ETHIOPIAN DEFENECE UNIVERSITY

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Course on: Aircraft Performance (AE 5111)

Chapter 1: Introduction to Aircraft Performance

Academic Year: 2023, Semster-I

Instructor: Dr. Semayat Fanta
Assistant Professor,
HoD, Aerospace Engineering (EDU) Bishoftu
ETHIOPIA
 Chapter 1

Aircraft Performance
 COURSE OBJECTIVE:
• After complete this course the student will be able to:
▪ State the use of Aircraft Performance Data
▪ Explain the earth’s atmosphere and its parameters
▪ Explain the effect of atmospheric parameters on the
aerodynamic forces
▪ Explain factors affecting aircraft performance
▪ Explain the Items of Aircraft Performance
▪ Describe Aircraft performance
▪ Explain the factors affecting aircraft performance
Aircraft Performance
 Introduction to Aircraft performance
➢ Performance is a term used to describe the ability of an
aircraft to accomplish certain things that make it useful for
certain purposes.

➢ Performance is defined as a measure of the ability of thew

aircraft to carry out (to perform) a specific task.

✓ Civil transport aircraft - operational cost and safety is the

requirement

✓ Military combat aircraft - time maneuverability, turn radius

air superiority, safety are the requirements.
 Introduction to Aircraft performance
➢ Another example, the ability of an aircraft to land and take
off in a very short distance is an important factor to the pilot
who operates in and out of short, unimproved airfields.

➢ The ability to carry heavy loads, fly at high altitudes at fast

speeds, and/or travel long distances is essential for the
performance of airline and executive type aircraft.

➢ Some other performance parameters include:

✓ How fast it can fly (min. and max. speed)

✓ How far it can go (the range).

Introduction to Aircraft performance
✓How long it can stay in the air (Endurance)

✓What is the maximum altitude it can fly (ceiling)

✓How fast it can climb to the cruising altitude (climb rate)

✓How fast can it descend (descending rate)

✓How quickly can it takeoff (takeoff speed)

✓What is the minimum radius of turn (turn radius)

✓What is the minimum time of turn (turn time)

 Introduction to Aircraft performance
➢ Aircraft performance refers to the ability of an aircraft to
accomplish certain useful things. It is an important
consideration when designing and testing aircraft, to ensure
the aircraft can be operated in an efficient and economic
manner.

➢ Aircraft manufacturers will publish performance data in an

aircraft flight manual, concerning the behavior of the aircraft
under various circumstances, such as different speeds,
weights, and air temperatures, pressures, & densities.
 Introduction to Aircraft performance
➢ Performance data is information pertaining to takeoff,
climb, range, endurance, descent(a movement down), and
landing.

Aerodynamics of Airplane
Aerodynamics of Airplane
• Aerodynamics is the way objects move through air. The rules of
aerodynamics explain how an airplane is able to fly. Anything
that moves through air is affected by aerodynamics, from a
rocket blasting off, to a kite flying. Since they are surrounded by
air, even cars are affected by aerodynamics.

• Airplanes' wings are curved on top and flatter on the bottom.

That shape makes air flow over the top faster than under the
bottom. As a result, less air pressure is on top of the wing. This
lower pressure makes the wing, and the airplane it's attached to,
move up.
Aerodynamics of Airplane

Angle of attack at various speed

Aerodynamics of Airplane
Forces Acting on the Aircraft
• Thrust, drag, lift, and weight are forces that act upon all
aircraft in flight. Understanding how these forces work and
knowing how to control them with the use of power and
flight controls are essential to flight.

• Here we discusses the aerodynamics of flight—how design,

weight, load factors, and gravity affect an aircraft during
flight maneuvers.

• The four forces acting on an aircraft in straight-and-level,

unaccelerated flight are thrust, drag, lift, and weight.
 Forces Acting on the Aircraft
1. Thrust—the forward force produced by the powerplant/
propeller or rotor. It opposes or overcomes the force of
drag. As a general rule, it acts parallel to the
longitudinal axis. However, this is not always the case,
as explained later.

