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Cambridge Science Year 7 LB Lyp Removed Compressed
Cambridge Science Year 7 LB Lyp Removed Compressed
E
Science
PL LEARNER’S BOOK 7
Mary Jones, Diane Fellowes-Freeman & Michael Smyth
M
SA
Original material © Cambridge University Press 2021. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
ISBN_9781108742788.
We are working with Cambridge Assessment International Education towards endorsement of this title.
E
Science
PL LEARNER’S BOOK 7
Mary Jones, Diane Fellowes-Freeman & Michael Smyth
M
SA
Original material © Cambridge University Press 2021. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
ISBN_9781108742788.
We are working with Cambridge Assessment International Education towards endorsement of this title.
1 Cells
1.1 Plant cells
In this topic you will:
E
• begin to learn about cells
• find out about the parts of a plant cell, and what they do
• make a model of a plant cell
•
called cells.
PL
use a microscope to look at plant cells.
Getting started
Plants and animals are living organisms. They are made of units
cell
cell membrane
cell wall
cellulose
M
• How can we see cells? chlorophyll
chloroplast
• Can you describe what a cell looks like?
cytoplasm
Be ready to share your ideas with the class. magnify
mitochondria
SA
nucleus
sap vacuole
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ISBN_9781108742788.
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1.1 Plant cells
Cells
If you study a plant by observing part of it
through a microscope, you will see that it
is made up of a very large number of tiny
‘boxes’. These are called cells. All living
organisms are made of cells.
Cells are so small that you cannot see them
with your eyes alone. The photograph of the
plant cells was taken through a microscope.
E
one cell
The microscope magnifies the view of the
cells, so that they look much bigger than they
really are. Part of a leaf seen through a microscope
cell wall
PL
Parts of a plant cell
The diagram shows a plant cell from a leaf.
cell membrane
sap vacuole
This is a large, fluid-filled space inside
a plant cell. The liquid inside it is a
solution of sugars and other substances
dissolved in water. The solution is
called cell sap.
M
All cells have a cell membrane. The cell
membrane is very thin and flexible. It is like chloroplast
the thin skin of a soap bubble. It lies along the Plant cells that are in the sunlight often
inner edge of the cell wall. The cell membrane contain chloroplasts. This is where
controls what goes in and out of the cell. plants make their food. Chloroplasts
look green because they contain a
green substance called chlorophyll.
cytoplasm
SA
Questions
1 Look at the photograph of the plant cells on this page.
What do you think the little green circles inside the cells are?
Why are they green? What happens inside them?
2 Describe four differences between a cell wall and a cell membrane.
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1.1 Plant cells
Microscopes eyepiece
coarse focussing knob
Scientists who study living organisms
fine focussing knob
often use microscopes to help them
to see very small things.
high-power objective lens
The diagram shows a microscope. medium-power objective lens
Look at a real microscope and find low power-objective lens
all of these parts on it. microscope stage
mirror
E
A microscope
PL
Think like a scientist
Looking at plant cells through a microscope
This task gives you practice in using scientific equipment and doing practical work safely.
can.
5 Collect a very thin piece of glass called a cover
slip. (Take care – cover slips break very easily!)
Gently lower the cover slip over your piece of
onion on the slide. Try not to get air bubbles
under the cover slip.
6 Turn the objective lenses on the microscope
until the smallest one is over the hole in
the stage.
7 Put the slide onto the stage of the microscope,
with the piece of onion over the hole.
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1.2 Animal cells
E
There are five parts of a plant cell with names beginning with the stain
letter c.
Make a list of these five parts. Think about how you can
PL
remember what each of the words means.
Be ready to share your ideas.
M
SA
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1 Cells
E
cells in several ways. They have
a cell membrane, cytoplasm and
a nucleus.
An animal cell
PL
Think like a scientist
Looking at animal cells through a microscope
This task gives you more practice in using scientific equipment safely.
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1.3 Specialised cells
E
Getting started Key words
specialised
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1 Cells
E
Red blood cells are smaller than most other cells in the body. cell membrane
This allows them to get through tiny blood capillaries, so they
can deliver oxygen to every part of the body. cytoplasm
PL
This carries oxygen around the body.
The cell has no nucleus. This leaves more space for haemoglobin.
Neurones carry electrical signals from one part of the
body to another. They help all the different parts of
the body to communicate with each other. For example,
they can carry signals from the brain to muscles, to
make the muscles move.
The axon is a very long strand of cytoplasm.
nucleus
Red blood cells
cytoplasm
cell membrane
M
Electrical signals can travel along this very quickly. dendrite axon
Dendrites are short strands of cytoplasm that collect Neurones
electrical signals from other nearby nerve cells.
Ciliated cells have tiny threads along one edge, cilia
like microscopic hairs. These are called cilia. The cilia can move.
cell membrane
SA
One place in the body that contains ciliated cells is the lining of the
tubes leading from your mouth to your lungs. nucleus
Other cells in this lining make a sticky substance called mucus.
When you breathe in, the mucus traps dust and bacteria in cytoplasm
the air, to stop them going into your lungs. The cilia sweep
the mucus up to the back of your mouth and you swallow it. Ciliated cella
Questions
1 List two things that red blood cells, neurones and ciliated cells
have in common.
2 How can you tell that all of these three cells are animal cells,
not plant cells?
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1.3 Specialised cells
Activity 1.3.1
Structure and function in animal cells
Work with a partner.
Here is the start of a table that you can use to summarise how each kind of specialised
animal cell is adapted to carry out its function.
Copy the start of the table onto a piece of paper. Then complete the entries for the red
blood cell.
You could include a small drawing of a red blood cell underneath its name in the first column.
E
Next, add entries for a neurone and a ciliated cell. Remember to give your table a title.
When you are ready, copy your completed table onto a large sheet of paper, ready to
be displayed.
Name of cell
PL
red blood cell
Function of cell
transports
oxygen
Specialised
structure
has haemoglobin
in its cytoplasm
How this helps the
cell to carry out
its function
haemoglobin
carries oxygen
M
Neurone
SA
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1 Cells
cell membrane
cytoplasm
large vacuole
with cell sap
E
Palisade cells are found in the leaves of plants. Their function is to
make food by photosynthesis.
They have a lot of chloroplasts containing chlorophyll.
PL
The chlorophyll absorbs energy from sunlight, which is used to help
the plant make food.
cell wall
cell membrane
mitochondrion
M
cytoplasm
chloroplast
SA
nucleus
A palisade cell
Questions
3 Suggest why root hair cells do not contain chloroplasts.
4 Water moves through several parts of the root hair cell, as it goes
from the soil into the sap vacuole. List these parts, in order.
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1 Cells
E
Getting started
Key words PL
Sketch and label each of these organs on the outline.
brain heart stomach intestine lungs
ciliated epithelium
lower epidermis
onion epidermis
organ system
organism
palisade layer
tissue
upper epidermis
M
organ spongy layer
SA
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1.4 Cells, tissues and organs
Tissues
Living things, including animals and plants, are called organisms. There
are many different kinds of cell in an animal or a plant. Most of them
are specialised to carry out a particular activity. Usually, many cells of
the same kind are grouped together.
A group of similar cells, which all work together to carry out a
particular function, is called a tissue.
The diagrams show a tissue from a plant, and a tissue from an animal.
E
This is a diagram of a tissue from inside an onion. It is called an onion
epidermis. This tissue covers the surface of the layers inside the onion.
Onion epithelium
PL
M
This is a diagram of ciliated epithelium – the tissue that lines the tubes
leading down to our lungs. The cilia all wave together, like grass in the wind.
cilia
SA
nucleus
Ciliated epithelium
Questions
1 What is the function of the ciliated epithelium tissue?
(Think about the function of a ciliated cell.)
2 The word ‘tissue’ has an everyday meaning and a different scientific
meaning. Write two sentences, one using the word ‘tissue’ with
its everyday meaning, and one using the word ‘tissue’ with its
scientific meaning.
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1 Cells
E
several different kinds of tissue, spongy layer
working together. For example,
your brain contains neurones,
lower epidermis
and also several other kinds of
cell. A plant root contains root
kinds of cell.
PL
hair cells, and also several other
work together to carry out the same function is called an organ system.
Activity 1.4.1
Organs and systems in humans
M
Your task is to find out the names and functions of the different organs that are part of
one system in the human body.
Choose from: digestive system, circulatory system, respiratory system or skeletal system.
When you have found this information, decide how to display it. Perhaps you could
make a presentation, or a large drawing with labels and descriptions.
SA
Question
3 Copy and complete each sentence, using words from the list.
organism tissue organ organ system
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1 Cells
E
a Moves mucus up through the airways. [1]
b Absorbs water from the soil. [1]
c Makes food by photosynthesis. [1]
PL
1.2 The diagram shows an animal cell.
C
M
D
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1 Cells
For each letter, A–E, write the name of the cell part and its function.
Choose from these lists: [5]
Names:
Functions:
holds the cell in shape
E
controls what goes in and out of the cell
where photosynthesis takes place
where energy is released from nutrients
PL
controls the activities of the cell
1.4 The diagram shows a specialised cell from the human body.
M
a What is the name of this cell? [1]
b What is the function of this cell? [1]
c Describe how the cell is adapted to carry out its function. [1]
SA
d Name the system in the human body that this cell is part of. [1]
1.5 These sentences are about the way that cells are grouped together in
complex organisms.
Copy and complete each sentence. Choose from the list.
cell tissue organ organ system
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2 Materials and
their structure
2.1 Solids, liquids and gases
E
In this topic you will:
•
•
•
•
PL
sort the states of matter into solids, liquids and gases
learn about the properties of solids, liquids and gases
use particle theory to describe the structure of solids, liquids
and gases
use particle theory to learn about the properties of solids,
liquids and gases.
Getting started
Most of this image is obscured by
the feature boxes, Please swap
it for something else.
Tech-Set:- Please advise
Key words
M
1 Name two solids, two liquids and two gases. compressed
2 Copy and complete the table. Use the substances you listed flow
in Question 1. Discuss your reasons for each decision with hypothesis
your group. matter
SA
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2.1 Solids, liquids and gases
An updated version of
Solids
Solids keep the same shape. Solids take up the same amount
E
of space. Solids keep the same volume. Solids cannot be
compressed (squashed) or poured.
Liquids
PL
Liquids take the shape of the container they are in.
Liquids can be poured. Liquids cannot be compressed.
Liquids take up the same amount of space, whatever shape
their container.
The volume of a liquid does not change.
Gases
An updated version of
this was received
in July (He should
be wearing safety
glasses and a lab
coat.)
Tech-Set:- Please
advise as this is
version we have
received
M
Gases flow like liquids. They will fill any closed container 100cm
change. Gases weigh very little. Generally, you cannot see 100cm
or feel gases, but you can sometimes smell them, and you can
50cm
0cm
0cm
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ISBN_9781108742788.
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2 Materials and their structure
Questions
1 What are the three states of matter?
2 Which state of matter can be compressed (squashed) easily?
3 Which state of matter cannot be poured?
4 List the properties of solids.
5 Name a property of liquids that they do not share with solids.
6 Name a property of gases that they share with liquids.
E
7 Name a property of gases that they do not share with solids
or liquids.
•
•
•
PL
Scientists try to explain what they see. Here are some examples of how
matter behaves that scientists have tried to explain.
• You can smell food cooking in another room.
Some substances get bigger when you heat them.
Liquids, such as water, change to a gas when you heat them.
Substances change from liquid to solid if you cool them.
M
Scientists think about why these things happen and try to come up
with ideas to explain it. They form an hypothesis, which is a suggestion
for an explanation. This hypothesis can then be tested by carrying out
more investigations.
When an hypothesis has been tested and widely accepted as valid by
other scientists, it is called a theory.
SA
The best theory to explain how matter behaves uses the idea of
particles. Particles are tiny portions of matter. This theory says
that all matter is made up of tiny particles arranged in
different ways.
Particle theory
All matter is made up of tiny particles that are much too small to see.
The particles are arranged differently in solids, liquids and gases.
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ISBN_9781108742788.
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2.1 Solids, liquids and gases
Solids
In solids the particles are arranged in a fixed
pattern. The particles are held together strongly and
are tightly packed together. This is why solids have a
fixed shape.
The particles in a solid can vibrate (make small
movements) but they stay in the same place.
In solids the particles are packed together and
can vibrate. They stay in the same place.
E
Liquids
PL
In liquids the particles touch each other.
The particles are held together weakly. The particles
can move past one another but they still touch each
other. Liquids can change shape.
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2.1 Solids, liquids and gases
Solids
The particles in a solid are very close together.
E
This makes it difficult for the volume of a solid
to be made smaller. Solids have a fixed shape
because attractive forces hold the particles together.
These forces stop the particles from moving around.
The particles can only vibrate. This means that a
PL
solid cannot flow.
Liquids
The volume of a liquid cannot be changed. The
particles are very close together and cannot be
squashed. The particles touch each other but they
can move past each other. The attractive forces
Solids cannot flow.
M
between the particles are weak enough to allow
them to move but strong enough to hold them
together.
Liquids can flow.
Gases
SA
No particles?
A space where there are no particles at all is called Gases can flow and spread out.
a vacuum. A vacuum contains nothing.
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2.2 Changes of state
E
Getting started Key words
PL
structure of a solid, a liquid and a gas.
Be ready to show the class when you are asked to do so.
boiling point
change of
state
condensation
condense
evaporation
freeze
measuring
M
cylinder
melt
melting point
meniscus
steam
SA
thermometer
water vapour
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2 Materials and their structure
Changing state
If you leave ice in a warm place it melts and becomes liquid water.
The temperature at which a solid melts is called the melting point.
Water on the ground will gradually disappear as it changes to water
vapour, an invisible gas. This is called evaporation. The warmer the
water, the more quickly it evaporates.
If you heat water until its temperature reaches 100 °C, it will boil.
All of the water rapidly changes to steam. Steam is water heated to
E
the point that it turns into a gas. 100 °C is the boiling point of water.
If the water vapour or steam touches something cold, it condenses and
changes back to liquid water. This is called condensation.
If you put liquid water in the freezer, it freezes and becomes ice.
PL
These changes are known as changes of state.
steam
boiling
water
melting
ice
M
condensing freezing
Activity 2.2.1
SA
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ISBN_9781108742788.
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2.2 Changes of state
Measuring
Measuring volume
When you measure the volume of a liquid you use a measuring cylinder.
The liquid forms a curve at the top. This is called the meniscus.
You measure the volume from the bottom of the meniscus. To do this,
you must make sure that your eye is level with the meniscus.
E
meniscus
°C
PL
Measuring the volume of water in a measuring cylinder.
Measuring temperature
When you measure the temperature you use a thermometer. The liquid
M
inside the thermometer expands as it gets hotter, so it rises up inside the
thermometer. You read the temperature from the scale. Make sure that
your eye is level with the top of the liquid in the thermometer.
A thermometer
Questions
1 Look at the diagram. What is the volume of water in each
SA
measuring cylinder?
A B C
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2 Materials and their structure
E
PL
M
Think like a scientist
Measuring the temperature when you heat water
In this task you will take accurate measurements.
SA
Safety
Wear safety spectacles. Take care when handling hot water.
Work in groups of two or three. Before you start the activity, discuss in your group what
other safety measures you will take. Check these with your teacher.
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2.3 Explaining changes of state
E
• use a model to illustrate the particle theory.
2
•
•
PL
For each process, write down the changes of state. The first
one has been started for you.
• Melting: solid to
Condensing:
Freezing:
For each statement, decide if it applies to a solid, a liquid or
a gas. Some may apply to more than one state of matter.
attractive force
expand
heat energy
transferred
M
particles in can be can be
regular rows poured compressed
particles has a fixed can change
spread out volume its shape
cannot be has a
SA
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ISBN_9781108742788.
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2 Materials and their structure
Changes of state
Heating solids
When solids are heated they expand (get bigger).
The particles in solids are arranged in a fixed pattern.
The particles are held together strongly and are tightly packed.
The particles in the solid vibrate. When the solid is heated,
heat energy is transferred to the particles in the solid.
E
The more energy the particles have, the more they vibrate.
As the particles vibrate more, they take up more space.
The particles are still held in position by the attractive forces
between them.
Melting solids
PL
When solids are heated more strongly, they melt. They become
liquid. (Heating more strongly means that even more heat
energy is transferred to the particles.)
The particles in a solid vibrate more and more as heat energy is
transferred to them. The particles vibrate so much that the attractive
forces between them are not strong enough to hold them in a fixed
pattern. The particles can slide past one
When a solid is heated, the particles
vibrate more and take up more space.
M
another – they can now move, not just vibrate.
The forces are still strong enough for the particles to stay in
touch with one another. The more the liquid is heated, the more
energy is transferred to the particles and the more the particles
vibrate and move.
SA
The particles vibrate so much that some escape the strong forces and can move around
as a liquid.
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2.3 Explaining changes of state
Boiling liquids
When liquids are heated, they evaporate and boil.
The particles in liquids touch each other.
The particles are held together weakly.
The particles move more as heat energy is transferred
to them. Some particles have enough energy to break
the weak attractive forces holding them together.
These particles can move freely and escape as The particles move so quickly that some escape as
gas particles.
E
a gas.
PL
and spread out. There are no forces holding them.
When a gas gets cooler it condenses to form a liquid.
When gas particles reach a cold surface, some of
the heat energy from the particles transfers to the
surface. The particles move less and get closer
together. They form a liquid.
Freezing liquids
M
When a liquid freezes it becomes a solid. When the particles hit a cold surface, their movement
slows down.
The particles in a liquid can move and flow past
each other. As heat energy is transferred from the
particles to the surroundings, the particles move
more slowly and the liquid gets cooler.
SA
Questions
1 Explain why a solid expands when it is heated.
2 Use particle theory to explain why solids and liquids cannot be
compressed (squashed into a smaller volume).
3 Use particle theory to explain why liquids and gases can flow.
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2 Materials and their structure
E
Spend one minute thinking about where rain comes from. atmosphere
Then spend two minutes discussing your ideas with a partner. groundwater
Now write down your ideas and show them to your teacher. open water
PL precipitation
surface run-off
transpiration
water cycle
water vapour
M
SA
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2.4 The water cycle
E
precipitation
PL condensation
evapotranspiration
M
evaporation
SA
oceans
streamflow
water
groundwater flow
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2 Materials and their structure
E
to a gas. Water can also evaporate into the atmosphere from
plants; this is called transpiration.
PL
As the water vapour goes up into the atmosphere, it cools
and changes back into little droplets of water in the air,
forming clouds. This process is called condensation. It
happens because the particles in the water vapour lose
energy and cannot move so quickly. Air currents high in the
atmosphere move the clouds around the world.
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2.4 The water cycle
E
evaporate from the leaves back to the
atmosphere or trickle down to the ground.
The plant roots in the ground may then
take up some of this water.
PL
Water in the ground
Some of the water from precipitation will soak into the soil and rocks
as groundwater. Some of this water will stay in the shallow soil layer and
will move towards streams and rivers. When groundwater soaks deeper
into the soil, it refills underground stores.
In cold climates the precipitation may build up on land as snow, ice or
glaciers. If the temperatures rise, this solid snow and ice will melt into
M
liquid water, which soaks into the ground or flows into rivers or the
ocean.
Some of the precipitation will soak into the soil and move through
the ground until it reaches the rivers or the open water, large lakes
and the oceans.
Water that reaches the surface of the land may flow directly across the
SA
ground into the rivers, lakes and oceans. This water is called surface
run-off. When there is a lot of surface run-off, soil can be carried off
the land and into the rivers. This can cause them to become silted up
and blocked.
Activity 2.4.1
Water cycle poster
Make a poster to show the water cycle. Remember to use the
scientific terms. You should make your poster as clear and
colourful as you can.
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2.5 Atoms, elements and the Periodic Table
E
• learn about the Periodic Table
• use symbols to represent the names of elements.
2
PL
Getting started
atom
element
group
metals
nanotube
non-metal
M
period
symbol
The Periodic
Table
SA
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2 Materials and their structure
E
We now know that atoms really do exist. Today we can even
see some of the large kinds of atom, using special microscopes
called scanning tunnelling microscopes. The photograph shows
the atoms in some carbon nanotubes. Nanotubes
(Nano means ‘very, very small’.)
PL
Different types of atom
There are many different types of atom. Scientists have discovered
94 different types of atom that occur naturally in the universe.
Another 24 kinds of atom have been made in laboratories.
Some substances are made up of just a single kind of atom.
A substance made of just one kind of atom is called an element.
M
For example, carbon is made only of carbon atoms. Gold is made
only of gold atoms. Silver is made only of silver atoms.
Carbon, gold and silver are examples of elements.
Each type of atom has different properties. This is why different
elements have different properties.
SA
If you could see some of the atoms in the silver ring, they
These rings are made from pure silver. would look something like this.
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2.5 Atoms, elements and the Periodic Table
Questions
1 What are atoms?
2 If there are 94 different kinds of naturally occurring atom,
how many different naturally occurring elements are there?
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and other metals, atoms are packed closely together.
In a small number of elements, such as oxygen and sulfur, atoms join
together to form small particles. An oxygen particle is made from two
oxygen atoms. A sulfur particle is made from eight sulfur atoms.
