CB1 Unit 4

Unit 4: Global Warming
UNIT OVERVIEW AND INTRODUCTION

In this unit, you will learn about the topic of global warming, while also learning the genres of
explanation and argumentation. You will read and listen to different views about global warming,
before planning an essay on the causes and effects of the phenomenon. Finally, you will work as a
group to analyse and summarise difficult texts. You will also take part in a pyramid discussion.
Key Learning Objectives

The key learning objectives for this unit are to:
Understand and use the genre of explanation
Participate in group discussions
Generate and organise ideas for academic writing tasks
Understand the structure of a cause-effect essay
Develop strategies for understanding difficult written and oral texts
Identify multigeneric organisational patterns (text organization and macro-stucture)
Listen and note-take to identify different view-points to prepare for participation in an informal
class discussion
Listen and evaluate the relevance of information
Listen to identify the structure of a lecture using authentic materials
Tasks
The tasks you will complete in this unit are:
Participate in a group discussion on global warming
Begin an essay plan (fully referenced) on the causes and effects of global warming (you will not
write the essay)
88 UWA Centre for English Language Teaching

UNIT 4: LESSON 1
THINKING ABOUT GLOBAL WARMING
Objectives
The purpose of this lesson is to help you to think about global warming before you read in more detail
about the topic and write an essay.
Developing Focus Questions

Discuss the following questions in small groups:
What are the causes of global warming?
What will the future long term effects of global warming be?
How is the current period of climate change similar to or different from past periods of climate
change?
What are some possible solutions to the problem of global warming?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of the different solutions?
Identifying Language of Genres

Match the questions in the previous exercise with the statements below:
The policy of enforcing national targets on greenhouse emissions has been supported by many
countries as a serious, global solution to the problem of global warming, but rejected by others as
both unfair and unworkable.
It is predicted that global warming will result in a number of negative consequences, including
higher sea levels, the destruction of coral reefs and the extinction of many species.
The kinds of solutions that have been proposed for the problem of global warming range from
encouraging the use of alternative energy sources to restricting motor vehicle use to enforcing
national targets on greenhouse emissions.
Among the causes of global warming are the clearing and burning of forests, the use of fossil fuels
in industry and transport, and some agricultural practices.
One difference between the current period of climate change and past periods may be the rate of
global warming.
Academic English and Study Skills Bridging Course Book 1 89

Using Diagrams to Generate Ideas
Diagrams can be used for generating ideas that correspond to the genres that you have learned about
in this course.
Complete the following diagrams by writing information from the statements above, on or around the
diagrams.
What are the causes of global warming?
Cause
Global Warming Cause
Cause

What are the effects of global warming?
Effect Implication
Global Warming Effect Implication
Effect Implication
How is the current period of climate change similar to or different from past periods of climate
change?
What are some possible solutions to the problem of global warming?
Note: The problem and solution template also shows causes. In fact, the rhetorical patterns of cause
and effect, and problem and solution, are closely linked.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of the different solutions?
Researching
Read the ‘Climate Change’ chapter on pages 171 - 185 of Global Issues and add to the diagrams.
Return to the diagrams on the previous pages after you have read the remaining texts in the unit
and add further information.

UNIT 4: LESSON 2
THE GENRE OF EXPLANATION
Objectives
In this lesson, you will learn about explanation, which is another important academic genre. Written
and spoken explanations are used in all discipline areas to explain events and phenomena that are
either natural or caused by human beings.
Explaining Events or Phenomena

Explanations are often written in three stages: a description, an explanatory sequence and an
evaluation or interpretation.
Human activity, particularly industry, involves the burning of large

Description amounts of fossil fuels, including coal, oil and natural gas.
When cars are driven and factories are operated, greenhouse gases
are emitted. These gases then accumulate in the atmosphere and trap
Explanatory sequence
radiation or heat. As a result, the earth’s temperature increases.
If predictions about global warming are accurate, there could be

Evaluation or serious consequences for the Earth’s ecosystems.
interpretation
A good example of the explanation genre is ‘Japan’s Nuclear Crisis’ which you can access in
Blackboard. Read the explanations and isolate the following in the text:
An explanation of the process of using nuclear fission to produce energy (how fission reactors
work)
An explanation of how the accident happened
An evaluation or interpretation of the accident

Listening to Explanations
In this task, you will listen to a lecture on the greenhouse effect, which is a natural phenomenon.
In small groups discuss what you understand by the greenhouse effect. Thinking about the topic
of a lecture beforehand helps your understanding.
Work with a partner to try to explain the greenhouse effect using the following diagram. Making
diagrams can help you to think about a topic and thus assist your listening comprehension.
Figure 2.1 The Greenhouse Effect, n.d.

Look up the following words and phrases in your dictionary and discuss how they might be used in
an explanation of the greenhouse effect. The technical terms in your discipline may be different from
those below, but looking up such terms can provide you with practice in understanding complex
dictionary definitions, which is an important skill.
Words/Phrases Explanation
Greenhouse
Metaphoric
Photosynthesis
Solar radiation
infrared
Re-emit
Listen to the explanation and write notes on the diagram as you listen.
Listen a second time and add to your notes. Compare your completed notes with a partner.
Are your notes similar? Many lectures are recorded and you may, as in this example, have the
opportunity to listen more than once to improve your understanding of the topic. Discussing
ideas with classmates will enhance your understanding. When you are engaging with tertiary
study, try to organise your own study group where you can meet regularly with others to
discuss the content of lessons.
In small groups, discuss what you have learned about the greenhouse effect. Verbalising what
you know helps you remember the ideas you have encountered later and is a useful study aid.

UNIT 4: LESSON 3
PLANNING A CAUSE AND EFFECT ESSAY
Objectives
The main objective of this lesson is to help you to prepare to write a cause and effect essay plan on
the following statement:
homework：PLAN
Global warming is a crisis, caused by human activity, which will have long-term Example：P17
consequences for the planet
Your plan should include explanations of particular causes and effects of global warming and provide
support from at least three sources. The sources allowed are listed in Blackboard/Online Weekly
Materials.
Your Essay Plan will be assessed.
Structuring An Essay
General Essay Structure:
An academic essay is a piece of writing usually composed of three or more paragraphs. An essay
allows you to develop ideas on a topic in more detail than you can fit in a paragraph. There are many
different styles of academic essay: problem-solution, argument, logical division of ideas, cause-effect,
and so on. Each style of essay has its own pattern of organization: however they mostly follow the
general structure of Introduction/Body Paragraphs/Conclusion.
The Introduction usually starts with a broad, general statement about the topic and may include
background information and the purpose of the essay. It then includes more specific information
about the actual topic that will be discussed – this is the thesis statement, and is often the last sentence
in the introductory paragraph. Sometimes included in the Introduction is a sentence explaining the
scope of the essay or the outline of the structure that the essay will use.
In the Body Paragraphs, the writer’s ideas are developed and supported. Each body paragraph
contains a topic sentence (containing the main or controlling idea of the paragraph) followed by
supporting details in which explanations for the idea are given and supported by specific examples or
factual details (references). The paragraph ends with a concluding sentence or transition sentence.
There can be many body paragraphs, depending on the length of the essay, however each body
paragraph should contain one main point.
The Conclusion usually restates the thesis statement and summarises the writer’s main points. It can
possibly include recommendations or predictions as a final statement.
Cause-Effect Essay Structure
As mentioned previously, there are many different types of academic essays. The focus of this lesson
is cause-effect essays. Cause-effect essays may generally be organised in two ways: block organisation

or chain organisation. In the Bridging Course, we use Block Organization.
Block Organisation is where you list all the causes first and then the effects (or the other way
around). It generally looks like this:
OR