2. Drag—a rearward, retarding force caused by disruption

of airflow by the wing, rotor, fuselage, and other
protruding objects. As a general rule, drag opposes
thrust and acts rearward parallel to the relative wind.
 Forces Acting on the Aircraft
3. Lift—is a force that is produced by the dynamic effect of the
air acting on the airfoil, and acts perpendicular to the flight path
through the center of lift (CL) and perpendicular to the lateral
axis. In level flight, lift opposes the downward force of weigh

4. Weight—the combined load of the aircraft itself, the crew, the

fuel, and the cargo or baggage. Weight is a force that pulls the
aircraft downward because of the force of gravity. It opposes lift
and acts vertically downward through the aircraft’s center of
gravity (CG).
Four forces acting on an aircraft
 Introduction to Aircraft performance
➢ Jet engine performance-In fixed-wing aircraft driven by one or
more jet engines, certain aspects of performance such as thrust
relate directly to the safe operation of the aircraft whereas other
aspects of the engine operation such as noise and engine
emissions affect the environment.
➢ The thrust, noise and emission elements of the operation of a jet
engine are of vital importance in the takeoff phase of operation of
the aircraft.
➢ The thrust and fuel consumption elements, and their variation
with altitude, are of vital importance in the climb and cruise
phases of operation of the aircraft.
 Introduction to Aircraft performance
➢ The fundamental performance task for a single shaft turbojet
is to match the operation of the compressor, turbine and
propelling nozzle.
➢ Aircraft engine performance refers to factors including thrust
or shaft power for fuel consumed, weight, cost, outside
dimensions and life.

➢ It includes meeting regulated environmental limits which apply

to emissions of noise and chemical pollutants, and regulated
safety aspects which require a design that can safely tolerate
environmental hazards such as birds, rain, hail and icing
conditions. It is the end product that an engine company sells.
 Aircraft performance
• Aircraft performance is affected by atmospheric conditions.

• Climb performance will be reduced in hot and high conditions,

as well as in humid conditions. Higher temperatures and
humidities, and lower pressures reduce air density

• Aircraft engine performance

• Jet engine performance

• Takeoff and Landing performance

• Ceiling (aeronautics),

• Some important performance related terms are Flight envelope,

Drag curve; Wing loading, V speeds
 1.2 Importance of Aircraft performance Data
➢ The performance or operational information section of the Aircraft
Flight Manual/Pilot’s Operating Handbook (AFMOH) contains the
operating data for the aircraft; that is, the data pertaining(to be
connected) to takeoff, climb, range, endurance, descent, and
landing.

➢ The use of this data in flying operations is mandatory for safe and
efficient operation. Considerable knowledge and familiarity of the
aircraft can be gained by studying this material.

➢ It must be emphasized that the manufacturers’ information and data

furnished in the AFMOH is not standardized.
 Importance of Performance Data
• Some provide the data in tabular form, while others use
graphs. In addition, the performance data may be presented
on the basis of standard atmospheric conditions, pressure
altitude, or density altitude.

• The performance information in the AFMOH has little or no

value unless the user recognizes those variations and makes
the necessary adjustments.

• To be able to make practical use of the aircraft’s capabilities

and limitations, it is essential to understand the significance
of the operational data. pressure and temperature.
 Importance of Performance Data
• The pilot must be cognizant of the basis for the performance
data, as well as the meanings of the various terms used in
expressing performance capabilities and limitations.