PL
M
Atoms of neon Atoms of gold
SA
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2 Materials and their structure
metals
non-metals
H He
hydrogen helium
Li Be B C N O F Ne
lithium beryllium boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
sodium magnesium aluminium silicon phosphorus sulfur chlorine argon
E
K Ca
potassium calcium
PL
The Periodic Table is organised into rows and columns. The rows are
called periods. The columns are called groups.
The atoms are organised so that, as you read across each row (period)
from left to right, the atoms increase in mass. Hydrogen atoms have the
smallest mass, then helium atoms, then lithium atoms, and so on.
Chemical symbols
Each of the elements has been given a symbol.
M
This is a useful shorthand way of referring to them.
Sometimes the symbol is the first Aluminium, Al Zinc, Zn
letter of the English name of the
element. For example, the symbol
for oxygen is O.
SA
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2.5 Atoms, elements and the Periodic Table
Questions
3 What are the names of the elements with the symbols Mg, Be,
Li and N?
4 Find the symbols for the elements aluminium, boron, fluorine
and potassium.
5 Which element has atoms with the smallest mass?
6 Which of the elements in the first 20 elements of the Periodic Table
has atoms with the greatest mass?
E
7 Give the names (not symbols) of two elements in the same period
as magnesium.
8 Give the symbols (not names) of two elements in the same group
as helium.
PL
Metals and non-metals
The Periodic Table is organised so that elements with similar properties
are close together.
In the diagram of the Periodic Table, all the elements that are metals are
in yellow boxes. All the elements that are non-metals are in blue boxes.
M
Activity
Learning the symbols for the elements
Here is a list of twenty elements and their symbols. Your task is to make up a game to help
you learn them. You could make one set of cards with the names on them and another set
with the symbols on them. Think how you could use these to make a game.
SA
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2.6 Compounds and formulae
E
Getting started Key words
You have three minutes. Test your partner on the symbols for bonding
the elements.
PL compound
formula
sodium chloride
M
SA
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2 Materials and their structure
What is a compound?
You have looked at elements in the Periodic Table. An element is made
up of only one type of atom. Many substances are made up of more
than one type of atom. If the different types of atom are joined tightly
together, then the substance is a compound.
The chemical term for two atoms joining tightly together is bonding.
In a compound, two or more different kinds of atom are bonded.
For example, when sodium atoms bond with chlorine atoms, they
form the compound sodium chloride.
E
Properties of elements and
compounds
new properties. PL
A compound is very different from the elements from which it is made.
When two different elements are bonded, they completely lose the
properties of the individual elements. The compound has totally
The first two photographs show the two elements sodium and chlorine.
The third photograph shows the compound that is made when sodium
and chlorine atoms bond together. This compound – sodium chloride –
is not at all like either sodium or chlorine.
M
+
SA
You may have eaten some sodium chloride today. Sodium chloride
is common salt. You would not want to eat any sodium or
chlorine, though.
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2.6 Compounds and formulae
Questions
1 Describe two ways in which sodium chloride is different
from sodium.
2 Describe two ways in which sodium chloride is different
from chlorine.
Naming compounds
Each compound has a chemical name. The chemical name usually tells
E
you the elements that the compound is made from.
There are important rules to remember when naming compounds.
• If the compound contains a metal, then the name of the metal
comes first in the name of the compound.
•
•
PL
If the compound contains a non-metal, the name of the non-metal
is usually changed. For example, the compound made from sodium
(a metal) and chlorine (a non-metal) is not sodium chlorine, but
sodium chloride.
When two elements form a compound the name often ends in ‘ide’.
Questions
3 Which two elements are combined in sodium chloride?
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4 Which two elements are combined in hydrogen sulfide?
5 Which two elements are combined in magnesium oxide?
6 A student wrote this name for a compound
made of calcium and sulfur:
SA
sulfur calcium
What is wrong with this name?
Write the correct name for the compound.
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2 Materials and their structure
Questions
Some compounds contain two different elements, plus a third element –
oxygen. These compounds often have names ending with ‘ate’.
For example, a compound of calcium, carbon and oxygen is called
calcium carbonate.
7 Which three elements are combined in calcium nitrate?
8 Which three elements are combined in magnesium carbonate?
9 Which three elements are combined in lithium sulfate?
E
Sometimes, the name of a compound tells you how many of each kind
of atom are bonded together.
O C O C O
PL
A particle of carbon dioxide A particle of carbon monoxide
Carbon dioxide particles are made up of one carbon atom joined to two
oxygen atoms. ‘Di’ means two.
Carbon monoxide particles are made up of one carbon atom joined to
one oxygen atom. ‘Mon’ or ‘mono’ means one.
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Particle diagrams
Particle diagrams, like those for carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide,
show which atoms of which elements make up the particle.
SA
H H
O C O H O H O O H H
Carbon dioxide, water and methane are all compounds because their
particles are made up of different kinds of atom. Oxygen is an element
because the atoms in the particle are both oxygen atoms.
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2.6 Compounds and formulae
Using formulae
Every compound has a chemical name. For example, the compound of
sodium and chlorine is sodium chloride. Some compounds also have an
everyday name. For example, sodium chloride is also known as common salt.
Every compound also has a formula. The formula contains the symbols
of the elements that are bonded together in the compound.
The table shows the chemical names and formulae of six compounds.
E
Chemical name Formula What the compound
contains
calcium oxide CaO one calcium atom
bonded with one
carbon dioxide
carbon monoxidePL
hydrogen sulfide
CO2
CO
H2S
oxygen atom
one carbon atom
bonded with two
oxygen atoms
one carbon atom
bonded with one
oxygen atom
two hydrogen atoms
M
bonded with one
sulfur atom
calcium carbonate CaCO3 one calcium atom,
one carbon atom
and three oxygen
atoms bonded
SA
together
sodium hydroxide NaOH one atom of sodium,
one atom of oxygen
and one atom of
hydrogen bonded
together
Be very careful reading the symbols of the elements. You do not want to
confuse the symbol for carbon, C, with the symbol for calcium, Ca.
The little number written below and to the right of some symbols tells
you how many atoms of each element are found in the particle of the
compound. If there is no number, it means there is just one atom of
that element.
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2 Materials and their structure
Questions
10 Which of these substances are elements, and which are compounds?
Explain your answer.
K O2 NaCl Al Ca CaCl2 H2
11 The formula for sulfur dioxide is SO2.
a How many different elements are combined in sulfur dioxide?
b How many atoms of oxygen are combined with each atom
E
of sulfur?
12 The formula for water is H2O.
a Which two elements are combined in water?
b What does the formula tell you about the numbers of each
PL
kind of atom that are combined together?
13 The compound with the formula CO is called carbon monoxide.
Suggest why it is not simply called ’carbon oxide’.
14 Suggest the names of the compounds with these formulae:
a
b
MgO
NaCl
M
c CaCl2.
15 The formula for sodium hydroxide is NaOH; the formula for
potassium hydroxide is KOH.
Which two elements are do you think contained in all hydroxides?
16 What is the name of the compound with the formula LiOH?
SA
Activity 2.6.1
Making models of particles
You are going to make models of at least five of the compounds
mentioned in this topic.
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2 Materials and their structure
E
Getting started Key words
•
nitrogen
O2
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2.7 Compounds and mixtures
E
Sulfur is a non-metal. It is yellow, brittle,
does not conduct heat or electricity and is
not magnetic. This miner is carrying baskets of sulfur from the crater
of a volcano in Indonesia.
When these two elements are heated, they
combine together to form the compound iron
PL
sulfide. Iron sulfide is not magnetic and does
not conduct heat or electricity.
M
SA
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2 Materials and their structure
E
Safety
Do not touch your face or eyes when handling the iron filings. The pieces have sharp
2
3
PL
edges and can damage your skin and eyes. Wear safety glasses. Carry this activity out
in a well-ventilated room.
Mixing iron and sulfur
1 Place some iron filings in a beaker.
Add some yellow powdered sulfur.
Stir the mixture so that the two
elements are spread out evenly.
M
You now have a mixture of iron and
sulfur. The iron and sulfur both still
have their properties. They have not
changed chemically in any way. The
different properties of the two
elements can be used to separate
SA
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2.7 Compounds and mixtures
Continued
Questions
1 Describe the appearance of:
a a mixture of iron and sulfur
b the iron sulfide.
2 Can you remove the iron from the iron sulfide by using a magnet?
Explain your answer.
E
Air is a mixture
When you mix iron and sulfur together, you make a mixture
of two elements.
PL
In science, the word pure is used to describe something that
only contains a single substance. Pure water contains only
water, with no other substances mixed with it.
A mixture is not pure. It is made up of different
kinds of particle that are mixed together. The mixture
may be of elements, compounds or both. There are
solids, liquids and gases that are mixtures.
For example, air is a mixture of several different elements
78% nitrogen
M
and compounds. Air contains nitrogen, oxygen, carbon 1% carbon dioxide, 21% oxygen
argon, water vapour
dioxide, water vapour and small quantities of some and other gases
other gases.
A pie chart showing the composition of air.
The composition of air varies because the amount of water
vapour changes all the time, depending on the weather.
SA
The amount of carbon dioxide and other gases also change. This can be
a result of natural emissions, such as when animals and plants produce
carbon dioxide when they respire. Plants also use carbon dioxide when
they make food, so this removes carbon dioxide from the air. The
changes in the composition of air can also be as a result of human
activity increasing the amount of carbon dioxide that is given out as a
result of burning fossil fuels. Other forms of pollution also change the
composition of the air.
The composition of air has changed over millions of years;
at one time there was much less oxygen in the atmosphere.
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2 Materials and their structure
carbon dioxide
nitrogen
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oxygen
water
PL
Air is a mixture of several elements and compounds.
Questions
The diagram shows some particles in air. The red circles represent oxygen
atoms. The black circles represent carbon atoms. The blue circles represent
nitrogen atoms. The white circles represent hydrogen atoms.
1 Which is the most common element in air?
M
2 How many different kinds of substance are shown in the diagram?
3 Which is the least common compound in this sample of air?
TYPICAL ANALYSIS mg/l
Mineral water is a mixture CALCIUM 55
The label on a bottle of mineral water lists many minerals. MAGNESIUM 19
SA
There is more than just water in the bottle. The bottle contains POTASSIUM 1
a mixture of water and other substances. SODIUM 24
BICARBONATE 248
The minerals are dissolved in the water. The mineral water is a CHLORIDE 37
solution. A litre of water may have about of minerals dissolved SULPHATE 13
in it. NITRATE < 0.1
IRON 0
Question ALUMINIUM 0
DRY RESIDUE AT 180°C 280
4 Look at the picture of a mineral water label. pH AT SOURCE 7.4
List the three most abundant minerals in this bottle of
The label shows the minerals found in
mineral water. mineral water.
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2.7 Compounds and mixtures
E
Safety
Wear safety glasses. Take care during bunsen burner
step 2 as the solution may start to spit.
2
3
PL
Do not touch the evaporating basin
with your hands – use tongs.
Read the health and safety notes before you start.
1 Put some water in the evaporating basin and heat it until it boils.
Once the water starts to boil, turn the heat down and continue to heat it gently.
When you have evaporated off some of the water (or the solution has started to spit)
remove it from the heat.
M
4 Leave the evaporating basin to cool. The water may take a day or two to evaporate
completely. It will depend on the temperature.
Questions
1 Use ideas about particles to explain why the water evaporated.
2 What was left in the evaporating basin?
SA
Summary checklist
I can distinguish between a compound and a mixture.
I can explain the difference between a compound and a mixture.
I can give examples of mixtures.
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2 Materials and their structure
E
2.3 Water in a puddle on a pathway disappears on a warm day. Explain what
happens to the water particles. [2]
2.4 a Which are the two correct statements about liquids? [2]
b
PL
i
ii
iii
iv
v
Liquids can flow and be poured into a container.
The particles in liquids are far apart.
The particles in liquids are arranged randomly.
The particles in a liquid can only vibrate.
Liquids only form at temperatures above 100 °C.
A liquid changes to a solid when it freezes.
M
Describe what happens to the particles during this process. [2]
2.5 Which of these terms matches the two facts?
precipitation evaporation condensation groundwater
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2 Materials and their structure
2.6 Zara heated a liquid and recorded its temperature every minute.
Here are her results.
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3 39
4 47
5 56
a PL 6
7
8
58
59
58
60
M
50
SA
Temperature in °C 40
30
20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Time in minutes
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2 Materials and their structure
b Draw a line of best fit through the points you have plotted. [1]
c Which reading does not fit the pattern? [1]
d Suggest a reason for this. [1]
e What happens to the temperature between 5 and 8 minutes? [1]
f Explain why this happens. [1]
2.7 The diagrams in the boxes show different arrangements of particles.
E
A B C D
SEE QUERY LOG
Explain that each colour represents a
different atom; otherwise A and B
could be the same, and so could C and
C
PL D
D.
In 2.7, consider adding an explanation
that each colour represents a different
atom.
Tech-Set:- no comments in query log
for additional text to be inserted.
Marked PDF doesn't have this
information either!
M
SA
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2 Materials and their structure
E
b Name the element with the given symbol.
i C [1]
ii Na [1]
c
d
PL
iii
iv
v
K
Cl
Si
Explain why scientists use symbols for the elements.
Explain why some symbols, such as Cl and Si, have two letters.
[1]
[1]
[1]
[1]
[1]
M
SA
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E
In this topic you will:
• understand that the force of gravity acts between objects
• learn about what affects the strength of the force of gravity
on an object
•
2
PL
practise using the correct terms ‘weight’ and ‘mass’.
Getting started
accurate
acts towards the
centre
contact force
M
Copy and complete this sentence by choosing
the correct word from the list. Earth
force of gravity
length mass volume weight formula triangle
The newton, N, is a unit of ………………… gravity
3 Copy and complete this sentence. kilograms
SA
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3 Forces and energy
Gravity
When you drop an object, it falls to the ground.
What pulls the object down?
The Earth you live on is a large object with a mass of about .
Objects with large mass, such as the Earth, cause strong forces of
gravity.
All objects, even pens and pencils, cause forces of
gravity. Objects with small mass, such as pens and
E
pencils, cause very weak forces of gravity. That means
we do not notice other objects being attracted to
them.
The force of gravity caused by an object acts towards
PL
the centre of the object.
You can imagine the Earth as a giant ball in space.
The force of gravity at positions around the Earth acts
towards the centre. That means when you drop an
object, the object falls in a line that points towards the
centre of the Earth.
The strength of gravity decreases as you go further
from a large object such as Earth. For example, if you
M
travelled away from Earth in a spacecraft, the force
of gravity from the Earth acting on you would get The force of gravity caused by the Earth acts toward
the centre of the Earth.
smaller.
Questions
A
1 Draw a circle to make a diagram of the Earth.
SA
Weight
The force of gravity on an object is called
its weight.
It is difficult to lift a heavy object because
E
gravity is pulling it towards the centre
of the Earth. By lifting, you are pulling
against gravity.
Weight is a force and it is measured in
PL
newtons, N. The weight of an apple is
about 1 N. That means gravity from the
Earth is pulling on the apple with a force
of 1 N. You need to apply a force of 1 N
to hold the apple.
The weightlifter in the picture is holding
about !
The force of gravity is making it difficult to hold these weights.
You can see the effect of the force bending the bar.
M
Updated version of this
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3.1 Gravity, weight and mass
E
b The contact force from the mud increases with depth.
Explain what will happen to stop the wheels sinking.
PL
Weight is the force of gravity on an object. It is measured in newtons, N.
Mass is the quantity of matter in an object. It is measured in kilograms, kg.
People often confuse mass with weight. They often say things such as:
‘The weight of my bag is 10 kg.’ This sentence is not correct because it
makes a statement about weight, but gives a mass. The correct sentence
is: ‘The mass of my bag is 10 kg.’
On Earth, the force of gravity is 10 N on every 1 kg of mass.
M
Writing this as an equation: W
weight (N) = mass (kg) × 10 (N/kg)
or, using letters:
m × 10
W = m × 10
SA
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3 Forces and energy
The force of gravity that pulls on 1 kg tells you the strength of gravity.
On Earth, this is 10 N
As 10 N acts on 1 kg, you say this as ‘10 newtons per kilogram’,
or 10 N/kg. For example, if a person has a mass of 45 kg, their weight
on Earth is 45 × 10 = 450 N.
You can use the equation to calculate mass if you know the weight. For
example, a computer games console has a weight of 28 N. The mass of
the console is 28 = 2.8 kg.
10
E
The strength of gravity is not 10 N/kg in all parts of the Solar System.
The diagram shows the strength of gravity in some other parts of the
Solar System.
PL 10 N/kg
Mercury
3.7 N/kg
Venus
8.9 N/kg
Moon Jupiter 25 N/kg
Earth 1.6 N/kg
Mars
Saturn
10 N/kg Uranus
8.7 N/kg
Neptune
11 N/kg
M
3.7 N/kg
SA
Questions
9 The strength of gravity is 10 N/kg on Earth.
a Calculate the weight of an adult who has a mass of 75 kg.
b Calculate the mass of a car that has a weight of 8500 N.
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3.1 Gravity, weight and mass
E
11 When you stand on scales you see your mass in kg. Explain whether
it is your mass or your weight that makes the scales work.
Discuss your answer with a partner.
PL
12 In 1969, a spacecraft carrying people went from the Earth to the
Moon. The people explored part of the Moon. The spacecraft then
brought the people back to Earth.
Explain why a larger force is needed for a spacecraft to go from
Earth to the Moon than to come back from the Moon to the
Earth. Use the information in the diagram. Assume the mass of the
spacecraft is the same on both journeys.
M
Activity
Mass or weight?
On a large piece of paper, draw a table with two columns: one for mass and one for
weight.
Each of the statements below should start with either the word ‘mass’ or the word ‘weight’.
SA
Work in pairs to decide which column to put each of the statements in.
When you have decided, write the statement in the appropriate column.
The statements are:
… of an object is affected by the strength of gravity on a planet.
… is measured in newtons, N.
… is measured in kilograms, kg.
… is not affected by gravity.
… of an object decreases as the object moves further away from Earth.
… is the quantity of matter in an object.
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3 Forces and energy
Continued
E
• How did you decide which statements were about weight
and which were about mass?
• Did your strategy work?
• Could you use this strategy again, or would you change it?
PL
Think like a scientist
Linking weight and mass
In this investigation, you will find the weights of
some masses and draw a graph of your results.
force meter
M
• force meter • clamp stand
• mass hanger and masses
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3.1 Gravity, weight and mass
Continued
5 Record the weights in a table. Remember to put the units in the column headings
and not in the table itself.
6 Measure the weights as accurately as possible. Being accurate means being close
to the true value.
7 Your results should go from up to .
8 Draw a line graph of your results. Put mass in kg on the horizontal axis and weight
in N on the vertical axis.
E
Questions
1 When you have finished your graph, copy and complete these sentences.
As the mass gets bigger, the weight gets … .
3 PL
When the mass doubles, the weight … .
Is the weight of 1.0 kg exactly 10 N as in the equation W = m × 10? If not, what
is the weight of 1.0 kg?
The strength of gravity at the Earth’s surface varies slightly between 9.7639 and
9.8337 N/kg
Explain why you can use the value of instead of these more accurate values.
Self-assessment
M
1 For each of these statements about your experiment, decide how well you
think you did.
• I worked safely, taking care not to drop any masses or knock the clamp
stand over.
• I took the reading from the force meter as accurately as possible.
SA
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3.2 Formation of the Solar Systemaxis
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mass
• understand that as these objects increase in mass, their
gravity increases
• understand that as their gravity increases, they can attract
Getting started
1
PL
even more mass.
axis
contradict
evidence
formed
M
large size large mass small size small mass
model
2 Which of these objects has the largest mass in the Solar nebula
System? observe
Earth Jupiter Sun Neptune orbit
plane
3 Which of these objects is at the centre of the Solar System?
SA
spin
Earth Moon Mercury Sun support
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3 Forces and energy
E
or experiments to support their theory, and then try to explain what
they have found.
• They can think of a testable theory, called an hypothesis, and then
look for evidence to support the hypothesis.
PL
Facts about the Solar System
Look at the diagram of the Solar System.
Earth
Mercury
Neptune
M
Venus Mars
Jupiter
Uranus
Saturn
SA
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Where did the Solar System come from?
• All the planets orbit the Sun in the same plane. Objects that are in
the same plane could all be placed on the same flat surface, just like
all the objects on a desk. That means the Solar System looks flat.
Scientists can use these facts as evidence.
E
being formed from clouds of dust
and gas.
A cloud of dust and gas in space is called
a nebula. The picture shows one of these
clouds of dust and gas. You can see the
PL
young stars in the cloud.
Some young stars can also be seen with
a flat disc of dust around them.
Scientists think our Solar System was
formed this way.
Using models
The Orion Nebula – stars are being born here.
M
Scientists cannot observe a star or Solar System forming in an experiment.
Instead they use computers to create models. A model is a way of
representing something that is difficult to observe directly.