Sample Cause-Effect Essay
Read the following essay called ‘The Energy Crisis’ and answer the questions that follow:
THE ENERGY CRISIS

The sources of energy that society has traditionally relied on and, to a large extent, continues to
rely on are becoming problematic. This is mainly due to the fact that traditional non-renewable
sources are declining and societies need to make the decision to transition to more renewable
Thesis Statement
energy. This essay will explore some of the reasons for this dependence on non-renewable
energy sources and the effects this has on society. In particular, the essay will discuss the easy
Scope Statementavailability of, and society’s dependence on, these sources and the detrimental effects on society
and the environment that follow as a result.
One of the causes of societies’ dependence on non-renewable sources of energy is that they are
still relatively cheap and readily available in comparison to some renewable sources. One of the
most promising sources of renewable sources is solar energy but at present it is not cheap
enough. For example, even though solar energy is abundant, solar cells are still relatively
expensive to implement when compared with the cost of extracting sources such as coal and oil
(Hite & Seitz, 2016, p. 152). Two other renewable forms of energy under consideration are wind
and geothermal energy. However, although these two fuel sources can be very cost effective,
they are only a realistic consideration in certain areas of the world. For example, geothermal
energy is already used extensively in Russia, Iceland and Hungary where the geological
conditions are right for this kind of energy but would not be viable for most other parts of the
world where conditions do not permit (Hite & Seitz, 2016, pp. 149-150, 153-154). Therefore, it
is clear that some renewable sources of energy are seen as less favourable than non-renewable
energy sources in terms of expense and availability.
Another reason why societies continue to favour non-renewable sources of energy is because
people are used to an endless supply of material goods due to cheap energy. Firstly, it is difficult
to ask a society that is used to being able to buy and consume whatever they want, to reduce
their intake of goods. For example, according to Hite and Seitz (2016), in the United States
where oil is so cheap, “[this] nation is used to abundance…and the creation of a new outlook
and new values is not easy” (p. 135). Secondly, those at the forefront of the oil and coal industry
are unlikely to promote more sustainable forms of energy because they have a financial interest
in the existing forms of energy. In fact, it is in their interest to actively discourage such ideas. As
Hite & Seitz state, oil companies “spend large amounts in elections supporting favoured
candidates” (2016, p. 135). In other words, due to their financial input, these companies can
influence government decisions on the type of energy a society will use. Therefore, it is evident
that the switch to renewable energy sources is impeded by societies’ reluctance to change and
the ability of energy corporations to affect government decisions.
This continued reliance on energy sources such as coal and particularly oil can have detrimental
effects on society. One of these effects occurs because these resources are diminishing and so it
has become necessary for energy intensive societies to rely on buying them from unstable areas
of the world such as the Middle East which are sometimes “torn by regional conflicts” (Hite &
Seitz, 2016, p. 133). In fact, Browne (2009) states that 61% of the world’s remaining oil
resources are in the Middle East and the Russian Federation. Another negative effect occurs

because the uneasy relationships between those seeking oil and those selling oil not only adds
to the internal unrest of these countries but also increases the likelihood of external conflicts
with the seekers of the resource. For example, the invasion of Iraq in 2003 by the United States
and allied forces was seen by most as a way “to help the United States secure its sources of oil”.
This situation potentially leads to greater political unrest in areas of the world where these
energy sources are still plentiful. It therefore seems necessary for nations to increase their
investment in renewable sources of energy rather than relying on diminishing supplies and
waging wars over oil.
In addition to the social effects of the world’s reliance on non-renewable sources of energy are
the environmental effects. Many of these problems are brought about by carbon dioxide
emissions from fossil fuels. For example, there has been a 1.5 degrees Fahrenheit increase in
temperature from the Industrial Revolution to now due these emissions (Hite & Seitz, 2016, p.
171). This warming is causing innumerable negative environmental changes that could be
mitigated by renewable sources such as solar and wind power. These are relatively emission
free and therefore much more environmentally friendly. Another environmental problem
caused by these resources is pollution and the fact that one of the most utilized sources, oil, is
becoming scarcer means that companies are now extracting more difficult to obtain oil. These
sources such as tar sands, shale oil and extra heavy crude oil (Klare, 2011) are even more energy
intensive because the process of extraction is more complex therefore additionally burdensome
to the earth’s atmosphere. With this information in mind, a gradual transition to renewable,
non-polluting energy would seem to be the best course of action.
In conclusion, it seems that the reasons for delaying the transition to renewable energy are
understandable. However, not making the change because currently other options are more
expensive or because society and oil companies are too comfortable with the status quo are not
good enough reasons to postpone taking action. The effects of inaction are likely to prove
calamitous. In the words of Klare (2011):
If we don’t abandon a belief that unrestricted growth is our inalienable birthright and embrace the
genuine promise of renewable energy (with the necessary effort and investment that would make
such a commitment meaningful), the future is likely to prove grim indeed.
Cathy Lally, 2017
References
Browne, J. (2009). Proposal: The Energy Crisis and Climate Change. http://www.global-
economic-symposium.org/knowledgebase/the-global-environment/the-energy-crisis-
and-climate-change/proposals/the-energy-crisis-and-climate-change
Hite, K. A., & Seitz, J.L. (2016). Global Issues: An introduction. Wiley-Blackwell.
Klare, M. (2011, June 5). The Global Energy Crisis Deepens. Tom Dispatch.
http://www.tomdispatch.com/ blog/175400/

a) Look at the introduction to ‘The Energy Crisis’. Does it start with a broad, general statement
about the topic? Highlight this. Underline the thesis statement. Which words in the thesis
statement and essay scope let you know what will be discussed in the essay?
b) Now, in the body paragraphs, underline the topic sentences. Are there any supporting details for
each topic sentence?
c) Decide whether each body paragraph is discussing a cause or effect. Which words in each
paragraph helped you decide this?
Look at the conclusion. Remember that the conclusion of an essay needs to restate the main
ideas. New ideas are not introduced in the conclusion, although you may include
recommendations or a prediction. Try not to add in idioms or quotes from non-academic
sources. Have another look at ‘The Energy Crisis’ essay and decide if the conclusion contains a
summary of the main ideas. How has the writer concluded the essay?
When you plan your essay, it is important that you add in the information that you will use in
your conclusion.
d) Using the information from the questions above, decide which type of organisation is used in the
essay - block or chain?
Thesis Statement and Scope

A thesis statement gives the essay topic and sometimes the writer’s purpose or point of view. It is the
overarching idea of the entire essay and is, therefore, very important. It must be written in the writer’s
own words.
• Look back at the statement for your essay on p. 95. Re-write the statement in your own words.
This will be your Thesis Statement.
The scope of an essay is the outline of the structure of the essay and it often follows the thesis
statement at the end of the introduction.
• Look at the introduction to “The Energy Crisis”, circle the thesis statement and underline the
scope.
• Look at the thesis statement you just wrote. Once you have planned the body paragraphs,
you will be able to add your scope, which will be based on the main idea of each paragraph.

Planning An Essay
You will be assessed on your essay plan and your body paragraph. You can use a diagram to plan your
essay.