• Since the characteristics of the atmosphere have a major

effect on performance, it is necessary to review two
dominant factors - pressure and temperature.
 Takeoff Performance
➢ The minimum takeoff distance is of primary interest in the
operation of any aircraft because it defines the runway
requirements.
➢ The minimum takeoff distance is obtained by taking off at
some minimum safe speed that allows sufficient margin
above stall and provides satisfactory control and initial
ROC(Rate Of Climb).
➢ Generally, the lift-off speed is some fixed percentage of the
stall speed or minimum control speed for the aircraft in the
takeoff configuration. As such, the lift-off is accomplished at
some particular value of lift coefficient and AOA.
Depending on the aircraft characteristics, the lift-off speed is
anywhere from 1.05 to 1.25 times the stall speed or
minimum control speed.
 Climb Performance
➢ If an aircraft is to move, fly, and perform, work must act
upon it. Work involves force moving the aircraft.
➢ The aircraft acquires mechanical energy when it moves.
Mechanical energy comes in two forms: (1) Kinetic Energy
(KE), the energy of speed; (2) Potential Energy (PE), the
stored energy of position.
➢ Aircraft motion (KE) is described by its velocity (airspeed).
Aircraft position (PE) is described by its height (altitude).
➢ Both KE and PE are directly proportional to the object’s
mass. KE is directly proportional to the square of the object’s
velocity (airspeed).
➢ PE is directly proportional to the object’s height (altitude).
 Range Performance
➢ The ability of an aircraft to convert fuel energy into flying
distance is one of the most important items of aircraft
performance. In flying operations, the problem of efficient
range operation of an aircraft appears in two general forms:

1. To extract the maximum flying distance from a given fuel

load

2. To fly a specified distance with a minimum expenditure of

fuel
 Landing Performance

• In many cases, the landing distance of an aircraft defines the

runway requirements for flight operations. The minimum
landing distance is obtained by landing at some minimum
safe speed, that allows sufficient margin above stall and
provides satisfactory control and capability for a go-around.

• Generally, the landing speed is some fixed percentage of the

stall speed or minimum control speed for the aircraft in the
landing configuration. As such, the landing is accomplished at
some particular value of lift coefficient and AOA.
 Landing Performance

• The exact values depend on the aircraft characteristics but,

once defined, the values are independent of weight, altitude,
and wind.

• To obtain minimum landing distance at the specified landing

speed, the forces that act on the aircraft must provide
maximum deceleration during the landing roll.

• The forces acting on the aircraft during the landing roll may
require various procedures to maintain landing deceleration at
the peak value.
• In addition to the important factors of proper procedures,
many other variables affect the takeoff performance of an
aircraft.
• Any item that alters the takeoff speed or acceleration rate
during the takeoff roll affects the takeoff distance.
• For example, the effect of gross weight on takeoff distance is
significant, and proper consideration of this item must be
made in predicting the aircraft’s takeoff distance.
• Increased gross weight can be considered to produce a
threefold effect on takeoff performance:
1. Higher lift-off speed
2. Greater mass to accelerate
3. Increased retarding force (drag and ground friction)
❖ The formulas below summarize these energy relationships:

KE = ½ × m × v2

v = object velocity

m = object mass

PE = m × g × h

g = gravity field strength

h = object height

ME = KE + PE = ½ × m × v2 + m × g × h

Where ME = Mechanical Energy

 The Earths Atmosphere
The Earth's Atmosphere

• The atmosphere is an envelope of air that surrounds the Earth and

rests upon its surface. It is as much a part of the Earth as is land and
water. However, air differs from land and water in that it is a
mixture of gases.

• It has mass, weight, and indefinite shape. Air, like any other fluid, is
able to flow and change its shape when subjected to even minute
pressures because of the lack of strong molecular cohesion.

• For example, gas will completely fill any container into which it is
placed, expanding or contracting to adjust its shape to the limits of
the container.
 Vertical structure of the Earths atmosphere
• The atmosphere is composed of 78 percent nitrogen, 21 percent
oxygen, and 1 percent other gases, such as argon or helium.
• Most of the oxygen is contained below 35,000 feet altitude.
• The earth's surface is covered by a layer of atmosphere consisting
of a mixture of gases and other solid and liquid particles.

• The gaseous materials extend to several hundred kilometers in

altitude, though there is no well defined boundary for the upper
limit of the atmosphere.

• The first 80 km of the atmosphere contains more than 99% of the

total mass of the earth's atmosphere.
 Vertical structure of the atmosphere
The vertical profile of the atmosphere is divided into four layers:
1. Troposphere,
• Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere
2. Stratosphere,
3. Mesosphere and
4. Thermosphere.
The tops of these layers are known as
1. tropopause,
2. stratopause,
3. mesopause and
4. thermopause, respectively.
1. Troposphere: (~10 deg to -60 deg C)
• From the earth's surface to 11-12 km above, temperature
decreases with height. This fact results from the sun's radiation
striking the earth and the earth then warming the air above it. So
the closer the air is to the ground, the warmer it becomes.

