What is geology?
Geology is the science that deals with earth's
What is petroleum geology?
What is the role of a petroleum geologist?
What is exploration?
What is petroleum exploration?
What is the process involved in petroleum
exploration?
What is the meaning of the term 'igneous'?
What are igneous rocks?
What is the texture of igneous rocks based on?
What is the difference between extrusive and
intrusive igneous rocks?
How does the cooling rate of magma affect the
resulting grain size in igneous rocks?
physical structure and substance, its history, and
processes that act on it.
Petroleum geology is the science that deals with the
origin, occurrence, accumulation, movement, and
exploration of hydrocarbon.
A petroleum geologist identifies the location of
petroleum deposits by studying rock formation,
mineral samples, and other related areas and
recommends safe and efficient means to extract
deposits.
Exploration is the investigating of the unknown,
searching for discovery, and examining or
investigating something systematically.
Petroleum exploration is the process of identifying
and locating a petroleum prospect and quantifying
the hydrocarbon volume/reserve which might be
contained in it.
It encompasses identifying and locating potential
sites for petroleum drilling and extraction,
quantifying hydrocarbon volume/reserve, and
identifying areas with the right geological conditions
for profitable petroleum accumulation.
It is derived from the Latin word 'ignis' meaning fire.
They are crystalline solids that form directly from
magma cooling.
It is based on the size of individual mineral grains in
the final, solid rock.
Extrusive igneous rocks form on the surface from
lava flow, while intrusive or plutonic igneous rocks
form deep in the crust.
In general, the slower the cooling, the larger the
crystals in the final rock.
What are the two things that igneous rocks are
named based upon?
What is the relationship between the size of crystals
in igneous rocks and the cooling rate of magma?
Name three examples of intrusive igneous rocks.
Name three examples of extrusive igneous rocks.
What are sedimentary rocks?
What is sedimentation?
What are the three processes involved in the
formation of sedimentary rocks?
What is clastic deposition?
What is chemical deposition?
What is the process by which small planktonic
organisms with shells become sedimentary rock?
What is the difference between chemical deposition
and lithification in the formation of sedimentary
rock?
What are the different types of sedimentary rock
that can form from gravel, sand, clay, and lime
mud?
They are named based on their composition
(source) and texture (crystal sizes).
The slower the cooling, the larger the crystals in the
final rock.
Granite, Diorite, and Gabbro.
Basalt, Rhyolite, and Andesite.
Rock types that formed by materials or existing rock
deposition at the Earth's surface and within bodies
of water.
Processes that cause mineral and/or organic
particles to settle and accumulate or minerals to
precipitate from a solution.
Weathering, Erosion, and Deposition.
Transported rock reaches lowlands and velocity
decreases, large particles/fragments drop out of
suspension, followed by smaller particles
accumulate and/or at sea, small planktonic with
shell die, sink to the bottom and accumulate at the
seabed.
Evaporation in lagoons isolated behind reefs or
bars.
Chemical deposition, lithification, and compaction &
cementation.
Chemical deposition occurs when dissolved CaCO3
concentration increases and precipitates as lime
mud, while lithification is the conversion of
unconsolidated sediments into sedimentary rock by
compaction and cementation.
Gravel can form conglomerate, sand can form
sandstone, clay can form shale, and lime mud can
form non-porous gray to black limestone or chalks.
What is the definition of a sedimentary basin? An area that is underlain by a thick sequence of
sedimentary rocks, formed in large crustal regions
that are lower than surrounding regions.

What are the factors that determine the Mineral composition, grain size & shape, colour,
classification/types of sedimentary rock? and structure.

What are clastic sedimentary rocks? Clastic sedimentary rocks are accumulations of
clasts - little pieces of broken up rock which have
compacted and cemented.

What are the common components of clastic rocks? Clastic rocks are composed largely of quartz,
feldspar, rock (lithic) fragments, clay minerals, and
mica.

What is the difference between sandstone, They are classified based on the size of particles.
limestone, shale, siltstone, and conglomerate?

What is the importance of porous clastic They are commercially important reservoirs.
sedimentary rocks?

How are grains in clastic rocks created? Grains are created by weathering processes and
are also called particles or sediment.

What is the effect of glacier and desert on the size Glacier may create and transport boulder or larger
of grains in clastic rocks? size, but the desert may create a uniform bed of
very fine sand.

What is sorting in clastic rocks? Grain size uniformity is called sorting.