The scientists put many of the known laws of physics into a computer
program. Then the computer uses this information to predict what will
SA
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3 Forces and energy
E
If the ball gets beyond a certain size, it will
get hot enough to become a star. Otherwise
it will become a planet.
Most of the facts about the Solar System
support or agree with this hypothesis.
PL
The fact that Venus spins on its axis in the
opposite way to all the other planets seems
to contradict this hypothesis. Contradict is
This is how our Solar System may have looked 4.6 billion years ago.
2 All the planets in the Solar System orbit the Sun in the same plane.
Explain what ‘the same plane’ means.
3 Which of these is the name given to a cloud of dust and gas in space?
planet star nebula moon
4 Name the force that can pull particles of dust and gas together
in space.
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3 Forces and energy
Continued
Questions
1 Suggest one other reason for using a model in this way.
2 Models are not real, so may not be accurate.
Which term describes this?
E
Scientists use facts like these to support their hypothesis of how the Solar System
formed. An hypothesis is a theory or idea that is testable.
a Give two facts about the Solar System that seem to contradict this hypothesis.
b
4
•
•
•
PL
Explain why these facts seem to contradict the hypothesis.
Which two of these statements describe the hypothesis of how the Solar System formed?
• It has been proven to be correct.
Most, but not all, of the evidence supports it.
The model that is used has limitations.
It can be fully tested by experiments.
M
Summary checklist
I can recall that there are clouds of dust and gas in space.
I can recall that stars and planets are formed from dust and gas.
I can understand that gravity can pull particles of dust
and gas together.
SA
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3.3 Movement in space
E
Getting started Key words
1 Write the names of the planets in order, starting with the one air resistance
PL
that is closest to the Sun.
Name the object that orbits the Earth and not the Sun.
circlar
speed
vacuum
M
SA
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3 Forces and energy
The Sun
In Section 3.1 you saw that objects with more
mass have more gravity.
The Sun is the object with the largest mass in
the Solar System.
The mass of the Sun is times greater than the
mass of the Earth. In fact, the mass of the Sun
is more than the mass of all the other planets
E
added together!
The strength of gravity on Earth is . On the
Sun it is .
PL
The Sun’s gravity
The Sun’s gravity is 27 times stronger than
the Earth’s gravity.
It holds all the planets in their orbits. The Sun’s
gravity gets weaker as the distance from the
Sun increases.
This photograph of the Sun was taken from a spacecraft,
using a special camera. You should never look directly at the
Sun or try to photograph it yourself.
The planet Neptune is 30 times further from the Sun than Earth is.
The mass of Neptune is about 17 times the mass of Earth. So although
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the Sun’s gravity gets weaker, it is strong enough to hold Neptune
in orbit.
direction of
orbit
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3.3 Movement in space
Mercury, which is the closest planet to the Sun, has the strongest pull
from the Sun’s gravity.
This causes Mercury to orbit with the highest speed of all the planets.
The average speed of Mercury around the Sun is 170 000 km/h! The
average speed of the Earth around the Sun is about 100 000 km/h.
Speed in space
On Earth, all objects that move have forces
E
acting on them to slow them down.
Air resistance is one of those forces.
It is caused by a moving object having
to push against the particles in the air.
Air resistance acts in the opposite direction
to movement.
PL
The faster an object moves, the greater the
air resistance on the object.
Look at the picture of the aeroplane wing.
The aeroplane can slow down faster with extra
air resistance. The shape of the wing can be
changed to produce extra air resistance.
This aeroplane has landed and is using extra air resistance to help
it slow down.
M
In space there is no air. There are very, very
few particles in space. A space where there
are no particles is a vacuum.
Look at the spacecraft in the picture.
This spacecraft, called the Juno probe,
SA
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3 Forces and energy
Questions
1 State the direction in which the force of gravity from the Sun pulls
on a planet.
2 Other objects, such as comets and asteroids, also orbit the Sun.
Suggest what keeps these other objects in orbit around the Sun.
3 The Sun has the strongest gravity in the Solar System.
Suggest which object in the Solar System has the second
strongest gravity.
E
Discuss your answer in pairs.
4 State the word used to describe a space that has no particles in it.
5 Voyager 1 is a space probe launched in 1977. Voyager 1 is now
outside the Solar System and is travelling at . Explain why Voyager 1
7
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could not travel at this speed on Earth.
Which of these forces acts on the Earth as it orbits the Sun?
Activity
Planet speeds
SA
The table shows the average speed of each planet’s orbit around the Sun.
The speeds are given in kilometres per second (km/s) as they are so fast.
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3.3 Movement in space
Continued
E
Questions
1 Copy and complete the sentence.
As the distance from the Sun increases, the speed of orbit of the planets … .
2 Explain the advantages of presenting this information in a graph rather than in a table.
3
4
PL
Explain the reason for the trend in your graph.
Explain why a bar graph is used for this information rather than a line graph.
Self-assessment
1 For each of these statements about your activity, decide whether you did it very well,
fairly well or not at all.
• I drew a bar graph with the correct information.
M
• My bars were evenly spaced and not touching.
• All my lines were drawn with a pencil and ruler.
• All my bars were the correct height.
• I understood the advantages of drawing a graph to display information.
2 Write down one thing that you did really well.
SA
3 Choose one thing that you think you could do better next time and explain how you
will try to improve it.
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3 Forces and energy
Continued
1 Which one word best describes these calculations?
The actual orbit of Uranus was different to the calculations.
E
observations predictions conclusions secondary information
3 Scientists thought that another source of gravity was pulling Uranus further
from the Sun.
4
PL
Which word best describes this statement?
Summary checklist
I can name the force that keeps the planets in orbit around the Sun.
I can describe the direction that this force acts on a planet.
I can understand why planets closer to the Sun move faster.
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3.4 Tides
3.4 Tides
In this topic you will:
• find out what tides are
• learn about tidal forces and where they come from
• discover how tidal forces affect the oceans and the land.
E
Getting started Key words
PL
What large object orbits the Earth?
What force keeps the object that orbits the earth in its orbit?
earthquake
earth tide
force of
attraction
harbour
tidal force
tidal range
tide
M
SA
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3 Forces and energy
E
PL
M
Tides change the depth of the oceans. High tide (left) and low tide (right) are six hours apart.
The difference in depth of the water between high and low tides is
the tidal range.
The largest tidal range in the world is 16.3 m in the Bay of Fundy
in Canada.
SA
Some of the smallest tidal ranges in the world are less than in the
Caribbean and Mediterranean seas.
Tides also cause the land to change in height through the day! This is
called earth tide. The tidal range due to earth tide is about 30 cm
High tides are about 12 hours apart. Low tides are also about 12 hours
apart. The time between high and low tide is six hours.
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What are tides?
E
The side of the Earth closer to the
low tide
Moon will have high tide.
The blue line around the Earth represents the ocean depth. The difference
The Earth takes 24 hours to spin on
in depth is caused by the pull of gravity from the Moon. The drawing is not
its axis. to scale.
PL
This means that 12 hours later, the
side that was closest to the Moon is
now furthest away.
You can see from the drawing that the side furthest away also has a
high tide.
This is why the time between high tides is 12 hours.
The Sun also produces a tidal force on Earth, but this is weaker as the
Sun is further away than the Moon.
M
When the Sun and the Moon are in line with Earth, this produces a
larger tidal force.
The next drawing shows how this happens.
Moon Sun
Larger tidal forces affect the Earth when the Earth, Sun and Moon are in line. The drawing is not to scale.
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3 Forces and energy
Effects of tides
Some harbours can only be used at certain times of the day. If the water in
the harbour is not deep enough, boats cannot move safely. Harbours are
places where boats and ships can load and unload passengers and cargo.
In weather with strong winds, coastal areas are more likely to have
flooding at times of high tides. Coastal areas are parts of the land that
are close to the oceans.
The flow of water in and out of some coastal areas can be dangerous for
E
small boats.
In some places, tides affect food chains, including the human food chain.
For example, at low tide birds can eat some types of shellfish when
they are not covered with water. Some types of fish move to find food
according to tides in coastal areas.
PL
Volcano eruptions have been linked with earth tides. By studying
Earth tides, scientists may be able to predict when a volcano will
become dangerous.
Earthquakes may also be linked with earth tides.
Movement of water with tides can be used to generate electricity.
Questions
M
1 Which of these causes the force of gravity for tides on Earth?
the Sun only the Moon only the Sun and Moon the Sun, Moon and other stars
2 What is the name given to the pull of gravity that causes tides?
high tide low tide tidal range tidal force
3 State the time between:
SA
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3.5 Energy
3.5 Energy
In this topic you will:
The sentence at the second
• find out what energy is bullet point makes no sense.
Author to rewrite it.
• learn about different energy stores and transfers Tech-Set: there is no
information for the 3rd bullet
• discover how some ways that energy can be stored more
point in the query log!
easily than others.
E
Getting started Key words
PL
some things that you need energy to do
some of the types of fuel that you know.
elastic potential
electrical
energy
fuel
gravitational
potential
joule
kinetic
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light
luminous
sound
stored
thermal
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transferred
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3 Forces and energy
What is energy?
Energy is something that must be changed or transferred in order to
do something.
There are many different ways that energy can be stored or transferred.
For example, kinetic energy is the energy in movement.
The unit for measuring the amount of energy is called the joule (J).
You need about:
• to walk up the stairs between two floors in a building.
E
• for every metre you run
• to bring 1 litre of cold water to boiling point.
PL
There are many different ways in which energy is being stored or
transferred around you all the time.
M
SA
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3.5 Energy
E
of gravity
electrical the flow of current in a circuit transfer
transfers electrical energy
sound energy transferred from transfer
light
PL vibrating objects
visible energy from luminous
objects (objects that give
out their own light) that you
can see
• How will you learn the different stores and transfers of energy?
• Can you think of a way to help you remember them?
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3 Forces and energy
Storing energy
Energy can be stored more easily in some ways
than in others.
For example, you can keep uncooked rice for a
long time. That is a store of chemical energy.
Coal and crude oil are stores of chemical energy
that formed millions of years ago. This shows that
some energy stores can last for a very long time.
E
A battery is another example of how chemical
energy can be stored. It is quite easy to store
chemical energy.
Gravitational potential energy is also easy to
store. The picture shows a tank containing water.
PL
A pump has been used to lift up the water. The
water stores gravitational potential energy.
Some energy stores only last for a short time.
The tennis ball has a store of kinetic energy while it
is moving.
Thermal energy (heat) is one example. Hot objects will eventually cool
down (they will lose their store of thermal energy).
Kinetic energy is another example. Kinetic energy is more difficult than
chemical or gravitational potential energy to store.
M
The tennis ball in the picture has a store of kinetic energy while the ball
is moving, but the ball will eventually stop moving.
SA
Rice is a store of chemical energy. The tank contains water that has been lifted up by a
pump. The water in the tank stores gravitational
potential energy.
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3.5 Energy
Questions
1 Look at the picture of the circuit.
Copy and complete these sentences. Choose from the
stores and transfers of energy you have learnt about.
a energy is stored in the battery.
b energy is transferred in the wires.
E
be more than one for each.
a food
b gasoline (petrol)
4
c
d
a
b
PL
a falling rock
a book that has been lifted up onto a shelf
Name two energy stores that will last for a long time.
Name one energy store, apart from thermal energy, that will not
last for a long time.
Activity
Finding energy stores and transfers
You will need some magazines with pictures that can be cut out.
Work in pairs or small groups.
Look for pictures that show different energy stores and transfers.
Some pictures may show more than one.
Cut out the pictures.
Stick the pictures on a large sheet of paper to make a poster.
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3.6 Changes in energy
E
Getting started Key words
1 Make a list of all the energy stores and transfers that you change
can remember. event
2
PL
Give an example of each store or transfer on your list. process
M
SA
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3 Forces and energy
E
The fuel for the fire is wood. Wood is a store of
chemical energy.
Burning the wood changes the chemical energy
to thermal energy (heat).
PL
The thermal energy is then transferred
to the pot and the food inside.
The people in the picture are walking up stairs.
They are changing chemical energy from their
food into kinetic energy for movement.
The movement is taking the people higher, so
kinetic energy is being changed to gravitational
potential energy. Energy changes can be useful.
M
This picture shows a power station.
SA
This power station is changing energy. Walking up stairs needs energy to be changed.
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How does energy change?
E
Energy changes are not always helpful. Typhoons,
hurricanes, earthquakes and tsunamis are some
examples of how energy changes can be very dangerous.
In all these examples, there is a process or event that
PL
changes or transfers the energy. For example, burning
is a process.
Burning changes chemical energy stored in a fuel to thermal energy.
You can represent the processes as arrows and draw diagrams to show
changes in energy.
Here are some other examples.
A fire that burns wood changes chemical energy to thermal energy.
Strong wind can transfer energy in a damaging way.
M
chemical thermal
sound
electrical
light
When a book falls from a shelf, that is an event. When the book is on
the shelf, the book has stored gravitational potential energy. This energy
is changed to kinetic energy as the book falls.
You can also represent events such as this in a diagram.
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3 Forces and energy
The energy changes shown in these diagrams are useful energy changes.
That means the energy is changed in a way that we want.
Some energy changes are not useful. You will learn more about energy
that is not useful in Section 3.7.
Questions
1 Copy and complete the sentence.
When something happens, energy is or .
E
2 The useful energy change in a candle can be written as
chemical to light
Write down the useful energy change in each of these.
3
a
b
c
PL
an electric lamp
a bus
a radio.
Draw diagrams to show the energy changes in:
a
b
c
a motorcycle that uses gasoline (petrol) for movement
a wood-burning fire used for cooking
a bird using movement to fly higher
M
d a ball rolling down a hill.
Activity
Freezing water
SA
Work in groups.
When you put water in the freezer, it turns into ice.
Discuss and then answer these questions about this process in your group.
1 What happens to the temperature of the water in the freezer?
2 How can you tell the temperature has changed in this way, without using a
thermometer or touching the water?
3 How is energy being transferred when the water freezes?
4 Where does this energy come from?
5 Where does it go?
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3.7 Where does energy go?
E
Getting started Key words
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3 Forces and energy
E
move the motorcycle and rider.
But chemical energy from the fuel is also changed into
thermal energy and sound energy.
In fact, only about 14 or 25% of the chemical energy in the
PL
fuel is used for movement.
The other 34 or 75% of the energy is wasted energy. This
wasted energy is dissipated and cannot be recovered.
Dissipated energy is energy that spreads out where there is
no use for it.
You cannot gather thermal energy or sound and bring them
back into one place to be stored, changed or transferred.
Petrol (gasoline) is a store of chemical energy.
The motorcycle engine changes only some of
this into kinetic energy. The rest of the energy
is wasted.
M
Look at the two types of lamp in the picture.
SA
A B
These two lamps emit the same brightness of light but they waste very different
quantities of energy.
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3.7 Where does energy go?
E
Even when you want to produce thermal energy, some of it is wasted.
Look at the water being heated in
this picture.
In the picture, chemical energy from wood
the water.
PL
is being changed to thermal energy by the
process of burning.
Thermal energy is being used to heat
Questions
1 Which of these terms describes energy that is dissipated?
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3 Forces and energy
E
a Using electricity in a lamp. 11 22
PL
As you move away from a hot
object, you feel less heat from it. The
temperature will go down as you move
further away.
Which of these graphs shows how the
temperature changes with increasing
distance from a hot object?
33
Temperature
Temperature
Distance
Distance
Distance
Distance
44
Temperature
Temperature
Distance
Distance
Distance
Distance
M
• How do you work out what the shape of a graph will look like?
• Can you explain why you chose the answer that you did? You
can do this by describing what will happen to the temperature
in each case.
SA
Activity
Ripple tanks
Work in groups.
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3.7 Where does energy go?
Did you have any idea what shape the graph might be:
• before you did the experiment?
• when you looked at the temperatures that were recorded?
Summary checklist
I can recall that when energy is changed or transferred, some of
the energy is useful and some is wasted.
E
I can understand the meaning of the word ‘dissipate’.
I can understand that energy can be dissipated more easily in
some ways than in others.
I can understand that energy which has dissipated cannot
be recovered.
Background
PL
Project: Discoveries about energy
pulley
M
thermometer
energy came from to make
things happen. water
mass
Joule made the machine shown paddle
in the picture. ruler
He used the machine in the
SA
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3 Forces and energy
E
Calculate the weight of each of these.
Show your working and give the unit in your answer.
i a book of mass [2]
PL
ii a calculator of mass
In the year 1959 a spacecraft called Luna 2 was launched from Earth.
Luna 2 landed on the Moon.
i
ii
Describe how the weight of Luna 2 would compare between when it
was on Earth and when it was on the Moon.
Describe how the mass of Luna 2 would compare between when it
[3]
[1]
M
was on Earth and when it was on the Moon. [1]
3.3 a Explain what keeps the Earth in its orbit. [2]
b Explain why the planet Mercury travels faster in its orbit than Earth does. [1]
3.4 The diagram shows the Earth and Moon. The diagram is not to scale. [1]
SA
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3 Forces and energy
d Use a word from the list to copy and complete the sentence. [1]
gravity force mass energy
E
C energy and force
D weight and force
3.6 a Which of these words means to spread out and become less useful? [1]
PL thermal decrease dissipate loss
useful wasted
[2]
M
3.7 Which row in the table shows the forces on a planet in orbit around the Sun?
Put a tick (✓) in the box beside the correct row. [1]
SA
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4 Grouping and
identifying organisms
4.1 Characteristics of
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living organisms
•
•
PL
In this topic you will:
think about what makes living organisms different from
non-living things
learn about the seven characteristics of living organisms.
reproduction
respiration
sensitivity
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4 Grouping and identifying organisms
E
PL
M
SA
Questions
These questions are about the picture of the polar bears. Copy and
complete the sentences.
Use these words. You can use each word once, more than once or not
at all.
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4.1 Characteristics of living organisms
E
6 All living organisms break down some of the food they eat, to provide
them with energy. This happens in a process called ……………………… .
7 Most living organisms can change the shape and position of their
bodies. This is called ……………… .
Activity 4.1.1
PL
Is a car alive?
The picture shows a car.
Here are some facts about cars.
•
•
Cars use fuel and oxygen.
Inside the engine of the car, the
M
fuel and oxygen provide energy
to make the car move.
• The engine produces waste gases,
including carbon dioxide.
These are given off in the exhaust of
SA
the car.
• Some cars have sensors. For example, they can sense when it is dark and turn the
lights on automatically.
Questions
1 In your group, make a list of similarities between a car and living organisms.
2 Make a list of differences between a car and living organisms.
Summary checklist
I can list the seven characteristics of living organisms.
I can describe the meaning of each of these characteristics.
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4 Grouping and identifying organisms
4.2 Viruses
In this topic you will:
• learn about the structure of a virus
• discuss whether viruses are non-living or living.
E
Work with a partner to answer these questions. electron
Respiration is one of the characteristics of living things. microscope
influenza
List the other six characteristics.
PL
Now explain the meaning of each of the words in your list.
protein
replicate
RNA
virus
M
SA
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4.2 Viruses
What is a virus?
Viruses are very, very small. A virus is
much smaller than one of your cells.
You cannot see a virus with the kind of
microscope that you use in school.
To see a virus, you need to use a special
kind of microscope called an electron
microscope.
Viruses are not made of cells. They do not
E
have a cell membrane or cytoplasm. The
blue-green outer layer in the photograph
is a coat made of protein. There are little
pegs on the outside of this coat.
PL
The orange part inside contains a
substance called RNA. The RNA is
made of little threads that contain a
set of coded instructions for making
more viruses.
This scientist is working in Jakarta, Indonesia. She is using an electron
microscope. The microscope is the grey object on the right-hand
side of the photograph. It produces a picture on the screen in front
of the scientist.
M
SA
This photograph of viruses was taken by using an electron microscope. The viruses in the photograph look 100 000 times
bigger than they really are. It is almost impossible to imagine just how small a virus is.
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4 Grouping and identifying organisms
E
• an outer coat of protein
• some little threads of RNA, inside the protein coat
• some pegs on the outer coat.
You could take a photograph of your model, then stick the photograph into your
notebook.
PL
How viruses replicate
Viruses cannot do anything at all on their own. They do not respire,
feed, excrete or grow. They are not sensitive and cannot move.
Viruses have to get inside a living cell before they
can make copies of themselves.
M
The brown viruses in the photograph are H3N2
influenza viruses. This kind of virus can
invade (get inside) cells of birds, humans
and other mammals. The viruses get
into your body by going up your nose
when you breathe in. The little pegs
SA
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4.2 Viruses
This makes the animal whose cells are infected feel ill. H3N2 viruses
cause a very unpleasant and dangerous kind of influenza (flu).
In 1968–1969, these viruses killed approximately one million people.
These flu viruses are just one of thousands of
different kinds of viruses we know about. Each kind
of virus has a particular kind of cell that it infects.
Some viruses infect plant cells.
In 2019, a new virus appeared. We do not know
exactly where it came from, but scientists think
E
it developed in a wild animal and then spread to
humans. The new virus is similar to the viruses that
cause flu and colds. Its official name is SARS-CoV-2.
The illness it causes is called Covid-19. This stands for
coronavirus disease 2019. The virus quickly spread all
over the world.