• The rate of change of air temperature with height is called the

"lapse rate". In the troposphere, the lapse rate is generally about
6.5 deg C per kilometer increase in altitude. The temperature can
increase with height in the lower troposphere. When this
happens, it is called an "inversion". If the temperature remains
the same with height, it is called "isothermal".
1. Troposphere: (~10 deg to -60 deg C)

• The actual lapse rate varies with location, time of day, weather
conditions, season, etc. Because warm air tends to rise and cool
air tends to sink, the troposphere is a location of much movement
of air, or "turbulence". Hence, the troposphere is described by
meteorologists as being "well-mixed". If pollutants are injected
into the troposphere, they are mixed throughout its depth in a few
days and, usually within a week or so, will fall back to the ground
with the rain (e.g., acid rain). Thus, the troposphere has a self-
cleaning mechanism.
 2. Stratosphere:(~0 deg to -60 deg C)

• The stratosphere is marked by a temperature inversion from

about 11-12 km to 50 km above sea level. Because warmer air
lies above cooler air in this region, there are few overturning air
currents and, thus, the stratosphere is a region of little mixing.

• Particles that travel from the troposphere into the stratosphere can
stay aloft for many years without returning to the ground. For
example, large volcanic eruptions force ash to be projected into
the stratosphere, where it may remain for years and causing slight
global cooling in the process.
 2. Stratosphere:(~0 deg to -60 deg C)
• It is relatively easy to see where the stratosphere begins when
there are large convective storms around. The tops of these
storms reach only into the lowest level of the stratosphere.
Because of the temperature inversion, air rising in the
thunderstorm eventually becomes cooler than its environment in
the stratosphere and stops rising.

• Why does the temperature increase with height in the

stratosphere? Because the ozone (O3) layer mostly resides at this
level in the atmosphere.
 Ozon layer
• Ozone absorbs UV radiation from the sun which, in turn,
increases the motion of the ozone molecules. The ozone
molecules then collide with other molecules in the air,
increasing its temperature.
• Ozone exists mainly at the stratopause. The troposphere and the
stratosphere together account for more than 99% of the total
mass of the atmosphere.
• The importance of the ozone layer lies in the facts that
– (1) ozone helps the earth to maintain its heat balance, and
– (2) ozone reduces the amount of harmful UV radiation that
reaches the earth's surface. Ozone is both produced and
destroyed in the stratosphere. Ozone destruction can be both
natural (UV radiation or molecular collisions) or man-made
(e.g., chlorofluorocarbons).
 3. Mesosphere:(0 deg to -90 deg C)

• The mesosphere resides from about 50 km to 80-90 km above the

earth's surface. Because 99.9% of the mass of the atmosphere lies
below the stratopause, the air pressure and density in the
mesosphere are extremely low (about 1/1000th of the surface).

• There is not enough oxygen to breathe here, although the

percentage of oxygen in the atmosphere is about the same.

• There is not a layer of ozone to cause heating, so temperatures are

colder as height increases. The stratosphere warms the lowest
levels of the mesosphere and the heat is slowly circulated
throughout the mesosphere.
 4. Thermosphere: (500-1500 deg to -90 deg C)
This layer extends from about 85 km upward to several hundred
kilometers. The temperature may range from 500 K to 2000 K. The
gases exist mainly in the form of thin plasma, i.e. they are ionized
due to bombardment by solar ultraviolet radiation and energetic
cosmic rays.

• In this region Oxygen absorbs UV radiation and gains significant

kinetic energy (i.e., few molecules are around to bump into).

• Unlike in the troposphere and stratosphere, temperatures in the

thermosphere can change by hundreds of degrees depending on
the amount of solar activity.
 4. Thermosphere: (500-1500 deg to -90 deg C)
• This region marks where the percentage of atmospheric
constituents change. There becomes far more atomic oxygen than
molecular oxygen or even nitrogen.

• The term upper atmosphere usually refers to the region of the

atmosphere above the troposphere.