What is the difference between well-sorted and Well-sorted rock has relatively uniform grain size
poorly sorted rocks? and relatively higher permeability, while poorly
sorted rock has considerable grain size variation
and relatively lower permeability.

What are some examples of clastic sedimentary Sandstone, limestone, shale, siltstone, and
rocks? conglomerate are some examples of clastic
sedimentary rocks.

What is shale? Shale is a laminated sediment formed from

consolidated mud.
What is the difference between conglomerate and
shale?
What is chemical sedimentary rock?
What is an example of chemical sedimentary rock?
What is organic sedimentary rock?
What is an example of organic sedimentary rock?
What is metamorphic rock?
What are some common metamorphic rocks?
What are the three types of rocks?
What are some processes involved in the rock
cycle?
What is the origin of petroleum?
How do minerals change during metamorphism?
Conglomerate consists of larger grains such as
pebbles or boulders, embedded in smaller grains
matrix, while shale is a laminated sediment formed
from consolidated mud or clay.
Chemical sedimentary rock forms when mineral
constituents in solution become supersaturated and
inorganically precipitate.
An example of chemical sedimentary rock is
gypsum, dolomite, halite (rock salt), sylvite, and
barite.
Organic sedimentary rock is any accumulation of
sedimentary debris caused by organic processes.
An example of organic sedimentary rock is coal and
coquina.
Metamorphic rock is any rock that has been moved
into an environment in which its minerals become
unstable and out of equilibrium with new
environmental conditions.
Slate, schist, gneiss, marble, and quartzite.
Igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
Weathering, cooling, crystallization, erosion,
transportation, accumulation, burial, and increase in
temperature and pressure.
The details of the formation of oil and gas are
largely unknown, but many oil molecules share a
structure with chemicals in living organisms, known
as biomarkers. It is generally accepted that oil and
gas have a biological origin, but research continues.
Metamorphic changes in minerals always move in a
direction designed to restore equilibrium with new
environmental conditions.
What is the biogenic theory of petroleum origin?
What is the rock cycle?
What happens to minerals during burial in
metamorphism?
What are some processes involved in the formation
of petroleum?
What are some examples of metamorphic rocks?
What is the biogenic theory of oil and gas
formation?
What are the steps involved in the formation of oil
and gas according to the biogenic theory?
What are the factors that contribute to the variety of
composition of oil and gas?
What is source rock?
The biogenic theory suggests that oil and gas are
products of short and long-term processes involving
the remains of living organisms.
The rock cycle is a process by which rocks are
constantly changing due to physical conditions such
as weathering, cooling, crystallization, erosion,
transportation, accumulation, burial, and increase in
temperature and pressure.
Burial during metamorphism causes a rise in
temperature and pressure, which makes minerals
unstable and out of equilibrium with new
environmental conditions. Common metamorphic
rocks include slate, schist, gneiss, marble, and
quartzite.
The formation of petroleum involves processes
such as burial, heating, and pressure, but the
details are largely unknown.
Some examples of metamorphic rocks include
slate, schist, gneiss, marble, and quartzite.
Oil and gas are products of short and long term
processes on remnants of organisms such as algae
and plankton in aqueous environments.
Death of organisms, organic rich sediments,
bacterial action in sediment anaerobic conditions
and subsequent thermal process (after sediment
was buried), break larger organic molecules into
smaller molecules, migrate and accumulate at
reservoir/trap.
Organisms in the original sediment (source rock),
variations of biological and thermal maturation
processes depending on organisms type and
temperature history, trapping process variations
depending on geological structures and its
properties, water and other fluids influx through the
structure.
Source rock refers to rocks from which
hydrocarbons have been generated or are capable
of being generated.
What are the characteristics of source rock? They are organic-rich fine-grained sediments that
may have been deposited in various environments
including deep water marine, lacustrine and deltaic,
and under low energy, reducing conditions.

What is the most important factor of petroleum The most important factor of petroleum generation
generation in source rock? in source rock is temperature: 225o to 350oF (107o
and 177oC).

What are the three important parameters for Source rocks, reservoir rocks, and traps.
petroleum generation?

What is the "hydrocarbon window"? The temperature range of 225o to 350oF (107o and
176oC) that is the most important factor for
petroleum generation in source rock.

What is a petroleum reservoir? A porous and permeable rock in communication

with a mature source bed through carrier rock or
permeable flow path from source rock.

What are the two important characteristics that Porosity and permeability.
control reservoir rock economic viability?