Alternatively, you can plan your essay by using a template similar to the following:
I. Introduction
Background (general to specific):
Thesis Statement and Scope:
II. Body of the Essay
Part 1: Causes Paragraph 1
1. Topic (main idea of paragraph 1)
a. supporting point 1
i. example/evidence/explanation (source, page number)
ii. example/evidence/explanation (source, page number)
b. supporting point 2
i. example/evidence/explanation (source, p #)
ii. example/evidence/explanation (source, p #)
c. supporting point 3
Paragraph 2

ii. example/evidence/explanation (source, p #) Transition from Causes to Effects

(sentence or short paragraph)
Part 2: Effects Paragraph 3

Paragraph 4
III. Conclusion
Restate thesis:
Summarises causes and effects:
Offer a final concluding comment:
IV. Reference List

Here is a sample plan for the body paragraphs of the essay “The Energy Crisis”
Thesis statement: This essay will explore some of the reasons for this dependence on non-
renewable energy sources and the effects this has on society.
Scope Statement: In particular, the essay will discuss the easy availability of, and society’s
dependence on, these sources and the detrimental effects on society and the environment that
follow as a result.
Body of the Essay
1. Non-renewable sources of energy are still relatively cheap and available in comparison to some
renewable sources.
a) The expense of some renewable sources
i) Solar cells (Hite & Seitz, 2016, p. 152)
b) The availability of some renewable sources
i) Geothermal energy (Hite & Seitz, 2016, p. 153-154)
ii) Wind energy (Hite & Seitz, 2016, p. 149-150)
2. The economic reasons for continued use of non-renewable sources of energy.
a) The developed world is accustomed to abundant energy and material goods.
i) Oil is very cheap in the US so getting people to have a different perspective is difficult.
(Hite & Seitz, 2016, p. 135)
ii) Large corporations involved in the energy business want to maintain the status quo.
b) Corporations have the money to buy votes (Hite & Seitz, 2016, p. 135)
i) Companies spend large amounts in government elections. (Hite & Seitz, 2016, p. 135)
3. Social effects of societies’ dependence on non-renewable sources of energy
a) Because resources are diminishing, developed nations are relying more and more on
unstable regions of the world for resources (especially oil).
i) The east/west conflicts (Hite & Seitz, 2016, p. 133)

b) This leads to political unrest.
ii) Wars over oil (planet for life website)
4. Environmental effects of societies’ dependence on non-renewable sources of energy
a) Non-renewable sources of energy and the production of carbon dioxide and global warming
i) 1.5 degree increase in temperature (Hite & Seitz, 2016, p. 171)
b) Pollution caused by oil that is harder to obtain
ii) The relationship between ‘difficult to get’ sources of energy (oil) and increased levels of
pollution. Tar sands, shale oil and extra heavy crude (Klare, 2011)
You should now be ready to start planning your essay. Create a diagram (using free mind-mapping
tools online) or use the template provided to start planning your essay. Note, the template is also
available on Blackboard in Word.

UNIT 4: LESSON 4
DEVELOPING YOUR IDEAS
Objectives
The main objective of this lesson is to help you develop your ideas for a paragraph and learn how to
use details to support your ideas.
Understanding paragraph structure
Exercise 1: Look at this sample body paragraph from an essay on 'The Energy Crisis’
Topic sentence
Another reason why societies continue to favour non-renewable sources of energy is because people
are used to an endless supply of material goods due to cheap energy. Firstly, it is difficult to ask a
society that is used to being able to buy and consume whatever they want, to reduce their intake of
goods. For example, according to Hite and Seitz (2016), in the United States where oil is so cheap,
“[this] nation is used to abundance…and the creation of a new outlook and new values is not easy”.
(p. 135). Secondly, those at the forefront of the oil and coal industry are unlikely to promote more Author's
sustainable forms of energy because they have a financial interest in the existing forms of energy. In voice
fact, it is in their interest to actively discourage such ideas. As Hite & Seitz state, oil companies “spend
large amounts in elections supporting favoured candidates” (2016, p. 135). In other words, due to
their financial input, these companies can influence government decisions on the type of energy a Others voice
society will use. Therefore, it is evident that the switch to renewable energy sources is impeded by
societies’ reluctance to change and the ability of energy corporations to affect government decisions.
Identify the following in the paragraph above:
Paraphrase
a) Topic sentence (author’s own voice)
b) 2 or 3 supporting ideas (these introduce the evidence but are still in the author’s voice)
c) Evidence which can be data, statistics, examples or reasons (including the reference which
is from an outside voice but only 10% can be quoted – most should be paraphrased)
d) Explanation sentences to fully develop the idea if the example does not make it clear
enough.
e) Concluding sentence
f) Linking language to signpost the different sentences and link the ideas.
What is the function of each piece of linking language used? Eg. to introduce, to connect, to
explain.

When you are writing, you need to present information in a certain way to make it clear to your
readers. You will make your writing clear if you raise a point in a general way and then clarify it by
giving more specific evidence. Writing that is too general all the time does not generate meaning
very well for the reader. As an academic writer you need to be extremely clear and that means
starting with the general and moving to the specific to clarify meaning.
Specific information (evidence) includes:

Reasons, facts, statistics, results, descriptions, examples
Exercise 2: Match the general (supporting) idea to the evidence.

General (supporting) idea Specific (evidence)
1. It is difficult to consider changing to less a. “Parts of the Middle East and North
polluting energy, when the cost of Africa, are particularly well suited for
alternative fuels is considered. large-scale solar thermal plants, and
these plants are becoming cost
competitive” (Hite & Seitz, 2016, p. 152).
2. The geographical location of a country is b. “Individual lifestyles and modes of
often a consideration when choosing an industrial production were based on
alternative energy to invest in. plentiful, inexpensive, polluting
energy”(Hite & Seitz, 2016, p. 130).
3. Promotors of polluting energies, fail to c. “The cost of oil in the United States…,
take into account the hidden costs of remains very low” (Hite & Seitz, 2016, p.
these fuels. 133).
4. Some countries are beginning to put d. ‘Oil companies use their huge financial
policies into place that will have a resources to influence government policy
positive impact on greenhouse gas on energy’ (Hite & Seitz, 2016, p. 133).
emissions.
5. Some alternative energies with great e. ‘The effect it [oil] is having on the Earth’s
potential have complications that reduce climate. … but also the increased health
their immediate viability. care costs associated with the burning of
petroleum, and the subsidies by the
government to the oil industry’ (Hite &
Seitz, 2016, p. 135).
6. Some of the big polluting industries have f. ‘China’s Twelfth Five-Year Plan set a
an impact on government decisions. course for the country to generate 15
percent of its energy from non-fossil fuel
sources’ (Hite & Seitz, 2016, p. 139).
7. People have become accustomed to a g. ‘Investment in improving the energy

high level of consumption. efficiency of US automobiles, homes, and
factories create many new jobs and
businesses throughout the country, thus
spurring the growth of the economy’
(Hite & Seitz, 2016, p. 146).
8. Governments may protest that moving to h. ‘The main problem with wind…, is that it
renewable energies will create problems is usually not steady, and thus the energy
for their economies. it creates must be stored in some way so
it can be used when the wind dies down’
(Hite & Seitz, 2016, p. 150).