PL
Many people get the virus without being ill at all,
or just have mild symptoms. But in some people,
it causes dangerous illness and even death.
Scientists will work hard for many years to find the
best ways of preventing this, including vaccination,
and drugs to treat Covid-19.
This is a drawing of a SARS-CoV-2 virus. The red bits
on the outside are called spike proteins. They help the
virus attach to cells and get inside.
M
Activity 4.2.1
Are viruses alive?
Some scientists consider that viruses are living organisms. Others
think that they are not.
In a group of three, discuss the question: Are viruses living
SA
organisms?
Make a list of reasons for your decision. Be ready to share your
ideas with others.
Summary checklist
I can describe what a virus is and how it replicates.
I can give reasons for classifying viruses as living or non-living.
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4 Grouping and identifying organisms
E
same or different species.
PL
All living things belong to groups called species.
Imagine you are looking at two birds in your garden.
They look quite similar, but are not exactly the same.
Discuss this question with your partner: How would you
decide if the two birds belong to the same species or two
different species?
Be ready to share your ideas.
fertile
identical
infertile
offspring
species
specimen
variation
M
SA
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4.3 What is a species?
Species
Scientists group living organisms into different kinds. Each kind of
organism is called a species.
Activity 4.3.1
Comparing two species of elephant
With a partner, look at the two pictures of elephants. These elephants belong to two
different species.
E
Make a list of the similarities that you can see between the two species of elephant.
Then make a list of differences that you can see between them.
PL
M
Indian elephant African elephant
All the organisms in a species share the same characteristics but they
are not all identical to each other. For example, some Indian elephants
have straighter tusks than others. They have pink markings on their
skin in different places. There is variation between the individual Indian
elephants.
Variation between individuals can sometimes make it difficult to decide
whether two organisms belong to the same species. To be sure, scientists
try to find out if they can reproduce with one another.
Indian elephants reproduce only with other Indian elephants. They do
not reproduce with African elephants. Each species reproduces only with
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4 Grouping and identifying organisms
other members of its own species. When they have offspring (children),
the offspring belong to the same species as their parents.
The offspring are fertile. This means they can also produce offspring.
Organisms that belong to different species cannot usually reproduce
with one another.
Very rarely, two organisms from different species do reproduce together.
This sometimes happens in a zoo. It can happen if two animals from
different species are put into the same enclosure.
For example, a male lion and female tiger in a zoo sometimes reproduce
E
together. They will only do this if they do not have a member of their
own species to reproduce with.
The young animals that are produced are called ligers. Ligers are healthy
animals. But ligers cannot reproduce. They cannot have offspring. They
are infertile.
PL
So, we can describe a species as a group of organisms that can reproduce
together to produce fertile offspring.
M
SA
A male lion (left) can breed with a female tiger (centre) to produce a liger (right).
Questions
1 Copy and complete these sentences.
Choose from these words.
bigger different identical similar
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4 Grouping and identifying organisms
E
Getting started Key words
PL
before. You want to know what its name is.
How would you try to find out? Try to think of at least three
ways in which you could do this. Which way do you think would
be the best?
M
SA
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4.4 Using keys
Identifying organisms
Biologists often want to identify an organism that they have found.
A good way to start is to look at pictures in a reference book, or on the
internet. The biologist may be able to find a picture of the organism,
with its name. But this does not always work.
Biologists also use keys
to help them to identify
organisms. A key is a set of
questions about the organism
E
you want to identify. The
answer to each question
takes you to another question.
You work through all of the
questions until you arrive at the
PL
name of the organism.
Here is a simple key to help
someone to identify an organism.
It is a dichotomous key.
Dichotomous means ‘branching
into two’.
You will have to imagine that you
have the whole animal to look at,
M
not just these pictures.
To use the key:
Does it have legs?
• Choose one organism
you want to identify. Yes No
• Starting at the top of Does it have more than six legs? Is its body made up of rings?
SA
• Follow the line to the crab Does it have four wings? earthworm slug
next question. Keep
going until you arrive
at the name of the Yes No
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4 Grouping and identifying organisms
Keys are sometimes arranged differently. Here is the same key set out
in a different way.
Instead of a question, the key starts with a pair of statements to
choose from.
Instead of arrows pointing to where you go next, there is a number
telling you which pair of statements to go to next.
1 a It has legs. go to 2
b It does not have legs. go to 3
E
2 a It has exactly six legs. go to 4
b It has more than six legs. crab
3 a Its body is made up of rings. earthworm
4
b
a
b
PL
Its body is not made up of rings.
It has four wings.
It has two wings.
Try working through the key to identify the dragonfly.
You will work through steps 1a, 2a, 4a.
Questions
slug
dragonfly
housefly
M
1 Using the key above, which steps would you go through to identify
the earthworm?
2 Explain why the key is called a dichotomous key.
SA
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4.4 Using keys
A B
E
C
PL D
M
SA
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4 Grouping and identifying organisms
Continued
Questions
1 Use this key to identify the four species of fish.
Remember:
• Take one fish at a time. Start with fish A.
• Start at the top of the key and work your way through the questions and answers
until you arrive at the name of the fish.
E
• Then do the same for fish B, and so on.
Does it have stripes?
Yes No
PL
Yes
Yes
Are the stripes vertical?
dragon fish
No
clown fish
No
zebra fish
horn shark
M
2 Here is the beginning of the same key, written out in the style that uses pairs of
statements for you to choose between.
1 a The fish has stripes. …………………….. go to 2
b The fish does not have stripes. …….…… horn shark
Write out the whole of the key in this style.
SA
Which style of key do you find easier to use? Why do you think
it is easier?
Summary checklist
I can use a dichotomous key to identify an organism.
I can write a key in a different style.
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4.5 Constructing keys
Getting started
E
Here are four questions that could be part of a dichotomous
key to identify some different plants.
• Is the plant tall?
•
•
•
PL
Do the flowers on the plant have five or more petals?
Does the plant have dark green leaves?
Are the leaves darker on the upper surface than on the
lower surface?
With a partner, think about these four questions.
Which two questions would not be good to use in a key?
Explain your answer.
M
SA
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4 Grouping and identifying organisms
Constructing a key
Look at the photographs of four learners.
Imagine you are going to construct a key to help someone to identify
these learners.
Step 1
Think of a way you can split the learners into two groups. For
example, you could split them into male and female learners.
E
So, your first question could be: Is the learner female?
Step 2 Deidre
Now look at just one of these groups – the female learners, for
Step 3 PL
example. Think of a way to split these into two. For example, you
could use the colour of their hair.
Ari Elsa
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4.5 Constructing keys
E
Yes No Yes No
PL
Now try writing your key in the other style, using pairs of statements, 1a and b, 2a and
b and so on.
You could use the same pairs of features as for your first key, or you could challenge
yourself to use different pairs.
Peer assessment
Exchange your key with a partner.
M
For each of the four statements below, give your partner:
2 marks if they did it really well
1 mark if they have done it quite well
0 marks if they have done it very badly, or not at all
SA
• They have written a key that is made up of pairs of statements to choose from.
• It is easy to choose between the statements each time.
• There are no more than three pairs of statements to choose from.
• The key works – someone can use it to identify the four learners.
With your partner, look at the marks you have given each other.
What could each of you do better next time?
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4 Grouping and identifying organisms
E
• It respires.
• It can sense changes in its environment.
• It has a brain.
a Write down each feature in the list that is a characteristic of all living things. [4]
b
PL
Write down two more characteristics of living things that are not included in
part a.
4.2 The pictures show some animals that belong to different groups.
A B C D E
[2]
M
Use the key to classify each animal into the correct class. [5]
SA
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4 Grouping and identifying organisms
4.3 A scientist studies birds in New Zealand. The photographs show two kinds of parakeet
that live there.
The scientist wants to find out if these two kinds of parakeet belong to different species.
E
PL
Yellow-crowned parakeet Red-crowned parakeet
She searches in suitable habitats for pairs of parakeets that are making nests.
She never finds a yellow-crowned parakeet that has paired up with a red-crowned
parakeet.
a The scientist concludes that the yellow-crowned parakeet and red-crowned
parakeet belong to two different species.
M
What evidence does she have for making this conclusion? [2]
b Suggest what the scientist should do to be even more certain that her
conclusion is correct. Choose from:
• looking at stuffed specimens of parakeets in a museum
SA
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4 Grouping and identifying organisms
A B C
E
PL
M
D E F
SA
Here is part of a key that someone could use to identify each of the flowers.
Copy and complete the key. [4]
1 a The flower has exactly four petals. …………………… Lunaria
b The flower has more than four petals. ……………….. go to 2
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5.1 Metals and non-metals
5 Properties of
materials
5.1 Metals and non-metals
E
In this topic you will:
•
•
PL
list the properties of metals and non-metals
learn about the uses of metals and non-metals.
Getting started
Look around the room you are in. Can you identify at least five
different metals?
How do you know that they are metals?
Key words
brittle
conduct
ductile
M
Compare your ideas with a partner. insulators
magnetic
malleable
materials
shatter
SA
shiny
sonorous
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5 Properties of materials
Metals
Metals are very useful materials. Materials are the
substances from which objects are made.
There are many different metals. Metals are used to do
different jobs.
Metals are strong and tough. They do not shatter when
dropped and they do not crack easily. They can hold large
weights without breaking. Iron is used for bridges because it
E
is strong.
Iron is malleable.
Metals are ductile, which means that they can be drawn out
into wires.
Copper is ductile.
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5.1 Metals and non-metals
Metals make a ringing sound like a bell when they are hit;
the word for this is sonorous.
E
Most metals do not melt easily. They have high melting
points and high boiling points. Mercury is the only metal
that is liquid at room temperature.
PL
Metals are good conductors of heat. When you touch
them they conduct heat energy away from the hand so they
A lot of heat is needed to melt metal.
M
feel cold.
SA
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5 Properties of materials
E
sound when they are hit, but they
Copper is used for electrical wiring because it conducts electricity
are not made of metal. well and is flexible.
Questions
1
2
3
4
5
6
PL
List ten metals.
Why are gold and silver used for jewellery?
Why is copper so useful?
What do ‘malleable’ and ‘ductile’ mean?
What are Olympic medals made from?
Where are metals found in the Periodic Table?
M
Think like a scientist
Properties of materials
In this task you will investigate metal items such as electrical wire, scissors and a hammer.
1 Describe each item.
SA
2 If you know what it is made from, name the metal. If you don’t know, try to find out.
3 Suggest which property of the metal is important in the function of this item.
4 Make a table of your results like this:
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5.1 Metals and non-metals
Non-metals
Non-metals are often very useful because of the chemical
reactions they have with other substances. There is a lot of
variation between non-metals.
E
Non-metals look dull. They do not reflect light very well and
the surface is not as smooth as metals.
Non-metals that are solids are brittle. If you drop them they
may shatter.
PL
Most non-metals do not conduct heat energy well. This is very
useful because some of them can be used to make handles for
cooking pans, for example.
Most non-metals do not conduct electricity. This is very useful
because some can be used to make coverings for electric plugs
and cables, for example. They are known as insulators; this
means they do not conduct heat or electricity.
Chlorine is used to kill bacteria. For Carbon is used to purify water and to Silicon is used to make computer chips.
example, it can be dissolved in water treat indigestion.
and then added to swimming pools.
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5 Properties of materials
Questions
7 Name five non-metals, other than sulfur and helium.
8 What is sulfur used for?
9 What property of helium makes it useful in balloons?
10 Where would you find the non-metals in the Periodic Table?
Summary checklist
I can recognise the properties of metals and non-metals.
E
I can identify the useful properties of metals and non-metals for a
particular function.
I can name ten metals and five non-metals.
PL
M
SA
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5.2 Comparing metals and non-metals
E
non-metals.
PL
What do the terms ‘ductile’, ‘sonorous’, ‘malleable’ and
‘brittle’ mean?
Draw cartoon diagrams to help you explain their meanings.
contact
distinguish
examine
M
SA
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5 Properties of materials
Metals Non-metals
• Most are solid at room temperature. • Many are gases at room temperature.
• They are shiny. • They are dull.
• They do not shatter. • They are brittle.
• They conduct heat energy well. • They do not conduct heat energy well.
E
• They conduct electricity. • Most do not conduct electricity.
• They are malleable.
• They are ductile.
PL
• They are sonorous.
M
SA
Questions
1 List five objects in the photograph of a market that are made of
metal and five that are made of non-metals.
2 A material is dull, brittle and does not conduct electricity. Is it a
metal or non-metal?
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5.3 Metal mixtures
E
Getting started Key words
PL B C D disrupt
steel
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5 Properties of materials
Alloys
Metal mixtures are called alloys. Alloys are made by mixing different
metals together and melting them. The atoms of the different metals mix
but do not bond together. The properties of the alloys are different from
the metals they contain.
Bronze is an alloy made by mixing copper and tin. Bronze is harder than
either copper or tin.
E
PL
M
People learnt to melt copper and tin together to make bronze a very long time ago. This
bronze head (left) was made in what is now Iraq, more than 4000 years ago. The statue on
the right was made in Greece, about 2500 years ago
SA
Steel is an alloy, but an unusual one because one of the elements in the
mixture is not a metal. Steel is a mixture of iron and carbon. Pure iron
is not hard enough to be very useful but when it is mixed with other
elements to form steel it is much harder.
Sometimes, chromium and nickel are also added to steel. This type of
steel does not rust and is used for cutlery.
The reasons why the alloys have different properties from the pure metal
is to do with the arrangement of the particles of the elements. In a pure
metal, the atoms are all the same size and arranged in regular rows. The
layers can slide over one another easily. This is what happens when the
metal is hit with a hammer. What do we call this property? This also
happens when the metal is stretched out. What do we call this property?
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5.3 Metal mixtures
force
When a force is applied, layers slide over one another easily in a pure metal.
E
force a different sized atom
disrupts the regular pattern
the atoms cannot slip past one
another easily now.
PL
An alloy. The layers of atoms can’t slide over each other as easily now. They get stuck in place.
This makes the alloy a lot harder and stronger than the original metal.
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5 Properties of materials
Continued
Inject a larger bubble into the middle of the dish. You do this by pushing harder and for
longer. You may have to have several goes to achieve it – it takes a bit of practice.
This is like adding an atom of a different metal. You now have a model of an alloy.
4 Can you see how this disrupts the regular pattern of bubbles? Describe what you see.
E
this? How well did it help you to understand the idea?
PL
The coins in your pockets are made from alloys. Pure metals
are too soft to withstand all the wear they get. The coins that
look silver are not made of silver – it is too soft and far too
expensive. The silver coins are made of alloys containing
copper and nickel. The copper coins contain copper, zinc
and tin. Coins must be hardwearing but also malleable enough
to be stamped with complex patterns.
M
Jewellery
Most gold jewellery is not pure gold; it is an alloy of gold and
copper. Pure gold is soft. If you used pure gold for something
like a wedding ring (that gets a lot of wear and tear) it would
SA
Aeroplanes
The metal used to build planes needs to be light but very
strong. Planes are mainly made of aluminium, but pure
aluminium would not be strong enough and the plane’s wings
would fall off because of the great stress put on them during
flight. By adding magnesium and copper, an alloy called
duralumin is formed. Duralumin is about five times stronger
than pure aluminium.
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5.3 Metal mixtures
Artificial joints
The joints in our bodies take a lot of wear and tear. Sometimes, the
joints are attacked by arthritis. This is a very painful and crippling
disease. Now people can be fitted with replacement joints. These are
made of plastic and alloys, often alloys of titanium.
E
PL X-ray of the pelvis showing a hip replacement.
M
Titanium hip joint
rames are made of shape memory alloy. This No information is given about the properties of
alloy is called Nitinol. Nitinol is made of shape memory alloys in the LB text, but question
nickel and titanium. 9 on p159 expects some knowledge of these.
Tech-Set: no comment within query log. Please
advise
Questions
1 What is an alloy?
2 Which properties of aluminium make it
useful for building planes?
3 Why is an alloy of aluminium used for
making planes instead of pure aluminium?
4 Pure gold is 24 carat gold. What does this mean?
5 Explain the difference between the purity of 18 carat gold and 24 carat gold.
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5 Properties of materials
E
elements such as lead, aluminium, manganese or silicon are added.
Look at the table of information about copper, zinc and brass.
Element or
mixture?
PL element element mixture
M
Appearance reddish brown soft silvery grey soft metal golden yellow, reddish
metal gold or silver soft alloy
Melting point 1085 °C 419.5 °C 900−1000 °C
Properties very ductile and less ductile and less ductile than
malleable malleable than copper copper; more
SA
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5.3 Metal mixtures
Look at the melting points: copper and zinc have just one temperature
listed. However, brass has a range of temperatures. There are
many different types of brass, which are made by using different
amounts of copper and zinc. So, there is no specific melting point for
brass; it depends on the proportions of copper and zinc that have been
used.
Another alloy of copper is bronze. Bronze is an alloy that is made by
mixing copper with tin. Sometimes, other elements such as manganese,
phosphorous, aluminium or silicon are added. Mixing different amounts
of copper and tin makes the different forms of bronze. Each different
E
mixture has its own different melting point.
Element or
mixture?
Appearance
PL element
white metal
mixture
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5 Properties of materials
Questions
10 Why is a range of temperatures given for the melting point
of bronze?
11 Give one property that brass and bronze share.
12 Give one property that copper and zinc share.
13 Give one difference in properties between copper and tin.
Summary checklist
E
I can describe some alloys and their uses.
I can explain that alloys have different properties from the metals
they are made from.
I can explain the differences in the hardness of metals
and their alloys using particle theory.
PL
M
SA
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5.4 Using the properties of materials to separate mixtures
E
• use what you know about mixtures to separate them
• choose apparatus to carry out a practical task
• carry out practical work in a safe way.
2
PL
Getting started
condenser
conical flask
filter funnel
filter paper
M
SA
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5 Properties of materials
Making mixtures
Mixtures contain different substances that are not combined together
chemically. You made a mixture with iron filings and sulfur in topic 2.7.
You separated the iron and sulfur in your mixture by using a magnet.
You used the difference in the properties of iron and sulfur to separate
them. Iron is magnetic; sulfur is not magnetic.
Separating mixtures
E
Copper sulfate and water
The evaporating dish contains a mixture of water and copper sulfate.
If it is left in a warm room, the water evaporates and leaves the copper
sulfate behind in the dish.
two liquids.
PL
Food dye and water
A mixture of food dye and water can be separated by using a piece
of apparatus called a condenser. It is used to separate mixtures of
The water and food dye mixture is heated and boils. The liquid water
reaches the temperature where it changes state and becomes a gas.
Water that is in the gas state is called steam when it has been formed by
The water evaporates and
M
leaves the copper sulfate in
boiling the water. The gas travels along the tube into the condenser. The the evaporating dish.
cold water that is circulating around the outside of the condenser cools the
gas down. This makes the gas condense back into liquid water. The liquid
water collects in the beaker. The food dye remains in the heated container.
The food dye and water have different properties that allow you to
SA
water out
100 °C the steam cools and
condenses as water
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5.4 Using the properties of materials to separate mixtures
Questions
1 Explain how the water in the flask changes to a gas.
2 Explain how the steam changes back into a liquid in the condenser.
3 Which different properties of the water and the food dye are used
to separate them?
E
Your task is to separate a mixture of sandy and salty water.
PL
sandy,
salty water
beaker
filter funnel
filter paper
conical flask
clear liquid
safety
glasses
tongs
clear
liquid
evaporating
dish
clay pipe
triangle
tripod
bunsen
burner
M
1 Prepare a filter paper and place it in a filter funnel. Place the funnel in the conical flask.
2 Pour the mixture into the funnel. Take care to add it slowly so that the mixture does not go
down the outside of the filter paper. Do not disturb the wet filter paper because it tears easily.
3 When you have filtered all the mixture, leave the filter paper in a warm place to dry.
SA
4 Place the clear liquid from the conical flask in an evaporating basin. Wear safety
glasses. Heat this gently. When the liquid starts to spit, remove it from the heat.
5 Leave the liquid in a warm place to evaporate.
Questions
1 Suggest why the sand remains in the filter paper.
2 One group of students thought their mixture was taking too long to filter so they used
a pencil to stir it up while it was in the filter paper. Explain why this is not a good idea.
3 What safety precautions should you take when heating the salty water?
4 How could you obtain the water from your mixture?
5 The salt left in the evaporating basin is a little dirty. Suggest what you could do to get
cleaner salt.
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5 Properties of materials
How carefully did you carry out this practical task? How well did
you consider safety? How could you improve the way you carry out
a practical next time you do one?
E
How can you separate the carbon from the salt?
What do you know about the properties of black carbon
carbon powder and table salt that might be
useful here?
PL
Make a plan of how you could do this.
Remember to think about safety.
Make a list of the equipment you would need.
Discuss it in your group.
Share your ideas with the class.
beaker salt
Did you change any of your ideas when you discussed them with the class?
M
Carry out your plan, once it has been checked for safety.
Questions
1 Which properties of the two solids did you decide to use to help separate them?
2 Write down your final list of the equipment you will need.
3 Write an outline of your final plan. Explain how the steps will enable you to separate
SA
the two solids. Draw diagrams if that helps to make your plan more clear.