What is a conventional hydrocarbon reservoir? An area of hydrocarbon or petroleum accumulation

consisting of source rock, reservoir rock, and cap
rock.

What is a trap in petroleum geology? An arrangement of rock layers that contains

hydrocarbon accumulation and prevents the
hydrocarbons from migrating further.

What are the three components of a trap in Source rock, reservoir rock, and cap rock.
petroleum geology?

What is a trap in petroleum geology? It is an arrangement of rock layers that contains

hydrocarbon accumulation and prevents them from
rising or moving to the surface.

What is the difference between structural and Structural traps occur when reservoir formation
stratigraphic traps? deforms, while stratigraphic traps are those where
porosity or permeability has changed within a
formation.
What is primary migration in petroleum geology? It is the transfer or movement of petroleum from
source rocks to reservoir rocks.

What is the primary cause of primary migration in The primary cause is compaction and diffusion, due
petroleum geology? to differing concentrations of fluids in source rock
and surrounding rock there is a tendency to diffuse.

What is secondary migration in petroleum geology? It is petroleum movement within porous and
permeable reservoirs beds.

What is the primary cause of secondary migration in The primary cause is buoyancy forces, which are
petroleum geology? proportional to density difference between
hydrocarbon and water.

Which type of migration in petroleum geology is Secondary migration.

faster and can proceed over very long distances?

What are the driving forces behind the migration of Gravity, natural forces (buoyancy), and pressure
petroleum? gradients.

What is the process of petroleum entrapment? Oil, gas, and water migrate through permeable
rocks until they meet an impermeable barrier (trap),
where oil and gas accumulate due to varying
densities.

What are the three types of traps in petroleum Structural trap, stratigraphic trap, and combination
entrapment? trap.

What is a structural trap? A trap formed by local deformation of rock layers,

such as folding and/or faulting, that prevents fluid
movement.

What is a stratigraphic trap? A trap formed by variations in rock properties, such

as permeability and porosity, that prevent fluid
movement.

What is a structural trap in oil exploration? It is a type of trap caused by deformation of rock
layers such as folding and/or faulting.

What is the most common type of structural trap? Anticlinal traps are the most common type of
structural trap.
What is a stratigraphic trap?
How is a stratigraphic trap formed?
What is the role of shale in a stratigraphic trap?
What is a pinchout type stratigraphic trap?
What is a pinchout type reservoir?
What is an unconformity trap?
What is a combination trap?
What are the formation steps required for a
combination trap?
What is a common example of a combination trap?
What is the goal of exploration in the petroleum
industry?
It is a type of trap that occurs where fluid flow path
is blocked by changes in formation character.
A stratigraphic trap is formed as a result of a lateral
and vertical variation in thickness, texture, porosity,
and lithology of reservoir rock, or a break in its
continuity.
Shale keeps the oil and gas from escaping the trap,
as it is generally very difficult for fluids (either oil or
gas) to migrate through shales.
It is a type of stratigraphic trap where the reservoir
thins or tapers out.
It is a type of reservoir where the permeable rock
thins out and ends against a nonporous sealing
rock or shale.
It is a type of trap where the reservoir boundary is
created by truncation of reservoir beneath
unconformity, followed by deposition of sealing unit
on top of unconformity.
It is a result of a combination of tectonic processes
and lithology change or deformational and
depositional mechanism.
The formation steps required are: 1. Reservoir rock
deposited and lithified in ocean basin 2. Formation
pushed above sea level and tilted 3. Horizontal
erosional surface develops on titled formations 4.
Erosional surface sinks below ocean’s surface and
horizontal shale deposition covers the exposed
ends of formations. 5. Shale lithifies and becomes
cap rock for titled reservoir rock.
A common example of a combination trap is a salt
dome.
To identify and locate a prospect, quantify the
volume that might be contained in a potential
reservoir, and evaluate the risk inherent in the
project itself.
What is a prospect in the petroleum industry? A viable target evidenced by geological indications
that is recommended for drilling an exploration well.

What is the role of exploratory drilling in the To indicate whether the initial geological hypothesis
petroleum industry? is correct or not and fine-tune economic analysis.

What is the Gravity or Gravimetric Method in It is the measurement of very slight variations in
petroleum exploration? gravity force at the earth's surface.

What is the Magnetic Method in petroleum It is the measurement of variations in the intensity of
exploration? the earth's magnetic field.

What is the Seismic Method in petroleum It is the measurement of variations of sound wave
exploration? velocity traveling across rock layers.

What is the Electrical Method in petroleum It is the measurement of variations of rock electrical
exploration? properties.