When writing supporting material…
• ‘who writes the general statement?’
• ‘Where does the specific evidence come from?’
You can paraphrase the idea or use a direct quotation (“quote”)
Remember:
Quotations use the exact words of the author. You do not need to quote a whole sentence. In fact it
demonstrates skill when you integrate a partially quoted phrase into your own grammatical
sentence. Only 10% of your writing can be direct quotations.
Exercise 3: Look at the models below and answer the questions
Here is a model of how you could make a supporting point and fully develop it. This model uses
supporting point 1 with evidence c.
It is difficult to consider changing to less polluting energy, when the cost of alternative fuels is
considered. For example, ‘the cost of oil in the United States remains very low’ (Hite & Seitz, 2016, p.
130).
• Is this idea completely developed?

• What can you do to develop it more fully so that the reader completely understands your
point?
Here is the model including an explanation.
It is difficult to consider changing to less polluting energy, when the cost of alternative fuels is
considered. For example, ‘the cost of oil in the United States remains very low’ (Hite & Seitz, 2016, p.
130). This indicates that this country has a government subsidised barrier to changing from oil to low
emission fuels.
• Do you now fully understand the point the writer is making?

• Where does the idea for the explanation come from?
Some quotations are too long and the whole idea can be summarised and/or paraphrased.
This model uses supporting point 3 with evidence e.
Promotors of polluting energies, fail to take into account the hidden costs of these fuels. For example,
these consist of, subsidised oil, global warming and health costs that have increased as a direct result of
burning petroleum (Hite & Seitz, 2016, p. 135).
Some examples are self-explanatory and do not need additional explanation.
• Do you fully understand this point?

Exercise 4: Look at these quotations from an outside source.
• Which 2 quotations could be used to develop a paragraph about a particular topic? 120～150words
1. “Each year the Earth receives from the sun about ten times the energy that is stored in all of its
fossil fuel and uranium reserves”. (Hite & Seitz, 2016, p. 151)
2. “Another problem with wind is that the choices of windy places in the world are relatively few
and unevenly distributed”. (Hite & Seitz, 2016, p. 150)
3. “A study of wind power in the United States… in 2010 concluded that wind power could replace
coal and natural gas for 20 to 30 percent of the electricity used by the eastern two-thirds of the
country by 2024”. (Hite & Seitz, 2016, p. 150)
4. “Natural gas is the cleanest fossil fuel, emitting 40 percent of the carbon dioxide emitted by coal.
(Hite & Seitz, 2016, p. 147)
• Decide which two quotations you are going to use.

• Decide which ideas you will paraphrase and which you will quote.
• Remember to introduce your quotations/paraphrases with your own general point.
• Remember to clarify more deeply with an explanation if necessary.
Exercise 4: Write a paragraph based on the quotations with;
A topic sentence (general)

Two supporting (general) ideas related to the topic.
Supporting material (specific) from an outside source to clarify your ideas and give them
believability.
A concluding sentence (general) that sums up the entire paragraph.
Once you have written your paragraph, your teacher will show you a model paragraph. There are
many ways to use this information. Your topics and the way you use the information may be quite
different.

UNIT 4: LESSON 5
ESSAY WRITING REQUIREMENTS
Objectives
The main objective of this lesson is to help you understand some of the different aspects of an essay
including topic sentences, linking words and referencing requirements.
Writing Topic Sentences

You will need to construct effective topic sentences for each body paragraph you write.
Let’s look at this statement as an example:
• The greenhouse effect is a natural phenomenon, which is being enhanced by human

activity and it is causing some negative effects
The thesis statement indicates your position. You need to identify the scope of the essay.
Paragraph 1 - Topic - Natural phenomena
This topic needs to have a mechanism for organising the ideas that follow. In writing an essay that
looks at the causes and effects of global warming, it is likely that you will talk about several natural
causes of it in your paragraph.
Controlling idea - several causes.
Put the topic and the controlling idea together into one sentence to construct an effective topic
sentence.
Example:
Several natural phenomena contribute to the warming of the planet.
Now it is quite easy to add the ideas you have developed, using effective signposting expressions to
guide your reader. For example:
Several natural phenomena contribute to the warming of the planet. The first of these is
solar activity.

Expanding Your Paragraph
To expand your paragraph, you should explain how this contributes, providing explanations and
evidence with references.
Example:
Several natural phenomena contribute to the warming of the planet. The first of these is solar
activity. Solar activity can be seen as a natural activity that affects the surface temperature of the Earth.
According to Source (date), the energy of the sun directly influences climatic variations and has done
so throughout history. The earth has experienced a number of significant variations in climate which
are well documented and the increase and decrease in solar activity recorded correlates with the
changes in climate (Source, date).
At the end of the paragraph, try to write a concluding sentence summarising the main ideas.
Example:
It is therefore clear that natural phenomena such as the sun activity does significantly
contribute to the warming of the planet.
You can use this process to help you to develop further topic sentences, paragraphs and concluding
sentences.
Now, look at your chosen thesis statement and try to write a topic sentence (including both the topic
and controlling idea) for your first body paragraph. Note, you cannot use the examples given above in
your own paragraph.
Referencing Your Sources

For your paragraph, you need to reference your sources, and must include both in-text and end-text
referencing.
Complete the activity below to create both the in-text and end-text referencing for your essay. The
UWA APA Referencing guide is included on Blackboard to help you answer the questions.
a) What is the end-text reference for the BBC article, ‘Humans Blamed for Climate Change’?
What is the in-text reference for ‘Humans Blamed for Climate Change’?
b) What is the end-text reference for the documentary, ‘The Great Global Warming
Swindle’?

What is the in-text reference for ‘The Great Global Warming Swindle’?
c) What is the end-text reference for the TED Talk, ‘The Case for Optimism on Climate
Change’?
What is the in-text reference for ‘The Case for Optimism on Climate Change’?
d) What is the end-text reference for the documentary, ‘An Inconvenient Truth’?
What is the in-text reference for ‘An Inconvenient Truth’?
e) What is the end-text reference for your textbook, ‘Global Issues’?
What is the in-text reference for ‘Global Issues’?

f) What is the end-text reference for the Course book?
What is the in-text reference for the Course book?
Referencing a source that someone else has cited:
Look at the article, ‘The Ultimate Meltdown’ on page 120 of this course book:
‘The Ultimate Meltdown’ was written by Brahic (2012), but you read it in UWA CELT (2020).
Therefore your in-text reference will be as follows: Brahic (2012, as cited in UWA CELT, 2020) argues
that...
and your end-text reference will be:
UWA CELT. (2020). Academic English and study skills bridging course: Course book 1. UWA Publishing.
Finally, remember that your Reference List must be in alphabetical order by family name of the
author/s.
Linking Your Ideas

Transition signals are used to link ideas between and within paragraphs.
a) Open the list of Cause-Effect Transition Signals in Blackboard and then look back at the essay,
‘The Energy Crisis’, and underline the transition signals used.
b) Which transition signals show the cause-effect relationship within the ideas in the paragraph?
c) Are there any transition signals that link the paragraphs together?
d) The following pairs of sentences have a cause-effect relationship. Using the transition signals on
the list, rewrite the sentences to form one sentence.
Smoking numbers are very high in many developing countries. Cigarettes are cheap and
i)
readily available.

Instrumental music can be calming. It should be played in busy places, such as shopping
ii)
centres and airports.
Insomnia impacts millions of people in the Western world. More and more people are living
iii)
busier lives.
iv) Perth has experienced the coolest summer in more than 20 years. Water levels in dams
nearby are higher than the previous year.
Nowadays, many companies offer flexible or working from home arrangements for
v)
employees. Employees who embrace these options are often happier and can be more
productive.
Try to use various transition signals to link your ideas.