4 What safety precautions should you take?
Self-assessment
How successful were you in separating the two solids? How could you improve your results?
Summary checklist
I can identify properties of different substances in a mixture and use
those to separate them.
I can choose appropriate equipment for a practical task.
I can carry out a practical task safely.
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5.5 Acids and alkalis
E
Getting started Key words
What do you think of when you hear the word ‘acid’? Write acid
down five words that describe what you think an acid is. Share alkalis
PL
these with a partner. Did you both come up with same or similar
words? Be prepared to share them with the class.
corrosive
flammable
harmful
irritate
oxidising
toxic
M
SA
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5 Properties of materials
E
PL
Foods containing fruits often contain acids.
M
Some acids are dangerous
Some acids are strong. They are corrosive. The bottles have
a hazard warning label. If strong acid gets onto your skin,
it will dissolve the skin. You will get a chemical burn.
Always use eye protection when using acids.
SA
dilute dilute
Acids can be diluted with water. This makes them Sulfuric Acid
hydrochloric Nitric Acid
Dilute acids are still harmful, they can irritate your skin and
eyes. The bottles have hazard warning labels.
If you spill acid, wash the area with lots of water. The water
dilutes the acid.
Questions
1 Name a food that contains acid.
2 Describe the taste of lemons and limes.
3 What does corrosive mean?
4 What should you do if you spill acid?
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5.5 Acids and alkalis
E
Common alkalis found in the laboratory are sodium hydroxide,
potassium hydroxide and calcium hydroxide.
Acids and alkalis are chemical opposites. They cancel each other out
when they are mixed together. The acidity or alkalinity of a substance is
PL
a chemical property of that substance.
sodium
hydroxide
M
All these products contain alkalis. Strong sodium hydroxide is corrosive.
SA
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5 Properties of materials
A substance that
can explode if it
E
Explosive comes into contact
with a flame or
heat.
Flammable
PL A substance that
can catch fire
easily.
M
A substance
that gives off a
large amount
Oxidising
of heat when in
SA
A substance that
can destroy living
Corrosive
tissue. It can cause
burns.
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5.5 Acids and alkalis
A substance that
Toxic
can poison you.
E
A substance that
Hazardous to the can kill or damage
environment living things in the
PL
Health hazard
environment.
A substance that
can cause harm
such as irritating
M
your skin and eyes.
SA
A substance that
Serious health can cause a serious
hazard problem to your
health.
When you use chemicals in the laboratory, make sure you look at the
hazard symbols and listen to advice on how to use them safely.
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5 Properties of materials
Activity 5.5.1
Learning the hazard warning symbols.
E
• one set with the hazard warning symbols on them
• one set with the names of the hazards on them
• one set with the details on them.
You must make up a game with these cards to help you
Peer-assessmentPL
learn the symbols and their meanings.
Play your game with a partner, and then play their game.
Was your partner’s game useful to help you learn the symbols? How could they improve
their game? How did your game compare?
M
Which methods of learning information like this are the most
helpful to you?
Summary checklist
SA
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5.6 Indicators and the pH scale
E
• learn how to make and use indicators
• use the pH scale to find out more about acids and alkalis.
PL
Draw one of the hazard warning symbols. Show it to your partner.
Can they identify it? Test each other on as many as you can
remember. Check up and see how many you got correct and how
many you forgot.
indicator
litmus
neutral
pH scale
universal
indicator
M
SA
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5 Properties of materials
Which is which?
These three containers all look the same. One contains water, one
contains acid and one contains alkali.
E
You can tell them apart when you add a few drops of an indicator. An
indicator turns one colour in an acid and a different colour in an alkali.
Red cabbage juice can be used as an indicator.
red cabbage
juice
PL
M
Red cabbage indicator turns acids red in acids, blue in water and yellow
in alkalis.. So, you now know what was in each beaker.
SA
Indicators can be made from the brightly coloured berries, flowers and
other parts of plants. These include:
• red cabbage
• blackcurrant
• beetroot.
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5.6 Indicators and the pH scale
Questions
1 How does an indicator show whether a substance is an acid or
an alkali?
2 What is the colour change when red cabbage juice is added to
lemon juice?
Litmus
Litmus is a very common indicator. It is a dye. You usually use litmus
E
paper, which is made by soaking absorbent paper in litmus solution.
Litmus turns red in acids. Litmus turns blue in alkalis. Litmus turns
purple when it is in a neutral substance. A neutral substance is one that
is neither acid nor alkali.
PL
Litmus turns purple in water. Water is neutral. This means water is
neither an acid nor an alkali.
This table shows the colours litmus goes in some substances and what
those colours mean.
Substance
hydrochloric acid
sodium hydroxide
Litmus colour
red
blue
Type of substance
acid
alkali
M
water purple neutral
lemon juice red acid
calcium hydroxide blue alkali
Questions
SA
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5 Properties of materials
E
pipettes, test tubes and a test-tube rack, safety glasses,
a range of laboratory chemicals, ethanol
Safety
1
2
3
4
PL
Make sure you are careful and read all
the hazard warning labels. Ethanol is
flammable.
Cut up the plant material.
Place some of the material into a pestle
and mortar and crush it.
Use a pipette to add a little ethanol.
Crush the plant material again.
plant pieces
pestle
motar
ethanol
chemicals.
7 Make a table to record the chemicals
you test and the colours you see. Keep crushing until Use a pipette to put the
the colour comes out. liquid into a test tube.
Self-assessment
Compare your indicator with litmus. Does your indicator turn the same colour as litmus?
Does it clearly show which is an acid and which is an alkali?
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5.6 Indicators and the pH scale
Other indicators
Litmus and other simple indicators just show if a substance is an acid or
an alkali. Universal indicator shows how acidic or alkaline a substance is.
The acidity or alkalinity of a substance is one of its chemical properties.
Universal indicator can change to many different colours. Universal
indicator is made up of a mixture of different indicators.
Type of Colour of
substance universal
E
indicator
weakly acid
neutral
weakly alkaline
strongly
alkaline
PL yellow
green
blue
purple
These strips of paper were soaked in
universal indicator solution and then
dried. The papers were then dipped
into different liquids.
M
The strength of acids and alkalis is measured on the pH scale.
Universal indicator changes colour and shows the pH of a substance.
The pH of a substance is one of the chemical properties of that substance.
SA
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
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5 Properties of materials
Questions
6 What does the pH scale measure?
7 What is the pH of a neutral solution?
8 A liquid has a pH of 1. What type of liquid is it?
9 What range of pH do strong alkalis have?
10 What colour does universal indicator turn in a liquid with a pH of 9?
11 Which colours does universal indicator turn in acids?
E
Think like a scientist
Investigating the pH of different substances
In this task you will test various laboratory chemicals with universal indicator to measure
PL
the pH and what type of chemical it is.
Safety
Read any hazard warning labels and take care not to spill substances on your skin.
M
Make sure you know what to do if you do spill anything.
1 Put on your safety glasses.
2 Pour a small amount of liquid from a bottle of liquid into a clean test tube.
3 Test with universal indicator.
SA
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5 Properties of materials
E
PL
M
SA
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5.6 Indicators and the pH scale
Continued
5 Where do the iron, carbon and other metals needed to make them come from?
Do they have to be extracted or treated in some way before they can be used?
6 What does this mean in terms of the cost of manufacture?
7 Where does the steel get used?
8 What does this mean in terms of transport costs?
9 Can you find out about any other specialist steels?
E
Present the information to your class.
You could make a poster, a slide presentation, a television interview with a
presenter and an ‘expert’, a newspaper article or you could use any other way
to present your information.
PL
M
SA
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5 Properties of materials
E
and if you tap them they like a bell. Metals
heat energy and . Metals are , which means
they can be beaten into shape. They are , which means they
can be drawn out into wires. [6]
5.2 a
5.3 a
b
PL
Why aren’t ‘silver’ coins made of pure silver?
Explain, using particle theory, why alloys are harder than the metals they
are made from.
Which property of metals is most useful when:
i
ii
copper is used for electrical wiring
gold is used for jewellery
[2]
[4]
[1]
[1]
M
iii iron is used to build bridges [1]
iv stainless steel is used for cooking pans? [1]
b State three differences between metals and non-metals. [3]
5.4 Marcus has dropped a glass bottle of copper sulfate crystals on the floor and
SA
it has broken into small pieces. He has swept the broken glass and crystals into
a container. Explain how he can separate the mixture of glass and copper
sulfate crystals. Remember to include a list of equipment he needs and
to explain how he will stay safe. You could draw diagrams to help explain. [6]
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5 Properties of materials
5.5 Litmus is a dye made from a living organism. It is red in acid. It is blue in alkali.
It is purple in a neutral solution.
a What is the correct scientific term for a substance that changes colour in
this way? [1]
b What colour is litmus in a liquid of pH4? [1]
c What colour is litmus in water? [1]
5.6 This truck is loading acid at a factory.
E
PL
M
a The driver has placed an orange warning notice nearby. [1]
SA
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5 Properties of materials
5.7 The table gives information about the melting points and boiling points of
some metals and non-metals.
E
helium −270 −269
oxygen −219 −183
mercury −39 357
aluminium 660 2400
a
PL
nickel
sulfur
sodium
1455
119
98
Copy and complete these tally charts.
Melting point in °C
up to 0
Tally
2150
445
900
Boiling point in °C
up to 0
Tally
[2]
M
0 to 499 0 to 999
500 to 999 1000 to 1999
1000 to 1499 2000 to 2999
SA
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5 Properties of materials
E
Number of metals
2
and non-metals
PL
SEE QUERY LOG
To help with BOTH diagrams, it
would be more useful here to have
'Temperature in oC' with no numbers
along the axis.
Consider using squared paper rather
than graph paper for bar charts.
Tech-Set: no comment within
1
0
M
the query log. Please advise up to 0 0–499 500–999 1000–1499
Melting point in °C
Use the tables and your diagrams to help answer the following questions.
c Which metals and/or non-metals are gases at room temperature of 25 °C? [1]
SA
d Which metals and/or non-metals are liquid at room temperature of 25 °C? [1]
e Which metals and/or non-metals are solid at room temperature of 25 °C? [2]
f Which metal and/or non-metal has the smallest difference between its
melting point and its boiling point? [1]
g Which metal or non- metal has the largest difference between its melting
point and its boiling point? [1]
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6 Earth physics
6 Earth physics
6.1 Sound waves
E
In this topic you will:
• learn how sound comes from vibrations
• discover how particles vibrate in a sound wave
• find out why sound does not travel in a vacuum.
2
3
PL
Getting started
backwards and
forwards
loudness
medium
particles
M
4 Give two examples of low-pitched sounds. pitch
sound wave
speed of sound
SA
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6.1 Sound waves
E
If you hit a drum with more force, it vibrates
more. This makes a louder sound.
If you touch the front of your neck while you
are speaking, you can feel a vibration. The
PL
vibration comes from your vocal cords, which
make the sound when you speak.
Loudspeakers produce sounds from television,
radio and music players. If you put small objects
into the paper cone of a loudspeaker, the objects
will bounce around. This shows that the paper
cone in the loudspeaker is vibrating.
Not all sounds are the same.
Hitting a drum causes the drum to vibrate, which makes
the sound.
M
Sounds can vary in both loudness and pitch.
Thunder makes a sound with a low pitch.
A baby crying makes a sound with a high pitch.
Questions
SA
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6 Earth physics
E
3 Some flying insects make a buzzing sound.
Describe what causes this sound.
Sound waves
PL
Sound travels from a vibrating object to our ears.
This is called a sound wave.
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6.1 Sound waves
E
energy.
The vibration of particles in the air is transferred to
other objects. When the vibration is transferred, the
other objects will start to vibrate.
PL
The glass in the bottom right picture has broken
because of the vibrations of a high-pitch sound.
These people are wearing ear protection while
working near an aeroplane.
M
SA
This boy has thrown some feathers in the air. When they hit the floor Vibrations from sound can break objects.
there will be a sound but the vibrations will be too small for his ears
to detect.
Questions
4 Copy the sentence and use the correct word from the list to complete it.
current wind wave stream
Sound travels through air as a sound………………… .
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6 Earth physics
E
A B C D
7
PL
Thunder can make objects inside a room vibrate.
Explain what causes the objects to vibrate.
A fly is walking up a glass window. The fly’s feet make vibrations.
Explain why people cannot hear the sound of the fly walking.
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6.1 Sound waves
Vibrations in a vacuum
E
To hear a sound, there must be:
• a vibration to make the sound
• a medium containing particles through which
PL
the sound wave can travel.
You saw in Topic 3.3 that a vacuum is a space
where there are no particles.
As there are no particles in a vacuum,
there is nothing to vibrate to make a sound wave.
Therefore, sound will not travel in a vacuum.
These dolphins can use sound to communicate under water.
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6 Earth physics
E
9 The Moon has no atmosphere. People who went to the Moon wore
suits that contained air.
The people who went to the Moon worked close together.
PL
They did work such as hammering and digging.
Explain why the people doing this work could not hear it happening.
10 Science fiction films are made in studios on Earth.
These films often show explosions in space.
There is usually a loud bang when the explosion happens.
Explain whether you would really hear an explosion in space.
M
Activity
Modelling sound waves
Work in groups or as a whole class.
SA
1 Stretch the spring across a smooth, flat surface such as a long bench or the floor.
2 Use chalk or small pieces of paper to mark positions on the spring. These represent
particles.
3 One person holds one end of the spring and keeps it still.
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6.1 Sound waves
Continued
4 Another person holds the opposite end and moves the end of the spring backwards
and forwards, as shown in the diagram. This will make a wave in the spring.
E
direction of hand movement
Questions
2
3
4
PL
In your groups, discuss the answers to these questions.
1 In which direction does the wave in the spring move?
Does the whole spring move in that direction?
In which direction do the marks that represent particles move?
What did the person holding the fixed end of the spring feel from the spring?
M
• Did you see the representation of movement of particles in the wave?
• Did this help you understand how particles in air move in a sound wave?
SA
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6 Earth physics
E
Work in groups. echo
Discuss how you would describe the movement of particles in a effect on the
sound wave. sound
PL
For a challenge, try to do this without a diagram and without
moving your hands.
property
reflected
unwanted
M
SA
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6.2 Reflections of sound
Reflections
One property of all waves is that they can be reflected
from surfaces. Therefore, sound waves can be reflected.
Reflection is like bouncing a ball off a wall. When a
wave is reflected, the wave behaves like the ball. The
only difference is that a wave is not affected by gravity.
A sound wave travelling towards a wall will hit the
wall and come back.
E
Sound waves reflect best from large, smooth, flat
surfaces. Surfaces such as glass, tiles, flat metal and
smooth concrete give good reflections of sound.
If you stand between two flat walls you can hear the
room.
PL
reflection from sound. You can do this in an empty
Stand between two flat walls and clap your hands once. This room would give good reflections of sound.
What do you hear?
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6 Earth physics
E
Boats can use echoes to find the depth of water
under the boat.
A sound is sent from the bottom of the boat. The The sound wave from the bat (thin lines) echoes off
sound travels through the water and reflects off the the insect (wider lines).
solid ground. The echo comes back to the boat. The
PL
time taken for the echo to come back can be used to
work out the depth.
Notice that the distance travelled by the sound is
double the distance from the object making the
sound to the reflecting surface. The sound has to travel
from the object to the reflecting surface and back
again. You can see this in the picture of the bat and
insect, and in the picture of the boat.
M
Echoes can also be used to make images from inside
the body. Sounds sent into the mother’s body echo
back out of her body. This method is used to make
the image of the unborn baby.
SA
Key
sound w
waves
from shi
ship
reflected
sound waves
This image of an unborn baby was made by using echoes. This boat is using an echo to check the depth of the water.
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6.2 Reflections of sound
Unwanted echoes
Sometimes echoes are unwanted. For example, when recording music,
echoes change the sound. A musical note that is played once will repeat
with an echo. This effect will spoil the recording.
A room with large flat walls would give many echoes.
The picture on the left shows how the walls of a room are changed to
stop echoes. This room can now be used to record music without the
effect of echoes.
E
In a theatre, the audience needs to hear the voices of people on the stage.
If there were echoes in a theatre, the voices would not be clear. Theatres
are designed to stop echoes. Theatres usually have no large flat surfaces
that could cause echoes.
PL
M
The shapes on the walls of this room are made to The design of this theatre will stop echoes.
stop echoes.
SA
Questions
1 Which statement describes what happens to a sound to make
an echo?
Write the letter.
A The pitch of the sound increases.
B The pitch of the sound decreases.
C The sound gets reflected.
D The sound gets louder.
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6 Earth physics
E
3 Arun goes to the same music concert in two different theatres, A and B.
The theatres are shown in the pictures.
PL
M
A B
4 Zara has an empty room where she can practise playing her drums.
Which one of these materials could she put on the walls to stop
echoes when she plays?
Write the letter.
A flat wood sheets
B shiny metal sheets
C soft thick curtains
D large flat mirrors
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Tech-Set: Please advise as there has been no
instances of "Extension question" being used in any 6.2 Reflections of sound
of the previous books.
E
The sound reflects back to the ship.
The speed of sound in water is 1500 metres
per second.
The time taken for the sound to go from the ship and back to the
PL
ship is 0.2 seconds.
Use this equation to calculate the distance from the boat to the fish:
distance = speed × time
Remember that the distance travelled by the sound wave in 0.2
seconds is from the ship to the fish and back again.
Activity
M
Modelling echo location
Some animals, such as bats and dolphins, use echo location to find food. In this activity,
you will use light and a mirror to model echo location.
a small plane mirror that can be propped up vertically, a flashlight or ray box,
a piece of card or wood that will cover the mirror when placed horizontally,
four items to support the piece of card over the mirror
You need to work in pairs, as learner A and learner B. Then swap roles.
Learner A
1 Place the mirror vertically on a desk without letting your partner see.
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6.3 Structure of the Earth
E
Getting started Key words
Draw and label a diagram to show what the Earth would look like continental
if it were cut through. core
crust
PL drift
magma
mantle
molten
tectonic plates
M
SA
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6 Earth physics
E
core is solid.
The rocks found in the crust contain metals and non-metals. The pie
chart below on the right shows the approximate proportions of the
most common elements in the Earth’s crust.
iron, Fe
calcium, Ca
others
M
oxygen, O
Questions
SA
1 State the name of the part of the Earth that forms the centre.
2 Name the metals found in this part.
3 Name the most common non-metal in the Earth’s crust.
4 Name the most common metal in the Earth’s crust.
People used to think that the Earth was only a few thousand years old.
They thought the Earth had never changed.
In 1912, a German scientist called Alfred Wegener suggested that,
millions of years ago, all the land was one large continent. Over
millions of years the land broke up and drifted apart. This idea is called
continental drift.
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6.3 Structure of the Earth
E
Laurasia
Pangea
PL
225 million years ago
North
America
Europe
Asia North
America
Gondwana
Europe Asia
M
Africa India
Africa
South
South
America India America Australia
Australia
Antarctica Antarctica
SA
These drawings show how the continents have drifted apart over a very long time.
We now know that the Earth’s crust is made up of large tectonic plates.
Some of the plates are under the oceans: they are called oceanic plates.
Some of the plates form the continents: they are called continental plates.
These tectonic plates move slowly on the liquid rock called magma
beneath them. This is how continental drift occurs.
The plates only move about 4 cm each year, which is about same speed
as your fingernails grow.
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6 Earth physics
Key
plate boundary
Eurasian plate
Juan de North American Pacific
Fuca plate plate plate
Arabian
Caribbean Indian Philippine
plate
plate plate Sea plate
Cocos plate African plate
Nazca South
Pacific plate American
plate plate Indo-Australian plate
E
Antarctic plate
Scotia plate
Questions
5
6
7
8
PL
What evidence did Wegener have for his idea of continental drift?
Why did some people reject his idea?
Which tectonic plate do you live on?
What causes the tectonic plates to move?
M
Activity 6.3.1
Drifting plates
You are going to model continental drift.
Safety
Take care when heating the water, as the dish may get very hot.
1 Pour some water into the heat-proof dish.
2 Place the pieces of polystyrene on the water. Wait for them to stop moving.
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6 Earth physics
E
Getting started Key words
PL
different.
extinct
fold mountains
geological
change
inactive
lava
magnitude
plat boundary
M
subduction
volcano
SA
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6.4 Changes in the Earth
Geological change
The places where tectonic plates meet are called plate boundaries.
Geological change happens at plate boundaries. This is because the
tectonic plates are always moving. Some of the geological change is very
slow – it happens over millions of years. But some of the geological
change is very sudden and violent.
This illustration shows the plate boundaries around the edge of the
Pacific Ocean. There are many geological changes and events, such as
E
volcanic eruptions and earthquakes, here. This area is often called the
Pacific Ring of Fire.
Key
plate boundary
Eurasian plate
PL Philippine
Sea plate
Pacific plate
Cocos
plate
North American plate
Nazca
Caribbean
plate
South
American
ring of fire
volcano
M
plate plate
Indo-Australian plate
Movement of plates
The movement of tectonic plates creates three types of plate boundaries.