• Many remote sensing satellites follow the near polar sun-

synchronous orbits at a height around 800 km, which is well
above the thermopause.
Principle • The changes in the
atmosphere with height
are results of specific
physical conditions which
exist on the earth and in
its atmosphere.
• The vertical changes in
temperature are
important in constraining
weather events to the
lowest 10-12 km of the
atmosphere.
• The ozone layer, located
near 25 km above the
earth's surface, causes
the temperature to
rapidly change in the
middle atmosphere.
 Atmospheric Constituents

• The atmosphere consists of the following components:

• Permanent Gases: They are gases present in nearly constant
concentration, with little spatial variation. About 78% by volume
of the atmosphere is nitrogen while the life-sustaining oxygen
occupies 21%. The remaining one percent consists of the inert
gases, carbon dioxide and other gases.
• Gases with Variable Concentration: The concentration of these
gases may vary greatly over space and time. They consist of water
vapour, ozone, nitrogeneous and sulphurous compounds.
• Solid and liquid particulates: Other than the gases, the
atmosphere also contains solid and liquid particles such as
aerosols, water droplets and ice crystals. These particles may
congregate to form clouds and haze.
Figure 2 - Relationship Between Pressure and Height in the Atmosphere
Which of the following statements about the graph are true?
Temperature changes with altitude.
 SEA LEVEL CONDITIONS
Property Metric unit Imperial Unit
Pressure, P 101.325 kPa 2116.7 lbf/ft2
Density, ρ 1.225 Kg/m3 0.002378 slug/ft3
Temperature, T 15 oC , 288.16 K 59 oF , 518 oR
Speed of Sound, a 340.3 m/s 1116.4 ft/s
Viscosity, μ 1.789 x 10-5 Kg/m/s 3.737 x 10-7 slug/ft/s
Kinematic Viscosity, ν 1.460 x 10-5m2/s 1.5723 x 10-4ft2/s
Thermal Conductivity, k 0.02596 W/m/K 0.015 BTU/hr/ft/oR
Gas Constant, R 287.1 J/Kg/K 1715.7 ft lbf/slug/oR
Specific Heat, Cp 1005 J/Kg/K 6005 ft lbf/slug/oR
Specific Heat, Cv 717.98 J/Kg/K 4289 ft lbf/slug/oR
Ratio of Specific Heats, γ 1.40
Gravitational Accelerat, g 9.80665 m/s2 32.174 ft/s2
TABLE OF ATMOSPHERIC PROPERTIES (ISA)
Altitude Temperat P/PO ρ/ρO μ/μO ν/νO Speed of
ure Sound
ft oC m/s

0 15.2 1 1 1 1 1 340.3

304 1000 13.2 0.9644 0.9711 0.9947 1.0243 339.1

609 2000 11.2 0.9298 0.9428 0.9893 1.0493 338
914 3000 9.3 0.8962 0.9151 0.9839 1.0752 336.8
1219 4000 7.3 0.8637 0.8881 0.9785 1.1018 335.6
1524 5000 5.3 0.832 0.8617 0.9731 1.1293 334.4
3048 10000 -4.6 0.6877 0.7385 0.9457 1.2807 328.4
3352 11000 -6.6 0.6614 0.7155 0.9402 1.314 327.2
3657 12000 -8.6 0.636 0.6932 0.9347 1.3484 326
Which of the following statements about the graph are true?

• If you follow the temperature line in the graph above from the surface of the Earth to the top
of the atmosphere, moving to your left represents a decrease in temperature, to your right
represents an increase in temperature, and straight up represents a constant temperature.
a. True
b. False
• Temperature increases as you gain altitude in the stratosphere and the thermosphere.
a. True
b. False
• Temperature decreases as you gain altitude in the troposphere and mesosphere