What were the early methods of finding oil? Digging or drilling near known oil and gas seeps or
accidental finds while drilling for water.

What is a seep in the context of oil exploration? The surface expression of a migration pathway,
along which petroleum is currently flowing, driven
by buoyancy from a sub-surface origin.

What is the importance of selecting effective It is an important step to achieve success in oil
exploration targets in oil exploration? exploration.

What is remote sensing in the context of oil The use of infrared or other means to map an area.
exploration?

What are the characteristics of remote sensing They have characteristics of reality and provide
images? accurate visual data for directly determining
geometric shapes of sedimentary basins.

Why are remote sensing techniques more effective Because they can be carried out without the need
and useful for understanding and studying basins in for physical access to the area.
out-of-the-way mountains and remote deserts?

What are the two ways in which remote sensing By airplanes or by satellites.
equipment can be carried out?
Do companies using remote sensing data still need Yes.
traditional exploration information to pinpoint the
location of commercial deposits?

What is the purpose of visible bands in remote Visible bands penetrate water and show suspended
sensing? sediment in surface water.

What is the difference in magnetic susceptibility Sedimentary rocks generally have very small
between sedimentary rocks and magnetic susceptibility compared with igneous or
igneous/metamorphic rocks? metamorphic rocks, which tend to have much
higher magnetite content.

What is the use of a magnetometer in geophysical A magnetometer is used to measure the magnitude
exploration? of the earth's total magnetic field @ large area.

How can a prospector determine the possibility of From a magnetic survey, a prospector can
finding oil-bearing sedimentary rock? determine the high possibility of oil-bearing
sedimentary rock to be found.

What is the composition of White Sands dunes? White Sands dunes are composed of gypsum sand
blown from a nearby dry lake bed.

What is the micromagnetic technique used for in oil It detects micromagnetic anomalies, or deviations
exploration? from the norm, to predict overlying sediments
characteristics.

What is the Midcontinent Gravity High? It is an anomaly in north-central Kansas where

Earth's gravity is about 0.006% greater than normal.

What is the principle behind gravity prospecting? Geophysicists measure gravity variations in the
force from rocks up to a few miles beneath the
earth's surface, as different types of rocks have
different densities.

How does the Earth's gravitational field change over If higher-density rock formations are arched upward
an anticline? in a structural high, such as an anticline, the Earth's
gravitational field will be greater over the axis of the
anticline.

What is the effect of an anticline on the Earth's The Earth's gravitational field will be greater over
gravitational field? the axis of the structure than along its flanks.
What is the characteristic feature of a salt dome that
makes it detectable through gravity methods?
What is seismic reflection?
What are seismic waves?
How are reflections recorded in seismic reflection?
What do variations in reflection times from place to
place on the surface usually indicate in seismic
reflection?
What is the purpose of sending waves through
cables to a recorder in seismic reflection?
What is the advantage of installing gravity systems
in aircrafts?
What is the purpose of a recorder in a seismic
survey?
What is a seismic section?
What is the mechanism of seismic waves?
It is generally less dense than the rocks into which it
is intruded, and can be detected from low value of
gravity recorded compared with that measured on
either side.
Seismic reflection is a powerful technique for
underground exploration that has been used for
over 60 years and gives more precise details on the
formations beneath the surface.
Seismic waves are essentially sound waves that
travel underground at velocities of 2 to 4 miles per
second (3 to 6 km per second), depending upon
rock type.
Reflections are recorded by detecting instruments
responsive to ground motion (geophones). They are
laid along the ground at distances from the shot
point which are generally small compared with the
reflector depth.
Variations in reflection times from place to place on
the surface usually indicate structural features in the
strata below.
From the geophones, the wave will be sent through
cables to a recorder to analyze the data.
Installing gravity systems in aircrafts can reduce the
cost of operations.
It amplifies and records the wave characteristics to
produce a seismogram.
It is a two-dimensional slice from the earth surface
downward, generated from seismograms.
They are vibrations that propagate from a source
through the surface of the earth and some of the
vibrational energy is reflected back to the surface
and detected by receivers.
What are the sources of seismic waves?
What is the function of geophones in a seismic
survey?
What is the difference between geophones and
hydrophones?
What information can be obtained from a seismic
survey?
What is a hydrophone?
What is a seismogram?
What is a trace in seismology?
What is a seismic section?
What are the two types of seismic waves?
What is the difference between P-waves and
S-waves?
What is a wavelet in seismology?
What does wave frequency mean in seismology?
What does seismic velocity depend on?
What is seismic velocity?
Explosions, mechanical vibrators on vibrating
trucks, or expulsion of compressed air from seismic
air guns in marine environments.
They convert ground motion to voltage and detect
vibrations during the seismic survey data acquisition
phase.
Geophones are used on land and convert ground
motion to voltage, while hydrophones are used
offshore and detect underwater sound.
It indicates rock types, their relative depth, and
whether a trap is present or not.
A microphone that detects underwater sound.
A display of the signal recorded by a seismometer
as a function of time.
A graph from a single seismometer.
A collection of traces from different seismometers.
Compressional (P) and shear (S) waves.
P-waves propagate as compression and
rarefactions in the direction of wave motion, while
S-waves move perpendicular to the wave motion
direction due to particles of disturbed medium being
displaced in a shearing motion.
A packet of waves that propagate from a source.
The number of waves passing a particular point
during a specific time interval.
The physical properties of the rock, such as shear
modulus and bulk modulus of the rock grains.
Seismic velocity is the speed at which rational
energy propagates from a source through the earth.
What factors affect seismic velocity? Seismic velocity depends on a rock's physical
properties, including shear modulus, bulk modulus,
and mass density.