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6 Earth physics
E
Because the plates are
very large and heavy, there
is a lot of friction between
the plates. Over the years,
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6.4 Changes in the Earth
The Himalayas, Rocky Mountains and Ural Mountains were all formed when tectonic plates pushed against each other.
E
Volcanoes
ash cloud
Volcanoes are usually formed at the plate crater
boundaries when magma from the mantle
PL
rises up through cracks in the Earth’s crust.
At the Earth’s surface, magma erupts to
form lava flows and ash deposits. Magma
is the name for liquid rock when it is
underground. Lava is the name for liquid
rock when it is on the surface. The lava
and ash harden as they cool to form new
rocks. So each time the volcano erupts, it
gets bigger.
lava flow
magma
secondary vent
main vent
M
The parts of a volcano.
Sometimes, if the magma is really thick,
and contains dissolved gas, pressure builds
up and the eruption is violent. Gases and
rock shoot up through the opening. Violent
eruptions can even cause avalanches and
earthquakes – and tsunamis if the volcano
SA
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6 Earth physics
Earthquakes
Some earthquakes are extremely violent and
cause a lot of damage. Some are so slight that
they only register on scientific instruments.
The size or magnitude of the earthquake
depends on the size of the faults at the plate
boundaries, and how far the rocks move
when the earthquake happens. In the largest
earthquakes, the rocks can move tens of
E
metres in seconds.
2
3
PL
Write the letter.
A They never move.
B They move in different ways.
C They always move towards each other.
D They always move away from each other.
Explain how tectonic plates can cause fold mountains to form.
Which word is used to describe the strength of an earthquake?
M
Write the letter.
A force
B energy
C magnitude
SA
D destruction
4 Explain what causes an earthquake.
Activity
Model for moving tectonic plates
Try out these models to show what happens where tectonic plates meet.
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6 Earth physics
E
Getting started Key words
Discuss the answers to these questions. Work in groups of three lunar eclipse
or four. opaque
1 Which of these describes how light travels? partial
2
3
PL
in curved paths in straight lines in circles
randomly in straight and curved paths
Explain how a shadow is formed.
Decide whether each of these statements is true or false.
The Moon gives out its own light.
The Sun gives out its own light.
ray
shadow
solar eclipse
total
M
SA
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6.5 Solar and lunar eclipses
Shadows
An opaque object is an object that
will not allow light to pass through.
When an opaque object passes in
front of a source of light, a shadow
will form.
Look at the shadow of the aeroplane
in the picture. The shadow looks
E
dark because the light from the Sun
has been blocked from reaching the
ground. The aeroplane is made from
metal which is opaque.
The grass around the shadow looks
PL
brighter because light from the Sun is
reaching those areas.
The next picture shows how the shadow is formed.
The aeroplane is opaque so it makes a shadow on the ground.
Light travels in straight lines called rays. Light rays from the Sun cannot
pass through the aeroplane, so light rays that reach the aeroplane cannot
reach the ground.
Imagine you were standing on the grass. When the shadow of the
aeroplane passes you, it will seem to go dark. When the shadow has
gone, it will get brighter again.
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6 Earth physics
E
The diagram shows how the shadow of the Earth.
the Moon is formed on the Earth. In the
middle of the shadow, all the light rays
from the Sun are blocked. People in the
middle of the shadow observe a total
solar eclipse.
PL
The left picture shows what a total solar
eclipse looks like.
Away from the middle of the shadow of
the Moon, some of the light rays from
the Sun can reach the Earth. Away from
the middle of the shadow there is a
partial solar eclipse.
A total solar eclipse is seen from
the middle of the
Moon’s shadow.
A partial solar eclipse is seen
away from the middle of the
shadow of the Moon.
M
The right picture shows what a partial
solar eclipse looks like.
The picture below shows a series of photographs taken as the Moon
passes between the Earth and the Sun.
The picture on the next page shows what a solar eclipse looks like from
SA
space. The dark part of the Earth is in the shadow of the Moon. At the
centre of the shadow, there is a total solar eclipse. Away from the centre,
there is a partial solar eclipse.
The Moon is passing between the Sun and the Earth in these photographs.
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6.5 Solar and lunar eclipses
You must never look directly at the Sun, even when there is an
eclipse. The light from the Sun is very bright and can cause
permanent damage to your eyes.
Lunar eclipse
A lunar eclipse happens when the Earth comes between the
Sun and the Moon.
The Earth is also an opaque object, so the Earth blocks the
E
light from the Sun. The shadow of the Earth is formed on
the Moon.
The dark part of the Earth is in the shadow of
The diagram shows how the shadow of the Earth forms on the Moon. People here see a solar eclipse.
the Moon.
PL
The picture shows a series of three photographs of the
shadow of the Earth passing across the Moon.
You might think that solar and lunar eclipses should happen every
month. The Moon takes 28 days to orbit the Earth, but the orbit of the
Moon is tilted slightly. The orbit of the Moon is not exactly in the same
plane as the orbit of the Earth around the Sun.
It is only when the Sun, Earth and Moon are in the same straight line
that eclipses can happen.
M
partial lunar
eclipse when
Moon is here
eclipse when
Moon Moon is here
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6 Earth physics
E
The Earth is passing between the Sun and the Moon in these photographs.
Questions
1
PL
Which of these describes how a solar eclipse happens?
Write the letter.
A The Sun comes between the Moon and the Earth.
B The Earth comes between the Moon and the Sun.
C The Moon comes between the Earth and the Sun.
M
2 Which of these describes how a lunar eclipse happens?
Write the letter.
A The Sun comes between the Moon and the Earth.
B The Earth comes between the Moon and the Sun.
C The Moon comes between the Earth and the Sun.
SA
3 Explain why a solar eclipse can only ever be seen in the daytime.
4 Write true or false for this statement.
A total lunar eclipse can only ever be seen in the daytime.
Explain your answer.
Activity 6.5.1
Classroom eclipses
In this activity, you will make models to show how eclipses happen.
Work in groups of four or five.
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6 Earth physics
Project
Volcanoes and earthquakes
The actions of volcanoes and earthquakes change the rocks and the shape of the
land on Earth.
You have four tasks to complete in your group.
1 Make a model to show how a volcano erupts or an earthquake takes place.
You may use any materials you choose but you need to label the parts.
E
2 Explain how the volcano erupts or an earthquake takes place. You can do this by
making a poster or writing a statement as if you are an expert who needs to explain,
to a journalist, why a recent volcanic eruption or earthquake has happened.
3 Research a recent volcanic eruption or earthquake. Write a report about:
4
•
•
PL
the immediate damage it has caused, and how this affects people
the long-term effects to the lives of people, plants and wildlife in the area.
You will present your model and explanations to the whole class.
Research how scientists detect movements in the Earth’s crust. Include how
this technology:
•
•
has developed over the last 2000 years
can be used to make predictions about earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
M
SA
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6 Earth physics
6.2 Arun drops his pen on the floor. Sofia hears the pen hit the floor.
Copy the sentences and use words from the list to complete them. [2]
E
You can use the words once, more than once or not at all.
the pen sound wave Sofia’s ears air particles
PL
The ………………… travels through the ………………… .
6.3 Draw an arrow to show the direction of a sound wave. Your arrow can be in any direction.
Now show the direction of movement of the particles in your sound wave.
6.4 A slinky spring can be used to show how particles move in a sound wave.
Which of these describes this use of a slinky spring?
modelling predicting concluding observing
[3]
[1]
M
6.5 a Match the parts of the of the Earth’s structure, A–D, with the descriptions, W–Z.
[2]
B Outer core
C Mantle
D Crust
Descriptions
W molten iron and nickel at the centre
X solid outer layer of the Earth
Y molten rock below the crust
Z solid iron and nickel at the centre of the Earth
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6 Earth physics
6.6 State what can happen when tectonic plates rub against each other in opposite
directions. [1]
6.7 Describe how new fold mountains form. [2]
6.8 Copy the sentence and use words from the list to complete it.
Each word can be used once, more than once or not at all. [2]
light the Sun the Moon shadow
E
A solar eclipse happens when the ………………… of ………………… forms on
the Earth.
6.9 Make two copies of this diagram. Your copies do not have to be accurate.
a
b
PL Sun Earth
Add the Moon to your first diagram to show how a lunar eclipse happens.
Add the Moon to your second diagram to show how a solar eclipse happens.
[1]
[1]
M
SA
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7 Microorganisms
in the environment
7.1 Microorganisms
E
In this topic you will:
•
•
PL
learn about the different kinds of microorganism
grow some microorganisms on agar jelly.
Getting started
agar jelly
algae
bacteria
M
Can you name two diseases caused by bacteria?
colony
2 What other kinds of organisms can cause disease?
fungi
microorganism
mushroom
Petri dish
SA
protozoa
single-celled
sterile
toadstool
yeast
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7 Microorganisms in the environment
What is a microorganism?
A microorganism is a living organism that is so small that you can only
see it clearly by using a microscope.
Like all living organisms, microorganisms are made of cells. Many
microorganisms are made of only one cell: they are single-celled.
There are several different kinds of microorganism. They include
bacteria, microscopic fungi, protozoa and algae. Each of these
microorganisms is described later in this topic.
E
Bacteria
Bacteria are everywhere. (Bacteria is a plural
is bacterium.)
PL
word. The singular word, for just one of them,
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7.1 Microorganisms
Questions
1 Viruses are even smaller than bacteria.
Suggest why they are not usually said to
be microorganisms.
E
2 We can see yeast on the surface of
fruit. Why is yeast classed as a microorganism?
Growing microorganisms microscope. If you look closely, you can see little buds
PL
A single microorganism is too small to see without
a microscope, but when left to grow, a single cell of
a bacterium or fungus divides repeatedly to make a
collection of many cells. This collection of cells is
called a colony. The colonies are big enough for you
to see without a microscope.
This can be done safely in the laboratory. Scientists let
microorganisms grow in a Petri dish containing a
growing out of some of the cells. This is how yeast
reproduces. Yeast is a microscopic fungus.
M
special kind of jelly, called agar jelly.
The dish and the jelly have to be sterile. This means Petri dish agar jelly
that any living organisms on them have been killed.
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7.1 Microorganisms
E
PL
These microorganisms are in a drop of pond water.
M
Questions
3 Some of the microorganisms in the photograph are not single-celled.
How are their cells arranged?
4 Some of these microorganisms have cells like animal cells, and some
have cells like plant cells.
SA
Summary checklist
I can explain what a microorganism is.
I can name some different kinds of microorganism.
I can describe how to grow microorganisms on agar jelly.
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7 Microorganisms in the environment
E
• think about how well food chains and food webs describe
feeding relationships.
1
2
PL
Try to answer these questions on your own.
Tigers eat deer. Deer eat grass. Write this as a food chain.
Tigers also eat langur monkeys. Deer are also eaten by
leopards. Add those animals to your food chain to make a
food web.
carnivore
consumer
ecology
food chain
food web
herbivore
predator
M
prey
producer
SA
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7.2 Food chains and webs
E
In this topic, you will look at how food chains and food webs describe
how energy, in the form of food, is transferred between animals and
plants. In the next topic, you will look at how microorganisms fit into
food chains and food webs.
Food chains
PL
Arun has chicken and rice for lunch. It gives him a lot of energy.
The food you eat gives you energy.
How did the energy get into the food?
The energy in food begins in the Sun. Energy from the Sun reaches the
Earth in sunlight.
Plants use energy from sunlight to make their own food. Some of the
M
energy from the sunlight goes into the food that the plant stores in its
roots, stems, fruits and leaves.
When an animal – such as Arun – eats part of the plant, it eats the food
the plant made. This is how the animal gets energy. This is called energy
transfer.
You can show how the energy passes from the Sun into the rice, and
SA
The arrows in the food chain show how energy is passed from the Sun to
the plant, and then is transferred to the rice, and then to Arun.
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7 Microorganisms in the environment
The first organism in a food chain is a producer. Plants use energy from
the Sun to produce food.
All the other organisms in a food chain are consumers. Animals are
always consumers. They have to eat ready-made food to get their energy.
They consume (eat) plants or other animals.
Consumers that consume only plants are herbivores.
Consumers that consume other animals are carnivores.
Animals that catch, kill and eat other animals are predators. The animals
they eat are their prey.
E
Questions
1 The chicken that Arun ate for lunch ate wheat. Wheat is a plant.
Draw a food chain showing how the energy passed from the Sun to
Food webs PL
Arun when he ate the chicken.
Draw a food chain showing how energy from the Sun passed into you
when you ate one of the things that you had for breakfast or lunch.
Here are two more food chains. These food chains describe part of
the feeding network of plants and animals on the African plains.
acacia tree springbok cheetah
M
grass termite aardvark leopard
The diagram on the next page shows how the organisms in these two
food chains, and some other organisms, are connected by their feeding
habits. This diagram is a food web.
SA
Put your finger on the acacia tree in the food web. Then move it to the
springbok, then to the cheetah. You are tracing the path of the energy as it
transfers along a food chain.
Now do the same for another food chain – the one that begins with grass
and ends with a leopard.
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7.2 Food chains and webs
leopard cheetah
hyena aardvark
E
PL springbok zebra termite
M
acacia grass
Questions
SA
3 Write down two more food chains that you can find in the food
web diagram.
4 Write the names of the two producers in the food web.
5 How many consumers are there in the food web?
6 How many herbivores are there in the food web?
7 Write the names of two carnivores from the food web.
8 Write the names of two predators and their prey, from the food web.
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7 Microorganisms in the environment
Activity
Describing a food web
Work in a group of four or five. Your task is to write a series of descriptions that someone
else can use to build a food web using the cards and arrows.
E
• some cards that you can write on
• some lined paper
• some arrows cut out of card or paper
2
PL
Write the names of the organisms in the food web on the cards, one name on each
card.
Write the descriptions on lined paper. For example, for the African food web, some of
your descriptions could be:
Springbok eat acacia trees.
Termites are eaten by aardvarks.
Cheetahs and leopards eat zebras.
M
3 When your group has finished writing the descriptions, take your cards and arrows to
another group. Ask this group to use your descriptions to build the food web.
Self-assessment
Could the other group use your descriptions to build the food web?
SA
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7 Microorganisms in the environment
E
Getting started Key words
PL
A microorganism is ………………… .
Be ready to share your ideas with the rest of the class.
mould
organic matter
rot
M
SA
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7.3 Microorganisms and decay
E
The microorganisms have changed the apple. They
have made it decay. Organisms that make things
decay are called decomposers. Many different kinds of
microorganisms – including some kinds of bacteria and
PL
microscopic fungi – are decomposers.
Apples come from plants, which are living organisms.
Any substance that has been made by a living organism (by a plant or
animal) is called organic matter. So, apples are organic matter.
Some microorganisms can break down organic matter when they feed
The spots on the apple are colonies of fungi.
on it. This is what has caused the apple to decay. The microscopic fungi
have broken down the crisp, fresh apple and made it become brown and
soft. They have made the apple rot.
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Activity 7.3.1
What can microorganisms decay?
Here are three questions.
First, think quietly about the answers to the questions on your own.
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When your teacher tells you to, turn to your partner and discuss your ideas.
Be ready to share your answers with the rest of the class.
Questions
1 Which of these things are made of organic matter?
bread water leather rock wood fruit
2 Think of two more things that are made of organic matter, and two more things that
are not made of organic matter.
3 Which of the things in your answers to Questions 1 and 2 can be broken down by
microorganisms?
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7 Microorganisms in the environment
Questions
1 Some microorganisms are decomposers. Explain what this means.
2 Describe one way in which decay by microorganisms is not useful.
3 Suggest one way in which decay by microorganisms is useful.
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them to make a conclusion.
3
PL
• 2 plastic bags or some transparent food wrap
• a dropper pipette
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7.3 Microorganisms and decay
6
Continued
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growing on it.
Questions
1
2
3
PL
This bread has several patches of blue mould This is what bread mould looks like through a microscope.
You can see the tiny threads that it is made of.
Compare the results for the bread in the warm place and the bread in the cold place.
Did other people in your class get similar results? If they were not the same, suggest
possible reasons for the differences.
Make a conclusion from the results of your investigation.
M
Self-assessment
1 For each of these statements about your experiment, decide whether you did it
very well, fairly well or not at all:
• I was careful to add the same amount of water to each piece of bread.
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7 Microorganisms in the environment
E
• the variable you will change, and how you will do this
• the variable you will observe or measure, and how you will do this
• the variables you will keep the same
•
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the results you predict you will obtain if the hypothesis is correct.
You may be able to do your experiment. If you can, collect results and use them to
make a conclusion.
Summary checklist
I can explain how microorganisms make things decay.
I can explain what a decomposer is.
M
I can use the results of my experiment to make a conclusion.
I can decide which variables to change, measure and keep the
same in an experiment.
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7.4 Microorganisms in food webs
7.4 Microorganisms in
food webs
In this topic you will:
• draw and interpret food webs that include microorganisms
as decomposers
E
• think about how microorganisms contribute to food webs.
is correct.
1
2
3
PL
With a partner, discuss whether each of these statements
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7 Microorganisms in the environment
Roles of decomposers
No-one would want to eat a rotten apple. The microorganisms that
make an apple decay have spoiled the food.
But most of the time, decay by microorganisms is useful.
Microorganisms break down dead bodies and animal waste. They
decompose this material. Almost all decomposers are microorganisms.
Fungi and bacteria are the most important decomposers.
If the dead bodies and waste are not broken down by decomposers, they
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would just build up. There would be heaps of dead plants, dead animals
and animal dung everywhere.
But there is an even more important reason why decomposers are useful.
The dead bodies and waste contain substances that living organisms
can use to supply them with energy, or to help them to grow. These
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substances are called nutrients.
When microorganisms decay organic matter, they return the nutrients to
the soil. Plants can then use the nutrients to help them to grow. This is
really helpful for the plants.
This also helps animals, because there are more plants to eat.
M
SA
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7 Microorganisms in the environment
E
with decomposers added to it.
python
fruit bat
Questions
PL banana
parrot microorganisms
M
1 Write a food chain of your own. Add decomposers to your food
chain.
2 Look at the food web above. Are decomposers producers or
consumers? Explain your answer.
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Activity 7.4.2
Are all decomposers microorganisms?
In this activity, you will think about how fungi fit into
food chains.
Look at the photograph.
The toadstools in the photograph are not
microorganisms. You can see them easily, without a
microscope.
In the photograph, the part of the fungus that you
cannot see is inside the log, breaking it down.
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7.4 Microorganisms in food webs
Activity 7.4.3
Questions
In a group of three, discuss these questions about the photograph. Be ready to share your
ideas with the rest of the class.
1 Is this fungus a decomposer? Explain your answer.
2 Is this fungus a microorganism? Explain your answer.
3 A slug eats the fungus. Explain where the energy obtained by the slug originally
came from.
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4 Draw a food chain that describes your answer to question 3.
5 Apart from fungi, what other kinds of microorganisms act as decomposers?
Activity 7.4.4
PL
Making a mind map
On a large sheet of paper, construct a mind map to link ideas about food webs,
microorganisms and decay.
Compare your mind map with a partner’s mind map. Ask your partner to explain their
mind map to you. Then explain your mind map to them.
Are there any similarities between the mind maps? What are the differences? Do you think
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one is better than the other? If so, why do you think that?
Summary checklist
I can draw a food chain or food web including decomposers.
I can explain why microorganisms are important in food chains and
food webs.
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7 Microorganisms in the environment
E
C Yeast is a microorganism.
D Yeast is a virus.
7.2 Draw a food chain that includes
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microorganisms as decomposers.
You do not need to draw pictures
– just write the names.
7.3 A farmer keeps cattle in a field of grass.
The cattle leave dung in the field. Fungi grow
on the dung. The farmer notices that the grass
looks greener, and grows taller, when it grows
[2]
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next to cow dung.
The farmer measures the length of five grass
leaves close to some cow dung, and another
five grass leaves where there is no cow dung.
Here are her results.
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7 Microorganisms in the environment
7.4 Some bacteria are decomposers. They break down food and change it. Usually this
makes the food unpleasant, but sometimes it changes it to something that is good to eat.
One kind of bacterium changes milk to yoghurt. When the bacteria do this, they
change sugar in the milk to acid. Many people like the sharp taste that the acid
provides.
Sofia makes some yoghurt.
• She washes out a plastic container with boiling water.
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• She lets the pot cool down, then puts some fresh milk into the container.
• She adds a small spoonful of yoghurt she bought.
• She covers the container with cling film.
•
PL
She puts the container in the refrigerator.
live
YOGHURT
S of ia’s
Yoghur t
S of ia’s
Yoghur t
’
M
a Explain why it is a good idea to wash the container with boiling water. [1]
b Suggest what is in the yoghurt that Sofia bought, that helps to turn her
fresh milk into yoghurt. [1]
c It takes a long time for Sofia’s milk to turn into yoghurt.
Suggest what she can do to make it happen faster.
SA
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8 Changes to
materials
8.1 Simple chemical reactions
E
In this topic you will:
•
•
PL
learn about the chemical properties of some metals
learn to recognise that a chemical reaction has taken place.