UNIT 4 LESSON 6
ACADEMIC INTEGRITY AND AVOIDING PLAGIARISM
Objectives
The objectives of this lesson are to introduce you to the concept of Academic Integrity and to offer
strategies to avoid plagiarism.
Academic Integrity
UWA (Governance, n.d) defines Academic Integrity as “a core value of education and involves acting
with the principles of honesty, trust, fairness, and responsibility in learning, teaching and research,
and requires respect for knowledge and its development.”
What do you think this means? Discuss this with your classmates.
Now, look on Blackboard (Weekly Materials) and watch the video on academic honesty and
discuss with your class.
Have a look at the UWA CELT Academic Misconduct Policy (also on Blackboard) and talk about
what this means to you in the Bridging Course and in your future studies.
Plagiarism
Plagiarism refers to inadequate or incorrect referencing. It is also referred to as academic misconduct
and misuse of evidence.
Plagiarism occurs when authors do not reference sufficiently, reference in the wrong place or in the
wrong way or do not reference at all!
Important note:
Plagiarism is passing off someone else’s writing as your own - like stealing something that belongs to
someone else. It is a serious issue in academic circles. If you hand in an assignment that you were
supposed to write but did not write, you can suffer terrible consequences such as academic probation
or even expulsion from a college or university. Published plagiarised work can also be identified later
in your career, impeding or ending your career later in life.
Plagiarism is not always intentional. Sometimes you find information from a book, an article, or a
website that you believe is an excellent fact or support for your essay. However, if you do not put
quotation marks around the exact words or paraphrase the information, you are in effect stealing the
academic property of the original writer. In order to use source material correctly and avoid
plagiarism, learn the skills of paraphrasing, summarizing, and synthesizing and then apply correct
citation format.

Avoiding plagiarism
Avoiding plagiarism is basically a combination of knowing what is expected and having good work
practices. Some useful tips include the following:
Know very clearly what has to be referenced (anything that is not your own original thought –
even if it seems ‘obvious information’ or something that ‘everyone knows’).
Make a note of the bibliographic information (author, date, titles, place of publication, publisher)
of everything you read (in print and on the internet).
Avoid copying sections of your reading into your notes. Paraphrase it (put it into your own
words) before you write it down. This means that you have to understand it before you write it
down and that you are less likely to use the author’s material in your own work without
referencing it.
Make sure you have some thoughts of your own in your assignment. These do not have to be
earth- shattering. You can simply start with your observations of what you have read.
Use the literature as evidence to support or highlight your own ‘voice’. We provide examples of
what not to do as well as examples of what to aim for.
Look at the following examples of plagiarism to understand the different types of plagiarism and
misconduct.
Example 1
Original source
An important outcome of the earlier introduction of children into child care centres has been a
measurable improvement in levels of social development. These increases can be traced back
to the proposition that child care centres provide a more socially and intellectually stimulating
context for early childhood progression.
Gibson, P. (2005). Childhood development in the 21st century. Richmond Press.
Plagiarised text:
Children who attend child care centres at an earlier age show a significant improvement in
levels of social progress. These improvements reflect the view that child care centres give
children a greater opportunity to mix with other children in a socially and intellectually
stimulating setting (Gibson, 2005).
This is plagiarism because, although it restates some of the ideas of the original, other words and
phrases in the attempted paraphrase are exactly the same as the original. In this case, the writer must

either rewrite the whole passage in her own words or acknowledge the use of phrases from the source
by using quotation marks.
It should be noted that the writer is not claiming the ideas are her own because she has included an
in-text reference indicating the source of the ideas. She is, however, claiming the words of the original
source as her own words because she has not placed the phrases from the original in quotation marks
to indicate they are the words of the original source, or alternatively, rewritten the ideas from those
phrases in her own words.
Another plagiarised example:
Gibson (2005) argues that the earlier introduction of a child into child care facilities improves
the rate of the child’s social development. This is due to the greater social and intellectual
stimulation that is available to the child in this context which encourages early childhood
progression.
This text also changes some of the words but uses some phrases from the original. Making minor
changes to a phrase (e.g. changing ‘centre’ to ‘facilities ‘ and ‘more socially and intellectually
stimulating’ to ‘greater social and intellectual stimulation’), while keeping the majority of it the
same as the original, is not paraphrasing but plagiarism.
Paraphrased and adequately referenced:
Gibson’s research (2005) indicates a recognisable increase in the capacity of children who
commence child care at an earlier age to interact socially. He argues that these findings are a
consequence of the richer, more varied relational and intellectual experiences that children
encounter in the child care context.
This text is the best attempted paraphrase because it restates completely the key ideas from the
original passage in the student’s own words. It also has an in-text reference.
Adapted from University of Western Australia, 2012

UNIT 4: LESSON 7
PARAGRAPH DEVELOPMENT
Objectives
The main objective of this lesson is to help you to prepare for your in-class referenced paragraph
writing assessment.
On the next page, integrate 2-3 of the given quotations into a well-developed, cohesive paragraph as
a practice for your in-class assessment. Make sure that you:
1. Start your paragraph with an appropriate topic sentence;

2. Introduce your supporting ideas;
3. Support your ideas with the content given in the quotation;
4. If necessary, explain the connection between the supporting idea and the example;
5. Select and paraphrase appropriate source material;
6. Select at least one suitable direct quotation from the sources and integrate it grammatically,
7. Use only some of the quotations given;
8. Provide in-text references;
9. Insert appropriate transition words or phrases; and
10. Check your writing for errors.
“...since the Industrial Revolution began (1850) the temperature of the Earth has increased about 1.5 degrees
Fahrenheit ... Since the 1980s, every decade has been warmer than the previous one, which represents the warmest
period since modern industrialisation (1850) and likely the warmest in the last 1,400 years.” (Hite & Seitz, 2016,
p.172).
“ ... if present trends continue – the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere is expected to be double the preindustrial level
before 2100 ...” (Hite & Seitz, 2016, p.172).
“ Average temperatures of the Arctic winters have risen about 10 degrees Fahrenheit over the past 30 years ....
annual Arctic sea ice has shrunk by about 4 percent per decade ...” (Hite & Seitz, 2016, p.174).
“ Around 25 percent of the world's CO2 emissions are being absorbed into the seas and oceans where it converts
into carbonic acid. This is lowering the pH of the oceans and affecting its chemistry. For example, the concentration
of the carbonate ions is decreasing and it is linked to the ability of many marine organisms to build reefs and shells”
(Hite & Seitz, 2016, p.176).
“ Some unique and threatened systems, including ecosystems and cultures, are already at risk from climate change.
... The number of such systems at risk of severe consequences is higher with additional warming of around 1 ºC.
Many species and systems with limited adaptive capacity are subject to very high risks with additional warming of
2 ºC, particularly Arctic-sea-ice and coral-reef systems” (Hite & Seitz, 2016, p.177).
“... the ice pack had shrunk to 4.1 million square kilometres. That is 70,000 km2 smaller than the 2007 low ...”(UWA
CELT, 2016, p.131).
“These storms carry heat from the lower latitudes, and stir up the highly stratified Arctic Ocean waters, bringing
warm bottom waters up to the surface, where they cause further melting of the floating ice...” (UWA CELT, 2016,
p.131).

