a less dense plate.
● At the mantle, the leading edge of the ● Converging continental crusts or plates
subducting plate melts or becomes fluid. It results in a collision zone that could cause
turns into a hot molten material which we shallow earthquakes. At that place, a
call magma. crack called a fault is formed. This type of
● Due to the heat in the mantle, the magma convergence will cause no subduction
builds up a pressure that enables it to since the two plates have the same
push the ground above it. The column of densities.
rising magma is called a mantle plume. ● There would be no volcanoes formed, no
● When there is volcanic activity such as an tsunamis. The convergence will result in
eruption, the ground moves, and so an a group of high landforms that we call
earthquake is felt. mountain ranges.
● Because subduction continues, a group of
volcanoes, called volcanic arc, is formed
at the surface of the continental crust along DIVERGENT BOUNDARY
the boundary where the two crusts
converged. CONTINENTAL TO CONTINENTAL
● The movement of the ground may cause a DIVERGENCE
disturbance in the ocean. The water may
flip or kick upwards to a few meters high.
● As plates pull away from each other, a
This is what we call tsunamis, a Japanese
vertical space that may extend deep down
term for harbor waves.
into the lowest layer of the crust is created.
It is a rift valley.
OCEANIC TO OCEANIC CONVERGENCE ● The force of separation creates a tension
zone. A shallow earthquake may happen
● The convergence of two oceanic crusts with this plate movement.
results in similar events to the first type of
convergence. Tsunamis may be formed.
Earthquakes may happen. OCEANIC TO OCEANIC DIVERGENCE
● There is also subduction because one
plate is denser than the other.
● As the plates move away, the gap between
● The front part of the subducting plate
them increases. While this happens,
becomes magma upon reaching the
materials from the mantle may rise, filling
mantle. Then it builds up pressure due to
up the space. These materials pile up near
heat, and pushes the crust above it, forming
the tension zone forming mountain-like
a volcano. This is a continuous process.
structures called oceanic ridges.
Since the plates are moving, the volcano
● But new materials from the mantle may
will move with the plate.
push the old ones. The filled-up space
● It becomes extinct when it is no longer
between the plates becomes a new
above the magma deposit in the mantle. A
seafloor. This process is known as
new volcano will then be formed. This
seafloor spreading.
series of volcanoes is called volcanic
island arc since it is surrounded by water.

TRANSFORM BOUNDARY
CONTINENTAL TRANSFORM
● This is characterized by plates moving
horizontally against each other, producing a
crack called fault on the ground. The force,
the plates exert can break the rocks and
other materials under the ground.
● The shaking usually ends abruptly. This is
why it brings about strong earthquakes.
The fault could swallow humans, cars, and
buildings. Murky odorous water from under
the ground may spring up from the fault.
Most faults do not totally close when the
shaking ceases since the adjoining edges
have already moved farther from each
other.
LESSON 4: THE EARTH’S MECHANISM
CONVECTION CURRENT
- one of the forces that drives the plate
movements.
- Fluid that is moving because there is
temperature and density in the mantle.
- Continuous loop of sinking hot soft rocks
caused by energy transfer.
ASTHENOSPHERE
- Plastic-like layer that is highly viscous,
mechanically weak, and ductile region of
the upper mantle
These convection circling the mantle push plates
away from each other and pushes the magma up
creating new sea floor.
When colder magma sinks it pulls the plates
making the denser crust to subduct.
SLAB PULL THEORY
- States that gravity and plates are the ones
responsible for plate tectonics.
- As the slab is pulled down, it drags the rest
of the plate.
- A dense slab will sink faster because of
gravitational pull
- A pulling force exerted by a cold dense
oceanic plate plunging into the mantle due
to its own weight.
RIDGE PUSH
- Known as sliding plate force
- Occurs at mid-ocean ridges as the result of
the rigid lithosphere sliding down the
asthenosphere.
- This results from the elevated position of
the oceanic ridge.
- Proposed by BOTT (1991)
3 TYPES OF HEAT TRANSFER
1. Radiation - through space
2. Conduction - through touch
3. Convection - through movements of
currents in liquid or gas.
MANTLE CONVECTION was proposed by Arthur
Holmes
LESSON 5: EVIDENCE OF PLATE MOVEMENT
THEORY OF PLATE TECTONICS
- States that the earth’s lithosphere is broken
into segments called plates that move over
the surface of the earth.
CONTINENTAL DRIFT THEORY
- Proposed by Alfred Wegner
- States that the continents were once a large
landmass called Pangaea.
- Pangaea broke into two smaller continents
called “Laurasia” and “Gondwanaland”.
EVIDENCE OF CONTINENTAL DRIFT
1. Continental Jigsaw Puzzle
- Edges of continents fit one another
- South America to Africa
- India, Antarctica, Australia
- Eurasia and North America
2. Fossils
- Fossilized leaves of extinct plant
“Glossopteris” was found in
continents such as South America,
Africa, Antarctica, Australia.
- Mesosaurus and Lystosaurus are
fresh water reptiles but fossils of
them were found in South America,
Africa and Antarctica.
3. Rocks
 - Rock formations in South America - Seafloor spreading was strengthened after
and Africa line up, forming a long the discovery that the magnetic rocks near
mountain range. the ridge follow a pattern.
4. Coal Deposits - Earth has a magnetic field that guides
- Coal beds were formed from magnetic compasses. South magnetic pole
compaction and decomposition of points at the North pole.
swamp plants that lived million years - The earth’s magnetic field is generated by
ago. the outer core.
- However this were found in - Magnetic Reversal happens when the roles
Antarctica. of each pole switch. North pole becomes
5. Glacial Striations south pole and vice versa. This is due to the
- Glaciers can only be found in cold change in direction of flow in the outer core.
places yet it was found in South - This occurrence can be seen through the
America and Africa magnetic patterns in magnetic rocks.
- When lava solidifies, iron bearing minerals
SEAFLOOR SPREADING crystallize. As these crystallize, minerals
- Proposed by Harry Hess and Robert Dietz. behave like tiny compasses and align with
- Hot, less dense material from beneath the the earth’s magnetic field. So when reversal
earth rises towards the surface of ocean happens, there’s a change in the polarity of
ridges. the rocks
- The material flows sideways carrying the
seafloor away from the ridge, and creates a
crack in the crust. Magma comes out of the
cracks and forms new seafloor
- Over time, new oceanic crust pushes away
old oceanic crust.
- The process of seafloor spreading allowed
the creation of new bodies of water.
(Example: The Red Sea was created by the
African and Arabian plates moving apart.)
- East Pacific Rise is one of the most active
sites of seafloor spreading. (14 cm per
year).
- The rate of the formation of new seafloor is
not always as fast as the destruction of old
seafloor. (That’s why Pacific Ocean is
getting smaller and Atlantic Ocean is
getting bigger).
- If subduction faster = Ocean shrinks, If
seafloor spreading faster = ocean gets
wider.

EVIDENCES OF SEAFLOOR SPREADING

1. Rocks are younger at the ridge.
2. Rocks farther from the ridge are older.
3. Sediments are thinner at the ridge.
4. Rocks on the ocean floor are younger than
those on the continents.

MAGNETIC REVERSAL