Getting started
Draw each of these hazard symbols and write down the scientific
word for:
• a substance that can poison you
Key words
chemical reaction
combine
productreact
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• a substance that catches fire easily reactant
• a substance that can dissolve your skin.
Check your answers with a partner. Be prepared to share them
with the class.
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8 Changes to materials
E
grey, heavy solid with a melting point of 1538 °C. One of the physical
properties of hydrochloric acid is that it is a colourless liquid.
The chemical properties of a substance are features such as:
• how acidic or alkaline it is
•
•
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how it reacts with water, acids or metals
how readily it reacts.
Some of the chemical properties of iron are that it combines with sulfur
when heated to form iron sulfide, and it combines with oxygen to form
iron oxide or rust. One of the chemical properties of hydrochloric acid is
that it is has a pH of 2.
Chemical changes
M
Chemical changes are different from physical changes.
In a physical change, no new substances are formed. For example, when
liquid water freezes, the water has changed state but it is still the same
substance after the change.
In a chemical change, new substances are formed. For example,
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when iron and sulfur are heated together, they form a new substance
(a compound called iron sulfide).
The iron and the sulfur have reacted together to form a new substance.
A chemical reaction has taken place. The iron atoms have combined and
bonded with the sulfur atoms.
The reactants (the substances that react together) are the iron and the
sulfur. The products are the new substances made in the reaction. In this
reaction, there is only one product – iron sulfide.
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8.1 Simple chemical reactions
E
Chemical reactions happen everywhere. They happen inside plants when
they grow and when they decay. Chemical reactions happen inside your
body to keep you alive, for example, when you digest food.
Burning
PL
Burning is a chemical reaction. When a substance burns, the
substance reacts with the oxygen in the air. Sometimes ashes
are formed. The ashes contain new substances. The new
substances in the ashes are oxides.
Charcoal is made up of the element carbon. When carbon
burns it combines with oxygen in the air to make the gas
carbon dioxide.
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carbon oxygen + carbon dioxide When charcoal burns, ash is left behind.
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8 Changes to materials
E
Safety
Wear safety glasses. While the magnesium ribbon is burning, do not look directly
at the flame. Magnesium burns very brightly and the bright light could harm
your eyes.
1
2
3
4 PL
Set up the Bunsen burner on the heat-proof mat.
Take a small piece of magnesium ribbon and place it in the tongs.
Hold the tongs at arm‘s length and place the magnesium ribbon in the Bunsen flame.
Once the magnesium ribbon has caught fire, remove it from the flame.
M
SA
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8.1 Simple chemical reactions
Continued
Questions
1 Describe what happens to the magnesium ribbon.
2 Describe what has been formed.
3 Name the reactants in this chemical reaction.
4 List all the safety precautions you need to take while carrying out this experiment.
Not all metals have the same chemical properties as magnesium. They may not burn in
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the same way. You could try holding pieces of other metals, such as copper, zinc or iron, in
the Bunsen flame and record what happens.
PL
Properties of reactants and products
This table compares the properties of the reactants and products when
you burn magnesium. You can see that the properties of the product are
different from those of the reactants.
magnesium
Reactants
oxygen
Product
magnesium
oxide
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Element or element element compound
compound?
State at room solid gas solid
temperature
Appearance soft, shiny, colourless, has white,
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Questions
1 Compare the melting points of magnesium, oxygen and
magnesium oxide.
2 Find one similarity between magnesium oxide and one of
the reactants.
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8 Changes to materials
E
a Making toast b Melting chocolate c Fireworks going off
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d Ice melting e Coal burning f Copper roof
turning green
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Reactions with water
Some substances react very violently with water. Some
substances do not react with water at all.
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Safety
You cannot carry out the potassium and water reaction yourself.
If your teacher shows it to you as a demonstration, you must wear
safety glasses and there must be a safety screen in front of the
beaker to protect you.
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8.1 Simple chemical reactions
E
magnesium + hydrochloric acid magnesium chloride + hydrogen
PL
The diagrams show you how to test a gas to find out if it is
hydrogen. Hydrogen gas burns with a squeaky pop. To carry
out the test you light a splint and place it in the mouth of the
test tube. You need to keep your finger over the end of the test
tube until the last moment or you will have no hydrogen left to
test. This is because hydrogen gas is lighter than air.
When the hydrogen pops, it is reacting with oxygen, in the air, to
form water.
Magnesium in acid
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hydrochloric acid
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magnesium
pop
splint
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8 Changes to materials
bee-hive shelf
water
conical flask
E
metal
acid
PL
Reactions with water and acid
Safety
M
Wear safety glasses. Remember to pay attention to hazard warning labels when you
use chemicals.
Part 1: Reactions with water
1 Place a small piece of each of the metals into a different test tube.
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2 Take one tube at a time and add water, so that the test tube is half full.
3 Record your observations and findings in a table.
Part 2: Reactions with acid
1 Place a small piece of each of the metals into a different test tube.
2 Take one tube at a time and add hydrochloric acid, so that the test tube is half full.
3 If you see bubbles given off, test for hydrogen gas.
4 Record your observations and findings in a table.
5 For each reaction with acid, write down the reactants and the products.
6 What safety precautions did you take?
7 Explain how you tested for hydrogen.
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8.1 Simple chemical reactions
Questions
4 Give two of the chemical properties of magnesium.
5 Give two of the physical properties of magnesium.
6 What are the products when zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid?
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Summary checklist
I can describe some of the chemical properties of some metals.
I can recognise that a chemical reaction has taken place.
PL
I can test a gas to see if it is hydrogen.
M
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8 Changes to materials
8.2 Neutralisation
In this topic you will:
• learn how to make a neutral solution
• learn why neutralisation is important.
E
What does the word ‘neutral’ mean? Discuss with a partner all burette
you know about the properties of a neutral liquid. How can you decay
tell if the liquid you have is neutral? digest
PL
Be prepared to share your ideas with the class. filtrate
indigestion
neutralisation
neutralised
M
SA
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8.2 Neutralisation
E
This makes it easier to judge exactly when it becomes neutral.
PL acid alkali
M
neutral
Questions
1 What colour is universal indicator when the solution is neutral?
2 What sort of reaction happens when an acid and an alkali are
mixed?
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8 Changes to materials
0 cm3
burette
25 cm3
28 cm3
acid
E
50 cm3 50 cm3 50 cm3
PL
conical flask
In the second diagram, 25 cm3 of acid has been added to the flask.
The pH in the flask is now 7. The liquid is now neutral.
The acid has reacted with the alkali and neutralised it.
In the third diagram, a little more acid has been added to the flask.
The pH in the flask is now about 6. The liquid is weakly acidic.
When this happens there is a chemical reaction and new substances are
formed. If you use hydrochloric acid and sodium hydroxide (an alkali),
these are the reactants. When they react together, the products that form
are sodium chloride and water.
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8 Changes to materials
Continued
3 Which is the most alkaline part of the tube?
4 Why did you have to keep the tube still when you left it for a few days?
5 Which hazard symbols are displayed on the equipment you used? What do these
mean?
How does the rainbow appear?
At the top of the test tube
E
The acid has turned the universal indicator red at the top of
the tube. This shows it is strongly acidic. The acid particles
gradually move down the tube. They mix with more water
and the universal indicator turns yellow. This is more weakly
acidic.
PL
In the middle of the test tube
The acid and the washing soda solution mix. They react
together. The universal indicator is yellow. The washing soda
solution and acid have neutralised each other.
At the bottom of the test tube
The washing soda has dissolved in the water around it. The
universal indicator is purple or dark blue around the washing
soda. The washing soda is a strong alkali. The particles of
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The rainbow neutralisation
the washing soda gradually move up the test tube. They mix experiment after a few days.
with more water and the universal indicator turns a lighter
blue. This shows it is more weakly alkaline.
Self-assessment
How successful was your rainbow? Was there anything you could have done to improve
SA
the outcome?
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8.2 Neutralisation
E
PL
M
Antacid medicines for indigestion
Toothpaste
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8 Changes to materials
Growing crops
In some areas, the soil is very acidic and plants do not
grow well. Farmers spread lime on the soil to neutralise
the acid so that the plants can grow better.
Questions
3 Why is toothpaste alkaline?
4 Where does the acid in your mouth come from?
E
5 Why is an alkaline substance dropped into lakes in
some countries?
6 What do farmers spread onto acidic soil?
Explain why they do this.
PL
Think like a scientist
Lime is added to acidic soils, to neutralise the acid.
M
Testing the pH of the soil
In this task you will test a soil sample to find the pH.
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8.2 Neutralisation
Continued
filter funnel
filter paper
universal
indicator
E
water
1 Add water.
Use books or the internet to find out what sort of plants will grow well in this type of soil.
4 Test.
M
Summary checklist
I can describe neutralisation as a change to a pH of 7.
I can explain how to make a neutral solution.
I can explain why neutralisation is important.
SA
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8 Changes to materials
E
Getting started Key words
PL
How good were you at remembering the colours and what
they mean?
M
SA
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8.3 Investigating acids and alkalis
Asking questions
Scientists ask questions. These are some questions about neutralisation
that scientists might try to answer.
• How much lime should be added to an acid lake to neutralise it?
• Which is the best indigestion remedy (treatment for an illness
or injury)?
• How much toothpaste is needed to neutralise the acid in your mouth?
Let’s look at the second question: ‘Which is the best indigestion remedy?’
E
It is not a very precise question. What does ‘best’ mean? Does ‘best’
mean the most pleasant tasting, the cheapest, the most effective or the
most cost-effective?
Scientists need to write their question in a way that they can test. So,
might ask:
•
PL
instead of asking: ‘Which is the best indigestion remedy?’, a scientist
Planning an investigation
When you plan to do an investigation, you have to design an experiment.
If you are investigating the effect of indigestion powders on stomach
acid, you cannot use your own stomach acid. You have to use a model
instead, such as a beaker of acid.
There is a lot to think about.
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8.3 Investigating acids and alkalis
E
they used.
PL spatula
B 6
C 24
Questions
1 Marcus and Arun are using acid that is pH 1. What should they do
to stay safe?
2 Which variables are they keeping the same in this investigation?
3 Which variable is being changed?
4 What is being measured?
5 Which is the most effective powder?
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8 Changes to materials
E
B 6 17 16 13
C 24 23 25 24
8
9
PL
Now which powder do you think is the most effective?
Which result looks ‘wrong’?
10 Suggest why Marcus and Arun might have got this ‘wrong’ result.
11 What should they have done about it?
12 Should they have included the ‘wrong’ result when working out
the mean?
M
What do the three sets of results tell you about carrying out
an investigation? When you see evidence from someone else’s
investigation, what do you need to ask?
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8.4 Detecting chemical reactions
E
Getting started Key words
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8 Changes to materials
E
Reaction 1
You have seen the reaction of magnesium with acid and seen bubbles
of the gas hydrogen given off in Topic 8.1. You learnt how to test
for hydrogen.
PL
M
SA
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8.4 Detecting chemical reactions
Reaction 2
When baking powder and vinegar react, a gas is also given off. This gas
is carbon dioxide. You can test for carbon dioxide by using limewater.
When limewater mixes with the carbon dioxide, the limewater turns
cloudy.
E
PL
Limewater turns cloudy when carbon dioxide is bubbled through it.
Reaction 3
M
When a piece of apple is placed in hydrogen peroxide it bubbles. A gas is
given off. This gas is oxygen. To test for oxygen you use a glowing splint.
When the glowing splint is placed in the mouth of the test tube, it will
relight if the gas is oxygen.
SA
hydrogen peroxide
piece of apple
When hydrogen peroxide and the chemicals in the apple react, oxygen is given off.
Oxygen will relight a glowing splint.
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8.4 Detecting chemical reactions
Continued
manganese dioxide
xid
de
E
hydrogen peroxide
Questions
1
2
PL
Describe the changes to the limewater when you tested for carbon dioxide.
Describe what happened to the glowing splint when you tested for oxygen.
How easy was it to carry out the tests for gases? What difficulties
did you have? How did you attempt to overcome them?
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Other chemical reaction clues
Reactant ‘disappears’
When magnesium ribbon reacts with acid, hydrogen is produced and
the magnesium ribbon ‘disappears’. The magnesium is used up in the
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8 Changes to materials
Colour change
Gently heating black copper oxide with sulfuric
acid produces a blue solution of copper sulfate.
copper oxide (black) + sulfuric acid → copper sulfare + water
Safety
If you try this in the laboratory, make sure
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you do not boil the blue liquid, as harmful
fumes will be given off.
Safety PL
When potassium is placed in water, hydrogen
gas is given off. The reaction produces so much
heat the hydrogen burns.
Change in pH
When you neutralise an alkali, there is a change
in pH. It is called a neutralisation reaction.
SA
sodium hydroxide
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8.4 Detecting chemical reactions
A precipitate is formed
If you mix solutions of silver nitrate and calcium chloride, a chemical
reaction takes place. When the two solutions (liquids) are mixed, a solid
is formed. This solid is called a precipitate. In this example, the solid is
silver chloride.
silver nitrate + calcium chloride → silver chloride + calcium nitrate
E
PL
M
When silver nitrate and calcium chloride As carbon dioxide is bubbled into limewater, a precipitate is formed.
react, a precipitate is formed.
SA
When you tested for carbon dioxide gas, you used limewater.
Limewater is a solution of calcium hydroxide. You saw that the
limewater turned cloudy when carbon dioxide was bubbled into it. This
is because a precipitate of calcium carbonate formed. You added a gas
to a liquid, and a solid was formed.
calcium hydroxide + carbon dioxide → calcium carbonate + water
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8 Changes to materials
E
them with the class.
You do not need to carry out these investigations in any particular order.
For each investigation, state what you did and mention any safety considerations. What
clues help you to decide?
PL
Experiment A
Experiment C Experiment D
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8.4 Detecting chemical reactions
Continued
Experiment E Experiment F
E
Place a solution of copper sulfate in an Place of sodium hydroxide in a conical
evaporating dish. Heat gently until the flask and add a few drops of universal
solution starts to spit. Turn off the heat indicator solution. Add acid slowly from
and leave the evaporating basin to cool. a burette until the universal indicator
Experiment G
PL
What do you observe? Has a chemical
reaction taken place? What evidence do
you have?
Put a few spatulas of baking powder in a Place silver nitrate in the test tube, about half
test tube. Add vinegar. full. Add calcium chloride solution slowly.
What do you observe? Has a chemical What do you observe? Has a chemical
SA
reaction taken place? What evidence do reaction taken place? What evidence do
you have? you have?
What clues helped you to decide if a chemical reaction had taken place?
Summary checklist
I can list different ways of identifying that a chemical reaction has
taken place.
I can test gases for hydrogen, oxygen and carbon dioxide.
I can carry out practical work safely.
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8 Changes to materials
E
• baking a cake
sulfuric acid
M
zinc
SA
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8 Changes to materials
E
Write the letter of the reaction that:
a produces a metal oxide [1]
b is a neutralisation reaction [1]
c
PL
is a burning reaction.
8.5 Zara and Sofia put 50 cm3 of alkali into a conical flask. They added a few drops of
universal indicator to the alkali. They used a burette to add acid to the alkali. Zara
added the acid 10 cm3 at a time. Sofia stirred the contents of the conical flask each time
acid was added. They recorded the pH after each addition of acid.
The table shows their results.
burette
SA
acid
alkali and
universal
indicator
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8 Changes to materials
a What colour was the alkali and universal indicator solution at the start? [1]
b What colour was the solution in the flask at the end? [1]
c Which one of the statements is correct? [1]
• The acid was stronger than the alkali.
• The alkali was stronger then the acid.
• The acid and the alkali were equal in strength.
E
Explain your answer.
d Draw a line graph of Zara and Sofia’s results on graph paper.
Place the pH on the vertical axis. [4]
PL
M
SA
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9 Electricity
9.1 Flow of electricity
E
In this topic you will:
• understand how electricity flows around a circuit
• learn about the electrons that flow to make electric current.
2
PL
Getting started
attract
battery
cell
components
current
electrons
M
voltage wires current heat free to move
negative charge
repel
terminals
SA
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9.1 Flow of electricity
Current
Look at the circuit in the picture.
When you close the switch, the lamp lights.
A cell stores chemical energy that can be
changed to electrical energy in a circuit. cell
A battery contains two or more cells
joined together.
The cell in the circuit has two
E
connections, called terminals.
All cells, batteries, power supplies
and many other components have two switch lamp
terminals.
PL
The terminals are labelled with + and
− symbols, meaning positive (+) and
negative (−).
You can see these symbols in the photograph of these
three cells.
What happens to make the lamp light?
flow of
electrons
This battery pack from an electric car is made from The flow of current in a circuit is the movement of electrons
hundreds of separate cells connected together. around the circuit.
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9 Electricity
E
metal electrons
− −
− − − − − − −
− − − − − − −
− − −
− − −
− − − − −
− − − −
− −
− − −
−
−
−
−
+ − −
−
−
−
−
+
− − − − − −
− − − − − − − −
− − − −
−
−
PL −
Opposite charges attract, and like charges repel. To attract means to pull
together and repel means to push apart. That means:
• positive and negative attract
− −
−
−
Questions
1 Name the particles that move around a circuit when current flows.
2 Copy the sentences and use words from the list to complete them.
Each word may be used once, more than once or not at all.
attracted repelled positive negative electrons atoms
Current in a circuit is the movement of ………………… .
These particles have a ………………… charge.
These particles are ………………… by the positive terminal of a
battery and ………………… by the negative terminal of a battery.
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9.2 Electrical circuits
E
Getting started Key words
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9 Electricity
Circuit diagrams
Circuits can be shown in a drawing or a circuit diagram.
diagrams compared
with pictures
• Circuit diagrams are easier
to draw.
E
switch lamp
• The components have
standard symbols. This is a drawing of a simple circuit.
Circuit symbols
PL
Components in circuits can look very different.
The picture shows how different some lamps can look.
Standard circuit symbols are used in circuit diagrams so there
is no confusion. The same symbols are used in all countries.
The table shows the names, symbols and functions of These are all different types of lamp but
M
they all have the same circuit symbol.
some components.
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9.2 Electrical circuits
In the circuit symbol for a cell, the positive is the longer of the two lines.
The negative is the shorter line.
− +
E
Comparing circuit diagrams
Different circuits are used to do different jobs.
PL
This circuit contains a cell, a switch and a buzzer. The circuit could be
used in a doorbell. If the switch is pushed outside a door, it makes the
buzzer sound and attracts attention inside.
M
This circuit contains a cell, a switch, a lamp and an ammeter.
The ammeter measures the electric current. This circuit could
be used to light a room and measure the current flowing
though the circuit. By measuring the current, you could tell A
SA
Questions
1 Draw the circuit symbol for:
a a lamp
b a cell
c a buzzer
d a closed switch.
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9 Electricity
E
Describe the three mistakes in the diagram.
3
C
–
+
PL
Which of these circuits could be used to measure the current in a buzzer?
D
B
+
M
– –
A
+ +
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9 Electricity
E
• learn how to measure current
• learn a rule about current in series circuits.
1
2 a
b
PL
Name the particles that move in wires when current flows.
Name the component that is used in a circuit to measure
current.
Draw the circuit symbol for this component.
amps
in series
M
SA
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9.3 Measuring the flow of current
Measuring current
In Topic 9.1 you saw that electrons move
when current flows. 10 15
5
0 20
When electrons move more quickly, the current
increases. A
When electrons move more slowly, the current
decreases.
In Topic 9.2 you saw that you can use an
E
ammeter to measure current. There are different types of ammeter but they all do the
same job.
Current is measured in units called amps.
Amps have the symbol A.
The picture shows two different ammeters.
PL
Look carefully at the ammeters in the picture. They both have two
terminals, for wires to be attached. One terminal is red and the other
terminal is black.
In a circuit, the red terminal of the ammeter must be connected to
the positive terminal of the power supply. The red terminal may be
connected directly, or through other components, to the positive
terminal of the power supply.
Both ends of the ammeter are the same in a circuit diagram. You do
M
not need to show the red and black terminals on the circuit symbol
for an ammeter.
Ammeters are always
this will be changed
connected in series with back to version showing
other components in a Marcus in full, please
circuit. If the components don't supply next proofs
SA
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9 Electricity
Questions
1 Name the unit used to measure current.
2 The diagram shows four different ammeters in four different circuits.
Write down the current shown on each ammeter. Include the unit in
your answer.
1500
5 10 2 4 6 8 1000
0 15 0 10
A A 500
E
0
A B C D
3 Copy the sentence and use words from the list to complete it.
4
………………… . PL
Each word may be used once, more than once or not at all.
slower faster electrons atoms
The greater the current in a circuit, the ………………… the flow of
– –
+ +
A
SA
Activity 9.3.1
Drawing ammeter scales
In this activity, you will draw the scale for ammeters.
Work in pairs.
Draw an ammeter scale and mark the scale with numbers and divisions. The scale should
look like one of those in question 2.
Do not add the pointer to the scale.
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9 Electricity
E
Getting started Key words
PL
Complete the sentences. Use words from the list.
The words may be used once, more than once or not at all.
are free to move cannot move electrons
When current flows, particles called ………………… move.