What is shear modulus? Shear modulus is the ratio of shear stress to shear
strain in a rock.

What is bulk modulus? Bulk modulus is the bulk deformation of a rock

subjected to confining pressure.

What is the difference between P-waves and P-waves (primary waves) arrive before S-waves
S-waves? (secondary waves) during seismic activity.

What is the formula for P-wave propagation velocity Vp = {[KB + (4/3)G] / r}^0.5 m/s
in an elastic, homogeneous, and isotropic rock?

What is the formula for S-wave propagation velocity Vs = (G / r)^0.5 m/s

in a rock?

What is seismic inversion? Seismic inversion is the process of using calibrated

seismic information to predict reservoir properties or
an attempt to correlate seismic attributes with rock
properties.

What is seismic inversion? Seismic inversion is the process of using calibrated

seismic information to predict reservoir properties or
an attempt to correlate seismic attributes to
formation properties.

What are the three steps involved in analyzing The three steps involved in analyzing seismic
seismic measurements? measurements are data acquisition, processing,
and interpretation.

What is a 2-D seismic survey? A 2-D seismic survey uses a vibrational source and
a single line of receivers to prepare a
cross-sectional image of subsurface.

What is a 3-D seismic survey? A 3-D seismic survey uses a line of sources with
2-D array of receivers to prepare a 3-D image of
subsurface.

What is a 4-D seismic survey? A 4-D seismic survey or time-lapse seismology is

the comparison of two 3-D seismic surveys taken in
the same geographic location at different times.
What is the most important data processing in The most important data processing in seismic data
seismic data interpretation? interpretation is to transform travel time to depth.

What is the purpose of reviewing processed seismic To provide a better understanding of fluid content,
data in conjunction with data from other disciplines? composition, extent, and geometry of subsurface
rock.

What are some applications of processed seismic Geological model development, geologic structure
data? image preparation, faults and folds identification,
and wellbore trajectories designing.

What does sub-surface geophysical exploration Establishing correlations by matching strata, rock
consist of? hardness or softness, and electrical and
radioactivity data to determine origin, composition,
and distribution of rock strata.

How do electrical logs, radioactivity logs, and By helping geologists identify key beds and
acoustic logs help geologists predict where lithologic sequences.
oil-bearing strata occur?

What is the purpose of taking core samples from top To identify key beds and lithologic sequences.
to bottom of a well?

What is the purpose of well cuttings and cores in They are used to identify key beds and lithologic
geology? sequences.

What information can be obtained from core They show rock in sequential order as it appears in
samples in a well? the ground and provide information on porosity,
permeability, and saturation of rock in the well.

How do cuttings differ from core samples in Cuttings are not a continuous record like core
geology? samples, but provide a means for identifying
sections within larger thick layers through fossil and
mineral deposits.

What is the process of well correlation in geology? It involves comparing the stratigraphic sequences of
different wells to determine the continuity and
correlation of rock layers.

What is a stratigraphic cross section in geology? It is a diagram that shows the vertical arrangement
of rock layers in a specific area, allowing for the
interpretation of geological history and structure.
How do logs contribute to geologic analysis? They provide information on the physical properties
of rock layers, such as porosity, permeability, and
lithology, which can be used to interpret geological
history and structure.