Write your practice body paragraph

UNIT 4: LESSON 8
READING DIFFICULT TEXTS
Objectives
The aim of this lesson is to help you to develop a range of strategies for reading and using difficult
texts. In this lesson, you will work in a group to read, analyse and present a verbal summary of a
section of a magazine article.
Interacting With the Text

When you read articles for particular purposes, such as research, you need to interact with the text.
Two important ways of interacting with the text are highlighting and making notes in the margin.
The Ultimate Meltdown

Arctic sea ice has hit a record low.
Catherine Brahic reports on a
transformation not seen in 3 million
years.
It is smaller, patchier and thinner than

ever – and rotten in parts. The extent of
the Arctic ice cap has hit a record low,
and the consequences of what is
arguably the greatest environmental
change in human history will extend far
beyond the North Pole.
For at least 3 million years, and most like 13 million, says Louis Fortier of the University of Laval in
Quebec City, Canada, the Arctic Ocean has been covered by a thick, floating Ice cap, the breadth of
which fluctuates with the seasons and currents. Each summer, the cap shrinks to an annual minimum
in mid-September before growing out again, fuelled by plummeting winter temperatures and long
nights.
Climate change has had more of an impact here than anywhere else on the earth. Air temperatures
are rising twice as fast as the global average, and models predict that the region could see temperatures
rise by between 6°C and 14°C by 2100, depending on how fast the sea ice disappears. Nobody believes
the
world’s northern ice cap could survive such scorching summers.

Constant, real-time monitoring made it evident last week that this would be a landmark year, even
worse than 2007, when the summer
thaw opened the North-West
Passage for the first time in living
memory. On 27 August [2012], the
daily update from the US National
Snow and Ice Data Center (NSIDC)
reported that the ice pack had
shrunk to 4.1 million square
kilometres. That is 70,000 km²
smaller than the 2007 low, and there
are several weeks to go before the
ice starts growing back as winter
approaches.
Less ice in the Arctic means more light enters the ocean beneath, fuelling more life, but it also means
warmer temperatures and more energy released into the atmosphere. That energy drives cyclones,
which generate mammoth waves capable of ripping into the ice pack, degrading it further. The
consequences are not good for this highly specialised environment, and the knock on effects for the
rest of us could be severe.
Even the NSIDC’s figures for ice coverage, from satellite data, could be overestimations, as satellite
images cannot distinguish between pack ice and slushy, “rotten” ice (Geophysical Research Letters, doi.
org/dht5wr).
Measurements of ice thickness are also worrying. From 1979 to 2000, the average volume of Arctic
ice in September was 12,000 cubic kilometres. This year, it is less than 5000 cubic kilometres. “In
plain words,” says Fortier, “we are three quarters of the way to a summertime ice-free Arctic Ocean,
with all the climatic, geopolitical, environmental and economic consequences.”
Several factors are to blame. Warm spring temperatures didn’t help, then on 5 August [2012] a major
cyclone crossed into the Arctic Circle. Such events used to be rare, but are now more frequent, stronger
and last longer than before, says Ziandong Zhang at the University of Alaska Fairbanks (Journal of
Climate, doi.org/d2d6n6).
These storms carry heat from the lower latitudes, and stir up the highly stratified Arctic Ocean waters,
bringing warm bottom waters up to the surface, where they cause further melting of the floating ice.
More dramatic is the storms’ direct physical influence. With the Arctic water no longer protected by
thick multiyear ice, near-hurricane force winds shove it around, forming powerful waves capable of
shredding any ice floes they encounter.

Dave Barber and Matthew Asplin at the University of Manitoba in Winnipeg, Canada, witnessed this
in September 2009 aboard an ice-breaker called Amundsen. They were near an ice floe 10 kilometres
across and up to 10 metres thick in places. “We were about to put a team down on the ice when all of
a sudden I saw a wave enter the ice pack,” Barber recalls, “The entire floe rose up on top of the wave
trains, and as it came down on the other side, it split. As I watched, it broke into small pieces 100 metres
across.”
Smaller pieces melt faster, so the researchers believe cyclones are an important positive feedback
mechanism, further reducing the pack ice (Journal of Geophysical Research – Oceans, doi.org/h7m)
Zhang points out that cyclones also carry clouds, which boost downward radiation. He says the August
cyclone probably contributed to this year’s low. Bill Chapman at the University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign agrees. “Sea-ice area decreased rapidly during the period of the storm,” he says, “but it was
decreasing rapidly already during the height of this melt season.”
The upheaval will not be confined to the Arctic Circle. The atmospheric temperature gradient between
the hot tropics and the cold poles powers much of our planet’s weather and water cycles. It drives the
jet stream, for instance, which pushes global weather systems, it fuels the winds that power ocean
currents, and it distributes moisture around the planet.
What’s more, the accelerating

melt of Arctic ice is injecting a
layer of freshwater into the
surface of the North Atlantic and
Baffin Bay, off the coast of
Greenland, says Fortier. This may
be slowing the circulation in the
Atlantic, which pushes water all
through the world’s oceans.
The long-term trends are
damning. The latest climate
models predict that by around
2050 the Arctic will be completely ice-free during the summers (Geophysical Research Letters,
doi.org/h7q). When that happens, the Arctic routine, stable for millions of years, will be flipped on its
head. “The changes under way in the Arctic,” concludes Barber, “are the most significant, in scale and
rate, that we have seen in the history of human civilisation.”
Brahic, 2012

Questions for Discussion
1. What is the main rhetorical pattern of the text?

Description
2. What is meant by ‘and rotten in parts’
Part of ice is destroyed / devastated.
3. Why was 2012 likely to have been a ‘landmark year’? What happened in 2007?
the summer thaw opened the North-West Passage for the first time in living memory.
4. Are there any positive aspects of melting Arctic ice mentioned in the text? If so, what are they?
What are the negatives?
5. What are some of the reasons given for 2012’s low volume of Arctic ice?
6. What is meant by ‘highly stratified Arctic Ocean waters’?
7. What causes powerful waves to occur?
8. What is meant by ‘cyclones are an important positive feedback mechanism’?
9. What do you think the author means by the phrase ‘flipped on its head’?

UNIT 4: LESSON 9
ADDITIONAL READING MATERIAL
Objectives
The main objective of this lesson is to read and discuss ideas raised and supported in the following
texts.
Humans blamed for climate change

By Richard Black, Environment correspondent, BBC News website, Paris (last updated Feb.,
2007)
Global climate change is "very likely" to have a human cause, an

influential group of scientists has concluded.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) said temperatures were probably
going to increase by 1.8-4C (3.2-7.2F) by the end of the century. It also projected that sea
levels were most likely to rise by 28-43cm, and global warming was likely to influence the
intensity of tropical storms. The findings are the first of four IPCC reports to be published this
year. "We can be very confident that the net effect of human activity since 1750 has been one
of warming," co-lead author Dr Susan Soloman told delegates in Paris.
Strong language
The report, produced by a team tasked with assessing the science of climate change, was
intended to be the definitive summary of climatic shifts facing the world in the coming years.
IPCC PROJECTIONS
• Probable temperature rise between 1.8C and 4C
• Possible temperature rise between 1.1C and 6.4C
• Sea level most likely to rise by 28-43cm
• Arctic summer sea ice disappears in second half of century
• Increase in heatwaves very likely
• Increase in tropical storm intensity likely
The agency said that it would use stronger language to assess humanity's influence on climatic
change than it had previously done. In 2001, it said that it was "likely" that human activities
lay behind the trends observed at various parts of the planet; "likely" in IPCC terminology
means between 66% and 90% probability.
Now, the panel concluded that it was at least 90% certain that human emissions of greenhouse
gases rather than natural variations are warming the planet's surface. They projected that
temperatures would probably rise by between 1.8C and 4C, though increases as small as 1.1C
(2F) or as large as 6.4C (11.5F) were possible. In 2001, using different methodology, the
numbers were 1.4 (2.5F) and 5.8C (10.4F).