In metals, these particles ………………… .
atoms wires
to flow
conduct
electricity
conductor
inhibit
insulator
M
SA
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9.4 Conductors and insulators
Conductors
Conductors are materials that
conduct electricity.
That means conductors allow current
to flow. Electric current can flow
through a conductor.
You saw in Topic 9.1 that electrons
move when current flows.
E
Therefore, a conductor is a material
in which electrons are free to move.
Conductors allow electrons to flow.
All metals are conductors.
PL
Wires that carry electric current are
Copper wire
M
Some circuits, such as those in phones
and laptops, do not use wires. The printed
circuit board in the bottom right picture has
copper tracks instead of wires. The tracks are Plastic coating
green because the copper is coated with another
material.
SA
Some wires are hundreds of km long. This printed circuit uses copper tracks instead of wires.
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9 Electricity
Insulators
Electrical insulators are materials that do not allow
current to flow through.
Most non-metals, such as plastic, wood, air and
cotton, are insulators.
In an insulator, the electrons are not free to move.
Because the electrons are not free to move, current
cannot flow. Insulators inhibit electron flow.
E
Insulators are used to keep people safe from
electricity.
The plug in the picture below is made from
plastic so people can touch the plug. The wire
PL
coming from the plug is also coated in plastic
to protect people from electric shocks.
Plastic insulation on wires is also useful
because the plastic can be coloured differently
to identify each wire.
The insulators on these power lines stop the
current from flowing from the wires into the
metal pylon. If the current flowed to the pylon,
metal pylon
insulators
conductors
M
electrical energy would be dissipated into the
ground. Also, people and animals touching the
pylon would get electric shocks.
SA
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9.4 Conductors and insulators
Questions
1 Copy the sentences and use words from the list to complete them.
plastic steel aluminium wood
Examples of electrical conductors include ………………… and
…………………
Examples of electrical insulators include ………………… and
…………………
2 Copper is used to make wires for home use. Copper is a good
E
conductor of electricity.
Silver is a better conductor of electricity than copper.
Suggest why wires for home use are not made from silver.
3
PL
The drawing shows some types of plugs that are used in
different countries.
body
M
pins
Explain why:
a
SA
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9.5 Adding or removing components
E
• find out what happens to current when you add more lamps
in a circuit.
2
a
a
a
PL
Getting started
adding
components
dimmer
position
removing
components
M
b As current increases, the flow of these particles gets
………………… .
SA
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9 Electricity
E
soon as one part of the train moves, all of the
train will move.
Electrons flow at the same speed in the wires of a series circuit. When
electrons start to flow in one part of the circuit, they all start to flow.
PL
That means you can put an ammeter at any position in a series circuit
and it will give the same result.
It also means that you can put the same components of a series circuit
in a different order and the current will be the same.
Adding components or removing components will affect the current.
The effect depends on what components are changed.
M
Adding or removing cells
You saw in Topic 3.5 that cells and batteries are
stores of chemical energy. In a complete circuit,
the chemical energy gets changed to electrical
energy.
SA
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9.5 Adding or removing components
You need to be careful adding more cells to a circuit. The lamps can be
damaged and the wires can get hot.
Adding more cells increases the current when the other components are
kept the same.
Removing cells decreases the current when the other components are
kept the same.
E
You saw in Topic 3.5 that lamps change electrical energy to light energy
and thermal energy.
Electrons carry electrical energy around a circuit. When the electrons
pass through a lamp, the electrons transfer some of their electrical
PL
energy to the lamp. The lamp changes the electrical energy into light
energy and thermal energy.
Remember that the current is the same at all positions in a series circuit.
Putting a lamp in a circuit will make the electrons move more slowly, but
they move more slowly the whole way around the circuit.
The circuit with two lamps transfers twice as
much energy as the circuit with one lamp. The
lamps will be dimmer. That means they do not
shine as brightly.
M
This makes the electrons move at half the speed, A A
so the reading on the ammeter is halved.
1.4 A 0.7 A
Adding more lamps decreases the current when
the other components are kept the same.
SA
Removing lamps increases the current when the other components are
kept the same.
Questions
1 Which statement is true about current in any series circuit?
Write the letter.
A Current decreases around the circuit.
B Current increases around the circuit.
C Current stays the same around the circuit.
D Current increases and decreases around the circuit.
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9 Electricity
A A
E
a Which of these circuits has a larger current? Write the letter.
b Explain your answer.
3 Look at these two circuit diagrams. Each component is identical in
both circuits.
C
PL A
D
A
M
a Which of these circuits has a larger current? Write the letter.
b Explain your answer.
4 Look at the circuit diagram.
SA
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9 Electricity
E
ii an open switch [1]
iii a lamp [1]
iv an ammeter [1]
PL
v a buzzer.
Draw a series circuit with a cell, a lamp and a switch.
9.3 Which of these ammeters will give a correct result for the current in the lamp?
Write the letter.
A
0
5 10 15
A
20
− +
B
0
5 10 15
A
20
+ −
[1]
[3]
[1]
M
C D
+ − − +
SA
5 10 15 5 10 15
0 20 0 20
A A
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9 Electricity
9.5 Arun has a circuit for testing whether an object is a conductor or an insulator.
cell
E
a Explain why the lamp will light if Arun connects a conductor into the circuit. [2]
b Arun puts a different object into the circuit. [2]
c
PL
The lamp does not light.
Suggest two possible reasons for this result.
Copy the sentences and use the words from the list to complete them.
inhibits free to move allows not free to move
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E
membrane is pressed tightly against the cell wall and
so cannot be seen as a separate structure 2
cellulose the material that the cell wall is made from 2
cell wall the outer layer of a plant cell, made from cellulose;
chlorophyll
chloroplast
cytoplasm
PL it gives support to the cell, but does not control what
enters or leaves it (note that fungi and bacteria also have
cell walls, but these are not made of cellulose)
a green pigment that absorbs energy from light; this
energy drives the reactions of photosynthesis
a structure found in some plant cells which looks green
because it contains chlorophyll; chloroplasts are the site of
photosynthesis
the material that fills a cell; it is a gel made of many
2
2
M
substances, including proteins, dissolved in water 2
magnify to make something look bigger 2
mitochondrion a structure inside the cell where energy is released from food 2
nucleus a structure found in most cells, surrounded by a membrane,
in which chromosomes are found; information held on the
SA
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ciliated cell a cell found in the lining of the trachea and oviduct;
the cilia move in unison, like oars, which causes fluid
to move along the tube 11
cilia tiny, hair-like structures that extend from the surface
of some cells 11
dendrite a short extension in a neurone 11
function the job that something does or the role that it has 11
haemoglobin a protein that combines reversibly with oxygen; it takes
up oxygen when this is in a high concentration, e.g. at the
lungs, and releases oxygen when this is in a low
E
concentration, e.g. in a respiring tissue 11
mucus a sticky substance that helps to trap dust particles and
bacteria in the respiratory passages or to lubricate surfaces,
e.g. in the lining of the digestive system 11
neurone sometimes known as a nerve cell; a cell that is specialised
pigment PL
palisade cell
12
11
11
M
root hair cell one of hundreds of cells found on the outer surface
of roots, close to the tip, which increase the surface area
of the root and, therefore, speed up the absorption of water
and mineral ions 12
specialised (of a cell) with a structure that increases its ability to
SA
1.4
ciliated epithelium a tissue made of animal cells with cilia that wave in unison 16
lower epidermis the layer of cells on the lower surface of a leaf 17
onion epidermis the thin sheet of cells that covers the inner surfaces
of the layers in an onion 16
organism a complete living thing 16
organ several different tissues working together to perform
a function, e.g. the stomach 17
organ system several different organs working together to perform
a function, e.g. the digestive system 17
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palisade layer the layer of tall photosynthetic cells just below the
upper epidermis of a leaf 17
spongy layer the layer of photosynthetic cells just below the palisade
layer; there are large air spaces between the cells 17
tissue a group of similar cells working together to perform
a function, e.g. ciliated epithelium 16
upper epidermis the layer of cells on the top surface of a leaf 17
2.1
compressed squeezed into a smaller space 22
E
decision conclusion
flow (of a liquid or gas) to move it smoothly, to pour 22
hypothesis a suggestion for an explanation 79
matter the term for any type of material; everything that has
particle
pour
properties
PL
states of matter
theory
vacuum
vibrate
mass and takes up space is matter
a very small piece of matter that everything is made up of
(of a liquid or gas) to move it smoothly, to flow
the features of a material and how it behaves
all matter is either solid, liquid or gas
an idea to explain evidence
an area where there is nothing, that is, no particles at all
to move backwards and forwards repeatedly
22
23
22
22
22
23
26
24
M
volume the amount of space taken up by a solid, liquid or gas 22
2.2
boil heating strongly and changing a liquid to a gas 29
boiling point the temperature at which a liquid changes to a gas 29
SA
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2.3
attractive forces these hold the particles together in solids and liquids 35
expand to get larger 35
heat energy heat, a form of energy, can move between the particles
and the environment 35
E
transferred moved to or from one item to another 35
2.4
groundwater rain water that has soaked into the soil 42
open water
PL
precipitation
surface run-off
transpiration
water cycle
an expanse of an ocean, sea or large lake which is
distant from land and has no nearby islands or other
obstructions
a fall of rain, snow or hail
rain water that runs off the surface to rivers and streams
the process by which plants lose water to the atmosphere
the processes by which water is moved around the
environment from rivers to clouds and back again
42
41
42
41
40
M
2.5
atoms tiny particles of matter 45
element a substance that is made of only one type of atom 45
groups vertical columns in the Periodic Table 47
metals types of element found on the left side of the
SA
Periodic Table 48
nanotubes nano means very small; so, a nanotube is a very small tube 45
non-metals types of element found on the right side of the
Periodic Table 48
Periodic Table arrangement of elements in order of the mass of their atoms 46
periods horizontal rows in the Periodic Table 47
symbol used as a shorthand way of referring to an element 47
2.6
bonding the way in which atoms join together 51
compound a substance in which atoms of two or more elements are
bonded together 51
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2.7
composition what something is made up of 60
evaporating basin a piece of laboratory apparatus used to heat and evaporate
off water 62
filings small pieces of pure iron 59
E
mixture substances that are mixed together but not chemically bonded 59
natural emissions gases given off during natural processes, such as respiration
or photosynthesis (the process by which green plants
make food) 60
pipe-clay triangle
pure
3.1
accurate
PL
contact force
a piece of laboratory apparatus used to balance an
evaporating basin on a tripod
made of only one thing
76
69
M
and opposite to the weight of the object 70
Earth the planet we live on 69
force of gravity a force of attraction which is an example of a non-contact force 69
formula triangle a method of using an equation 72
gravity found around any object with mass; causes weight
SA
3.2
axis an imaginary line through the middle of a planet,
about which the planet spins 79
contradict to go against or disagree with something 81
evidence facts that support or contradict an hypothesis 79
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formed created 79
hypothesis a testable prediction 79
model a way to represent something that cannot be seen directly 80
nebula a cloud of dust and gas in space 80
observe to watch something happening 79
orbit the path of a planet around the Sun or a satellite
(natural or artificial) around a planet 79
plane points are on the same plane if they could be placed
on the same flat surface 80
spin the circular movement of a planet around its own
E
axis, such as causes day and night on Earth 79
support to agree with something 81
3.3
circular
speed
vacuum
PL
air resistance a force that acts against motion caused by objects
having to displace the air in front of them in order to move
the same shape as the circumference of a circle (orbits
of planets are actually elliptical, but are assumed to
be circular in this context)
distance moved per unit time (the word velocity should
not be used interchangeably with speed)
a region with no particles such as the space between
planets in the Solar System
86
85
86
86
M
3.4
coastal describes places on land that are beside the sea or the ocean 93
depth the distance from the bottom of the ocean to the
surface of the ocean; how deep the ocean is 91
SA
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3.5
chemical form of energy stored in food a fuels 99
elastic form of energy stored when objects change shape 100
electrical energy carried in a circuit or stored in charged objects 100
energy quantity that must be changed in order to do something 99
fuel a store of chemical energy 99
gravitational potential form of energy stored when objects move higher 100
joule the unit of energy 99
kinetic energy associated with movement 99
E
light energy that we can see 100
luminous an object that gives out light 100
sound energy transferred through vibrations 100
stored energy contained in one place 99
thermal
transferred
3.6
change
event
process
PL
changes in energy
the scientific term for heat energy
energy is transferred when it moves from one place to another
104
105
106
106
M
3.7
dissipated spread out into the surroundings in a way that cannot
be recovered 111
recovered collected and used again 111
useful energy is described as useful when it is changed in
SA
4.1
excretion removing toxins or materials excess to requirements
from the body 121
growth a permanent increase in size 121
movement changing the position of all, or part, of the body 121
nutrition feeding: taking in nutrients to provide energy and materials
for growth 121
reproduction making more organisms of the same species 121
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respiration breaking down food to release energy that the organism can use 121
sensitivity detecting changes in the environment 121
4.2
electron microscope a microscope that uses electron beams instead of light
beams; it is able to achieve much higher resolution than
a light microscope 124
influenza an illness caused by a virus, often known as flu; it affects
the respiratory system and usually results in a high temperature 125
protein polymers of amino acids; they are important nutrients
E
for living organisms, as they are used in growth and repair 124
RNA a nucleic acid found in all living cells; most cells contain
both RNA and DNA, but some viruses contain only RNA 124
virus a particle made of either RNA or DNA, surrounded
4.3
fertile
identical
infertile
offspring
species
PL by a protein coat; viruses hijack the machinery of a host
cell to replicate
129
128
129
129
M
together to produce fertile offspring 125
specimen a sample, for example a piece of rock, or a single organism
of a species 130
variation differences between members of the same species 128
SA
4.4
dichotomous branching into two; most keys involve a statement to
which the user answers yes or no, or pairs of contrasting
statements to choose between 132
key an identification tool for objects or organisms; most keys
provide sets of statements for you to choose between, where the
answer leads to you another set of statements and finally an
identification 132
5.1
brittle breaks with a snap 148
conduct can transfer heat or electrical energy 146
ductile can be drawn out into strands or wires 145
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5.2
E
contact touch 152
crocodile clips apparatus used in electrical circuits to join a wire
to a material 152
distinguish tell the difference between 152
examine to investigate or look at in detail 152
5.3
alloys
bronze
disrupts
steel
5.4
PL mixtures of metals
an alloy of copper and tin
upsets the pattern
an alloy of iron
155
155
156
155
M
condenser apparatus used to separate mixtures of liquids 163
conical flask glass container shaped like a cone 164
filter paper a paper placed in a filter funnel and used to separate
a solid from a liquid 164
filter tunnel apparatus used for separating a solid from a liquid 164
SA
5.5
acid a substance which contains hydrogen particles and
has a pH lower than 7; the chemical opposite of
an alkali 167
alkali a substance that contains hydroxide particles; the
chemical opposite of an acid 168
corrosive able to dissolve or eat away other materials such as
your skin 167
flammable a substance that catches fire easily 169
harmful causes damage 167
irritate to cause itching or sores to your body 167
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5.6
indicator a substance that changes to a different colour in acid
and alkali 173
litmus a type of indicator 174
neutral a substance that is neither acid nor alkali, is at pH7 174
pH scale measures how acidic or alkaline a substance is 176
E
universal indicator a mixture of indicators that gives a range of colours
in solutions of different pH 176
6.1
loudness
medium
particles
pitch
PL
backwards and forwards repeated movement in straight lines and in opposite
directions
a measure of how easy a sound of a certain pitch is
to hear; loud sounds are easier to hear than quieter sounds
the substance that a wave passes through
smallest parts of a substance
the highness or lowness of the tone of a sound, for
example musical notes of high pitch are higher in
the musical scale than those of low pitch
186
186
190
187
186
M
sound wave vibrations of particles parallel to the direction of
transfer of sound energy 187
speed of sound a measure of how fast a sound wave travels, which depends
on the medium 187
SA
6.2
echo a reflected sound wave 196
effect on the sound how the features of a sound are changed 196
property a characteristic feature of something 196
reflected a wave is reflected when the wave meets a surface
then comes back from that surface 196
unwanted something which is undesirable or a nuisance 198
6.3
continental drift the theory that the Earth’s continents have slowly
changed position 205
core the innermost part of the Earth, divided into a liquid
outer core and a solid inner core 205
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crust the outer layer of the Earth that is made from solid rock 205
magma hot molten or semi-solid material in and below the
Earth’s crust 206
mantle the layer within the Earth between the core and the
crust that is mostly solid 205
molten the word used to describe something which has melted 205
tectonic plates pieces of the Earth’s crust and upper mantle that
are about 100 km thick 206
6.4
E
active a volcano is active if it has erupted in the last few
thousand years and is likely to erupt again 212
earthquake sudden movement in the Earth’s crust and upper
mantle caused by the build-up of pressure between
extinct
inactive
lava
PL
fold mountains
two tectonic plates
a volcano becomes extinct when it is very unlikely
to erupt again because the volcano has no more supply
of magma
where the Earth’s crust is pushed upward because of
two tectonic plates pushing against each other
a volcano is inactive if it could possibly erupt in the future
but has not erupted for thousands of years
molten rock coming out onto the Earth’s surface
211
212
211
212
211
M
magnitude the size of something; for earthquakes this is a number
which allows comparisons to be made between the strength
of earthquakes 213
plate boundaries the place where two or more tectonic plates are side
by side 210
SA
6.5
eclipse shadow caused by the Moon or caused by the Earth 217
lunar description of something to do with the Moon 217
opaque description of an object that does not allow light to
pass through; the opposite of transparent 216
partial description of a solar eclipse where the Moon only partly
blocks the light from the Sun 217
rays the straight lines that show the direction of light 216
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shadow area where light has been blocked by an opaque object 216
solar description of something to do with the Sun 6
total description of a solar eclipse where the Moon completely
blocks the light from the Sun 217
7.1
agar jelly a gel made by mixing agar powder with water and
heating to dissolve; the liquid mixture can be poured into
a Petri dish and allowed to set; nutrients can be added
to encourage growth of microorganisms 228
E
algae organisms made of a single cell, or several similar cells,
that have a structure similar to plant cells 227
bacteria single-celled microorganisms whose cells are smaller
than those of plants and animals; they have cell walls
but no nucleus 227
colony
fungi
microorgansism
PL in this context, a group of cells that have been produced
by the repeated division of a single cell of a bacterium
or fungus
organisms with cells that have cell walls and a nucleus,
but differ from plants in that the cell walls are not made
of cellulose, and they never contain chlorophyll and
do not photosynthesise; some fungi are microorganisms
any organism that is too small to be seen without a microscope;
many microorganisms are made of a single cell
228
227
227
M
mushroom a reproductive body produced by a fungus at certain
times of its life cycle; the word ‘mushroom’ tends to
be used when the structure is edible 227
Petri dish a shallow, circular dish with a lid, made of clear plastic
or glass 228
SA
7.2
carnivore an animal that eats only other animals 233
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E
predator an animal that kills and eats other animals 233
prey an animal that is killed and eaten by other animals 233
producer an organism that uses inorganic substances to make
organic ones; the organic substances contain energy
7.3
decay
decomposer
PL that can be passed on to other organisms; in most
food webs, producers do this through photosynthesis,
in which the source of energy is sunlight
238
M
to refer to organisms that feed by releasing enzymes outside
their bodies and then absorbing the soluble nutrients that are
produced by the breakdown of substances in the medium
in which they are growing 238
mould any type of visible fungus, generally used to refer to
a covering of fungus on food or other organic material
SA
7.4
dung animal faeces; generally used for the faeces of
larger animals 243
nutrients substances that are used by organisms to provide useable
energy, or materials for building new cells 243
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8.1
chemical reaction a process in which one or more substances are changed to
one or more different substances. In the reaction, the atoms
of the starting substances are rearranged, forming new
substances that have different properties 253
combine join together 253
reactant substance that you start with in a chemical reaction 253
product new substance made in a chemical reaction 253
react interact and change 253
E
8.2
burette piece of laboratory glassware used for adding measured
volumes of liquid 262
decay to rot; e.g. acid in the mouth can cause the teeth to decay 266
digest
filtrate
indigestion
PL
neutralisation
neutralised
8.3
remedy
to break down food into small pieces that can be absorbed
the liquid that comes through a filter paper
pain or discomfort in the digestive system
changing an acid or an alkali into a solution at pH 7
an acid or alkali that has been changed into a solution at pH 7
270
M
variable something that can change in an investigation 271
8.4
cloudy as in a solution becoming cloudy; it starts to form a
white deposit 276
glowing not fully alight, as when a lighted splint is shaken so that
SA
9.1
attract cause things to move closer together by a force; opposite
of repel 289
battery two or more cells connected together in series 288
cell the component drives the flow of current by changing
chemical energy to electrical energy; most cells are 1.5 V 288
components parts of a circuit such as cells, lamps and switches; wires are
not considered to be components 288
current the flow of electrons in a circuit 288
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E
PL
M
SA
Original material © Cambridge University Press 2021. This material is not final and is subject to further changes prior to publication.
ISBN_9781108742788.