a. True
• b. False
Air temperature varies in complicated ways with altitude

a. True
b. False
Density versus altitude
 Atmospheric Pressure
➢ Though there are various kinds of pressure, pilots are
mainly concerned with atmospheric pressure. It is one
of the basic factors in weather changes, helps to lift the
aircraft, and actuates some of the most important flight
instruments in the aircraft.
➢ These instruments often include the altimeter, the
airspeed indicator (ASI), the vertical speed indicator
(VSI), and the manifold pressure gauge.
➢ Though air is very light, it has mass and is affected by
the attraction of gravity. Therefore, like any other
substance, it has weight; because it has weight, it has
force.
 Atmospheric Pressure
➢ Since it is a fluid substance, this force is exerted equally in
all directions, and its effect on bodies within the air is
called pressure.
➢ Under standard conditions at sea level, the average
pressure exerted by the weight of the atmosphere is
approximately 14.7 pounds per square inch (psi). The
density of air has significant effects on the aircraft’s
performance.
➢ As air becomes less dense, it reduces:
• Power, because the engine takes in less air
• Thrust, because the propeller is less efficient in thin air
• Lift, because the thin air exerts less force on the airfoils
 5 Types Of Altitudes Definitions
1. Indicated Altitude. The altitude indicated on the altimeter when
the correct barometric pressure is set.

2. True Altitude. Height above sea level (MSL).

3. Absolute Altitude. Height above ground level (AGL).

4. Pressure Altitude. The altitude indicated on the altimeter based

on a ‘standard atmospheric level’, this is sometimes used in flight
planning calculations.

5. Density Altitude. This is the Pressure Altitude adjusted for

temperature variations (density altitude affects aircraft
performance).
 ALTITUDE DEFINITIONS

• Vertical separation of aircraft is based

on local altimeter settings.

• The definitions below are important

because pressure variations in route

require changes in the altimeter

1. Indicated altitude is read directly from the altimeter
setting, and true air speed (TAS)
when set to current barometric pressure.
computations are based on 2. Pressure altitude is read from the altimeter when set to
the standard barometric pressure of 29.92 in. Hg.
temperature and pressure conversions
3. Density altitude is the pressure altitude corrected for
(see Types of Altitude figure, on the non-standard temperature.
4. True altitude is the exact height above mean sea level.
right).
5. Absolute altitude is the actual height above the earth’s
surface.
 Pressure Altitude
➢ Pressure altitude is the height above the standard datum
plane (SDP). The aircraft altimeter is essentially a sensitive
barometer calibrated to indicate altitude in the standard
atmosphere.

➢ If the altimeter is set for 29.92 "Hg SDP, the altitude

indicated is the pressure altitude—the altitude in the
standard atmosphere corresponding to the sensed pressure.

➢ The SDP is a theoretical level at which the pressure of the

atmosphere is 29.92 "Hg and the weight of air is 14.7 psi.
 Pressure Altitude
➢ As atmospheric pressure changes, the SDP may be below,
at, or above sea level.
➢ Pressure altitude is important as a basis for determining
aircraft performance, as well as for assigning flight levels to
aircraft operating at above 18,000 feet.
➢ The pressure altitude can be determined by any of the
three following methods:
1. By setting the barometric scale of the altimeter to 29.92
"Hg and reading the indicated altitude,
2. By applying a correction factor to the indicated altitude
according to the reported “altimeter setting,” [Figure 11-3]
3. By using a flight computer
 Density Altitude
➢ The more appropriate term for correlating aerodynamic
performance in the non-standard atmosphere is density
altitude—the altitude in the standard atmosphere
corresponding to a particular value of air density.
➢ Density altitude is pressure altitude corrected for
nonstandard temperature. As the density of the air
increases (lower density altitude), aircraft performance
increases. Conversely, as air density decreases (higher
density altitude), aircraft performance decreases.
➢ A decrease in air density means a high density altitude;
an increase in air density means a lower density altitude.
Density altitude is used in calculating aircraft
performance.
 Density Altitude
➢ Under standard atmospheric condition, air at each level in
the atmosphere has a specific density;
➢ Under standard conditions, pressure altitude and density
altitude identify the same level. Density altitude, then, is
the vertical distance above sea level in the standard
atmosphere at which a given density is to be found.
➢ Density altitude is computed using pressure altitude and
temperature. Since aircraft performance data at any level is
based upon air density under standard day conditions, such
performance data apply to air density levels that may not be
identical to altimeter indications. Under conditions higher
or lower than standard, these levels cannot be determined
directly from the altimeter.
 Density Altitude
➢ Density altitude is determined by first finding pressure
altitude and then correcting this altitude for nonstandard
temperature variations.