On sea level, there has been a more fundamental debate. Computer models of climate generally
include water coming into the oceans as ice caps and glaciers melt. But the potentially much
larger contribution of "accelerated melting", where the disintegration of ice shelves and
lubrication of glaciers by meltwater speeds up the flow of ice into the oceans, is much harder to
model. So the IPCC had to decide whether to exclude this from its calculations, or to estimate
the effect of a process which scientists do not understand well but which could have a big
impact. They used the former, more conservative approach, projecting an average rise in sea
levels globally of between 28 and 43cm. The 2001 report cited a range of nine to 88cm.
As for climate change influencing the intensity of tropical storms in some areas of the world,
the IPCC concluded that it was likely - meaning a greater probability than 66% - that rising
temperatures were a factor.
'Unequivocal'
Dr Rajendra Pachauri, the IPCC chairman, said: "It is extremely encouraging in that the science
has moved on from what was possible in the Third Assessment Report. "If you see the extent
to which human activities are influencing the climate system, the options for mitigating
greenhouse gas emissions appear in a different light, because you can see what the costs of
inaction are," he told delegates in Paris. Achim Steiner, executive director of the United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP), said the findings marked a historical landmark in the debate
about whether humans were affecting the state of the atmosphere. "It is an unequivocal series
of evidence [showing that] fossil fuel burning and land use change are affecting the climate on
our planet." He added: "If you are an African child born in 2007, by the time you are 50 years
old you may be faced with disease and new levels of drought." He said that he hoped the IPCC
report would galvanise national governments into action.
At variance
But a study published on the eve of the IPCC report suggested that the international body's
previous reports may have actually been too conservative.
Writing in the journal Science, an international group of scientists concluded that temperatures
and sea levels had been rising at or above the maximum rates proposed in the last report, which
was published in 2001. The paper compared the 2001 projections on temperature and sea level
change report with what has actually happened. The models had forecasted a temperature rise
between about 0.15C-0.35C (0.27-0.63F) over this period. The actual rise of 0.33C (0.59F) was
very close to the top of the IPCC's range.
A more dramatic picture emerged from the sea level comparison. The actual average level,
measured by tide gauges and satellites, had risen faster than the intergovernmental panel of
scientists predicted it would.
The IPCC's full climate science report will be released later in the year, as will other chapters
looking at the probable impacts of climate change, options for adapting to those impacts, and
possible routes to reducing emissions of greenhouse gases.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/go/pr/fr/-/2/hi/science/nature/6321351.stm

Australian Academy of Science
Are human activities causing climate change?
Human activities have increased greenhouse
gas concentrations in the atmosphere
Atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane
and nitrous oxide began to rise around two hundred years ago,
after changing little since the end of the last ice age thousands of
years earlier. The concentration of CO2 has increased from 280
parts per million (ppm) before 1800, to 396 ppm in 2013. This
history of greenhouse gas concentrations has been established
by a combination of modern measurements and analysis of
ancient air bubbles in polar ice.
Particularly important is CO2. Enormous amounts of it are

continually exchanged between the atmosphere, land and oceans, as land and marine plants grow, die
and decay, and as carbon-rich waters circulate in the ocean. For several thousand years until around
200 years ago, this ‘carbon cycle’ was approximately in balance and steady. Since the 19th century,
human-induced CO2 emissions from fossil fuel combustion, cement manufacture and deforestation
have disturbed the balance, adding CO2 to the atmosphere faster than it can be taken up by the land
biosphere and the oceans (Figures 3.1 and 3.2). On average over the last 50 years, about 25% of total
CO2 emissions were absorbed by the ocean making sea water more acidic and 30% was taken up on
land, largely by increased plant growth stimulated by rising atmospheric CO2, increased nutrient
availability, and responses to warming and rainfall changes (though the mix of these mechanisms
remains unclear). The other 45% of emissions accumulated in the atmosphere. These changes to the
carbon cycle are known from measurements in the atmosphere, on land and in the ocean, and from
modelling studies.

Figure 3.1: The natural carbon cycle, in which CO2 circulates between the atmosphere, land and oceans,
has been changed by emissions of CO2 from human activities. In this diagram of the global carbon cycle,
numbers on arrows represent carbon flows averaged over 2004–2013, in gigatonnes (billion tonnes) of carbon per
year. Source: Global Carbon Project, with updated numbers.
Figure 3.2: An ‘atmospheric CO2 budget’ reveals the amount of carbon in the net amounts of CO2 entering,
leaving and accumulating in the atmosphere. The upper panel shows the inflows of CO2 to the atmosphere from
fossil fuel emissions (red) and net land use change (orange), together with the net annual CO2 accumulation in the
atmosphere (pale blue). The lower panel shows the outflows of CO2 from the atmosphere to the ocean (dark blue)
and to plants on land (green). The accumulation in the atmosphere is the difference between the sum of the two
emissions and the sum of the two sinks Source: Working Group for this document, with data from the Global Carbon
Project. (www.globalcarbonproject.org/)

The dominant cause of the increasing concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere is the burning of fossil
fuels. Over the last two centuries, the growth of fossil fuel combustion has been closely coupled to
global growth in energy use and economic activity. Fossil fuel emissions grew by 3.2% per year from
2000 to 2010 (Figure 3.3), a rapid growth that is dominated by growth in Asian emissions and has
exceeded all but the highest recent long-range scenarios for future emissions.
Figure 3.3: CO2 emissions from burning fossil fuels have continued to increase over recent years. The black
dots show observed CO2 emissions from fossil fuels and other industrial processes (mainly cement manufacture);
the coloured lines represent four future pathways as envisaged in 2006 for low to high emissions. Observed
emissions are tracking the highest-emission pathway. Source: Working Group for this document, with data from
the Global Carbon Project.
Although fossil-fuel emissions of CO2 have grown fairly steadily, the upward march of the
CO2 concentration in the atmosphere varies from year to year. This is caused mainly by the effects of
weather variability on vegetation, and also by sporadic volcanic activity: major volcanic eruptions
have a significant indirect influence on atmospheric CO2 concentrations, causing temporary
drawdown of CO2 through the promotion of plant growth by the light-scattering and cooling effects
of volcanic haze. By contrast, the direct contribution of volcanic emissions to atmospheric CO2 is
negligible, amounting to around 1% of current human induced emissions.
Wollongong, NSW at night. by Jim Vrckovski
Most of the observed recent global warming results from

human activities
Climatic warming or cooling arises from changes in the flows of energy through the climate system
that can originate from a number of possible driving factors. The main drivers that have acted over
the last century are:

• increases in atmospheric CO2 and other long-lived greenhouse gases (methane, nitrous oxide and
halocarbons)
• increases in short-lived greenhouse gases (mainly ozone)
• changes to land cover (replacement of darker forests with paler croplands and grasslands)
• increases in aerosols (tiny particles in the atmosphere)
• solar fluctuations (changes in the brightness of the sun)
• volcanic eruptions.
Of these, solar fluctuations and volcanic eruptions are entirely natural, while the other four are
predominantly caused by human influences. The human-induced drivers have been dominant over
the past century (Figure 3.4). Changes in greenhouse gas concentrations, dominated by CO2, caused a
large warming contribution. Some of this has been offset by the net cooling effects of increased aerosol
concentrations and their impact on clouds. Black carbon or soot has probably exerted a smaller,
warming influence. The net effect of all aerosol types including soot remains hard to quantify
accurately. Among the natural influences, the effect of changes in the brightness of the Sun has been
very small (Box 3.1). Volcanic influences are highly intermittent, with major eruptions (such as
Pinatubo in 1991) causing significant cooling for a year or two, but their average effects over the past
century have been relatively small.
Figure 3.4: Human-induced drivers of climate change have been much larger than natural drivers over the
last century. The strength of these drivers, which are changing the long-term energy balance of the planet, is
measured in Watts per square metre (see also Figure 1.1). Orange and green bars respectively indicate human and
natural drivers; error bars indicate 5-95% uncertainties. The solar effect (shown in green) is very small. Volcanic
effects are highly variable in time (see text) and are not shown here. Source: Working Group for this document,
with data from IPCC (2013), Fifth Assessment Report, Working Group 1, Chapter 8 Supplementary Material.
Box 3.1: Do changes in the Sun contribute to global warming?
In comparison with other influences, the effects of solar variations on present global warming are
small. Indirect estimates suggest that changes in the brightness of the Sun have contributed only a
few percent of the global warming since 1750. Direct measurements show a decreasing solar intensity
over recent decades, opposite to what would be required to explain the observed warming. Solar
activity has declined significantly over the last few years, and some estimates suggest that weak
activity will continue for another few decades, in contrast with strong activity through the 20th
century. Nevertheless, the possible effects on warming are modest compared with anthropogenic
influences.

Using climate models, it is possible to separate the effects of the natural and human-induced
influences on climate. Models can successfully reproduce the observed warming over the last 150
years when both natural and human influences are included, but not when natural influences act
alone (Figure 3.5). This is both an important test of the climate models against observations and also
a demonstration that recent observed global warming results largely from human rather than natural
influences on climate.
Figure 3.5: Climate models can correctly replicate recent warming only if they include human
influences. Comparison of observed changes (black lines) in global temperatures (°C) over land (left) and land
plus ocean (right) with model projections including both natural plus human influences (red lines) and natural
influences only (blue lines). Shadings around model results indicate 5-95% confidence bands. Adapted from IPCC
(2013), Fifth Assessment Report, Working Group 1, Figure 10.21.
It is also possible to distinguish the effects of different human and natural influences on climate by
studying particular characteristics of their effects. For example, it was predicted more than a century
ago that increases in CO2 would trap more heat near the surface and also make the stratosphere
colder. In recent years, satellite and other measurements have provided strong evidence that the
upper atmosphere has cooled and the lower atmosphere has warmed significantly—the predicted
consequence of extra greenhouse gases. This supports the inference that the observed nearsurface
warming is due primarily to an enhanced greenhouse effect rather than, say, an increase in the
brightness of the Sun.
Some recent changes in Australia’s

climate are linked to rising greenhouse
gases
Modelling studies indicate that rising greenhouse gases have
made a clear contribution to the recent observed warming
across Australia. Depletion of the ozone layer in the upper
atmosphere over Antarctica and rising greenhouse gas
concentrations are also likely to have contributed significantly
to climate trends that have been observed in the Australian
region over the past two decades. These include stronger
westerly winds over the Southern Ocean, strengthening of the
high-pressure ridge over southern Australia, and a related
southward shift of weather systems. These trends are consistent with climate model projections, and
are likely to be largely human-induced through a combination of increases in greenhouse gases and
thinning of the ozone layer.
Past decadal trends in Australian rainfall cannot yet be clearly separated from natural climate
variations, except in southwest Western Australia where a significant observed decline in rainfall has
been attributed to human influences on the climate system.
There has very likely been net uptake of CO2 by Australian vegetation, consistent with global uptake
of CO2 by vegetation on land (Figure 3.2). This has been accompanied by increases in the greenness
of Australian vegetation, which is also consistent with global trends.
https://www.science.org.au/learning/general-audience/science-climate-change/3-are-human-activities-
causing-climate-change
© 2019 Australian Academy of Science

UNIT 4: GLOBAL WARMING UNIT REVIEW
Reflection Questions
Do you feel confident about identifying and using the genre of explanation?
Do you understand and feel confident about paragraph development?
Are your paragraphing skills developing?
Do you understand how to avoid plagiarism?
How confident do you feel about reading difficult texts?
Are you able to classify information that you read?

CB1 Unit 4

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CB1 Unit 4

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Unit 4: Global Warming

UNIT OVERVIEW AND INTRODUCTION

Key Learning Objectives

Understand and use the genre of explanation

Participate in group discussions

Generate and organise ideas for academic writing tasks

Understand the structure of a cause-effect essay

Develop strategies for understanding difficult written and oral texts

Identify multigeneric organisational patterns (text organization and macro-stucture)

Listen and evaluate the relevance of information

Listen to identify the structure of a lecture using authentic materials

Participate in a group discussion on global warming

88 UWA Centre for English Language Teaching

Developing Focus Questions

What are the causes of global warming?

What are some possible solutions to the problem of global warming?

What are the advantages and disadvantages of the different solutions?

Identifying Language of Genres

Academic English and Study Skills Bridging Course Book 1 89

What are the causes of global warming?

Global Warming Cause

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Global Warming Effect Implication

What are some possible solutions to the problem of global warming?

What are the advantages and disadvantages of the different solutions?

Academic English and Study Skills Bridging Course Book 1 91

Explaining Events or Phenomena

Human activity, particularly industry, involves the burning of large

If predictions about global warming are accurate, there could be

An explanation of how the accident happened

An evaluation or interpretation of the accident

92 UWA Centre for English Language Teaching

Figure 2.1 The Greenhouse Effect, n.d.

Academic English and Study Skills Bridging Course Book 1 93

94 UWA Centre for English Language Teaching

Your Essay Plan will be assessed.

Cause-Effect Essay Structure

Academic English and Study Skills Bridging Course Book 1 95

96 UWA Centre for English Language Teaching

THE ENERGY CRISIS

Academic English and Study Skills Bridging Course Book 1 97

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Thesis Statement and Scope

Academic English and Study Skills Bridging Course Book 1 99

100 UWA Centre for English Language Teaching

Background (general to specific):

Thesis Statement and Scope:

II. Body of the Essay

Part 1: Causes Paragraph 1

1. Topic (main idea of paragraph 1)

i. example/evidence/explanation (source, page number)

ii. example/evidence/explanation (source, page number)

ii. example/evidence/explanation (source, p #)

ii. example/evidence/explanation (source, p #)

2. Topic (main idea of paragraph 2)

ii. example/evidence/explanation (source, p #)

Academic English and Study Skills Bridging Course Book 1 101

ii. example/evidence/explanation (source, p #)

ii. example/evidence/explanation (source, p #) Transition from Causes to Effects

Part 2: Effects Paragraph 3

3. Topic (main idea of paragraph 3)

ii. example/evidence/explanation (source, p #)

ii. example/evidence/explanation (source, p #)