➢ Since density varies directly with pressure, and inversely

with temperature, a given pressure altitude may exist for a
wide range of temperature by allowing the density to vary.

➢ However, a known density occurs for any one temperature

and pressure altitude. The density of the air, of course, has a
pronounced effect on aircraft and engine performance.
 Density Altitude
➢ Air density is affected by changes in altitude,
temperature, and humidity. High density altitude refers to
thin air while low density altitude refers to dense air.
➢ The conditions that result in a high density altitude are
high elevations, low atmospheric pressures, high
temperatures, high humidity, or some combination of
these factors.
➢ Lower elevations, high atmospheric pressure, low
temperatures, and low humidity are more indicative of
low density altitude.
Fig 1.1 Field elevation
versus pressure. The
aircraft is located
on a field that happens to
be at sea level. Set the
altimeter to the current
altimeter setting (29.7).
The difference of 205
feet is added to the
elevation or a PA of 205
feet.
 Effects of Pressure on Density
➢ Since air is a gas, it can be compressed or expanded. When air is
compressed, a greater amount of air can occupy a given volume.

➢ Conversely, when pressure on a given volume of air is decreased,

the air expands and occupies a greater space. That is, the
original column of air at a lower pressure contains a smaller
mass of air.

➢ In other words, the density is decreased. In fact, density is

directly proportional to pressure. If the pressure is doubled, the
density is doubled, and if the pressure is lowered, so is the
density. This statement is true only at a constant temperature.
 Effects of Temperature on Density
➢ Increasing the temperature of a substance decreases its
density. Conversely, decreasing the temperature increases
the density. Thus, the density of air varies inversely with
temperature. This statement is true only at a constant
pressure.
➢ In the atmosphere, both temperature and pressure
decrease with altitude and have conflicting effects upon
density. However, the fairly rapid drop in pressure as
altitude is increased usually has the dominant effect. Hence,
pilots can expect the density to decrease with altitude.
 Effects of Humidity (Moisture) on Density
➢ The small amount of water vapor suspended in the atmosphere
may be negligible under certain conditions, but in other
conditions humidity may become an important factor in the
performance of an aircraft.

➢ Water vapor is lighter than air; consequently, moist air is lighter

than dry air.

➢ Therefore, as the water content of the air increases, the air

becomes less dense, increasing density altitude and decreasing
performance. It is lightest or least dense when, in a given set of
conditions, it contains the maximum amount of water vapor.
 Effects of Humidity (Moisture) on Density
➢ Humidity, also called relative humidity, refers to the amount of
water vapor contained in the atmosphere and is expressed as a
percentage of the maximum amount of water vapor the air can
hold. This amount varies with the temperature; warm air can
hold more water vapor, while colder air can hold less.

➢ Perfectly dry air that contains no water vapor has a relative

humidity of zero percent, while saturated air that cannot hold
any more water vapor has a relative humidity of 100 percent.

➢ Humidity alone is usually not considered an essential factor in

calculating density altitude and aircraft performance; however,
it does contribute.
 Effects of Humidity (Moisture) on Density
➢ The higher the temperature, the greater amount of water
vapor that the air can hold. When comparing two separate
air masses, the first warm and moist (both qualities making
air lighter) and the second cold and dry (both qualities
making it heavier), the first must be less dense than the
second.
➢ Pressure, temperature, and humidity have a great
influence on aircraft performance because of their effect
upon density.
➢ There is no rule-of-thumb or chart used to compute the
effects of humidity on density altitude, but it must be
taken into consideration. Expect a decrease in overall
performance in high humidity conditions.
1.4. Parameters of aircraft performance

▪ Stalling speed

▪ Maximum velocity of the aircraft

▪ Velocity for the maximum range

▪ Absolute ceiling of the aircraft

▪ Velocity for the maximum angle of climb

▪ Velocity for maximum rate of climb

▪ AOC-Angle of climb