FEDERAL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION (TECHNICAL), AKOKA

DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE LEARNING PROGRAMME

STUDY MODULES (Year 4 Second Semester)

MODULE SEVEN: COMPUTER SCIENCE EDUCATION

This module consists of the following courses:

1. CSC 325 INTRO. TO COMPUTER NETWORKING

2. CSC 326 COMPUTER MAINTENANCE/TROUBLESHOOTING

This study material belongs to Federal College of Education (Tech.), Akoka.

All Rights Reserved.

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 FEDERAL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION (TECHNICAL), AKOKA
DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE LEARNING PROGRAMME

COURSE CODE:
CSC 325

COURSE TITLE:
INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKING

This study material belongs to Federal College of Education (Tech.), Akoka.

All Rights Reserved.

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Course Objectives

At the end of the course, students should be able to:

i. Explain Information Technology (ICT) and importance of Networking

ii. Explain at least two communication protocols
iii. Identify and explain at least four networking tools
iv. Explain advantages of and disadvantages of any three network topologies
v. Differentiate between LAN and WAN
vi. Use internet and Intranet

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 UNIT 1
Information Technology and Computer Networking

Information Technology (IT)

Information technology (IT) is the use of any computers, storage, networking and other physical devices,
infrastructure and processes to create, process, store, secure and exchange all forms of electronic data.Typically,
IT is used in the context of enterprise operations as opposed to personal or entertainment technologies. The
commercial use of IT encompasses both computer technology and telephony.

Difference between IT and ICT

Information Technology pertains to the hardware, software and user skills associated with a stand-alone
computer or laptop, while Information Communications Technology relates to networked equipment
(LAN/WAN) that allows for intra- and inter-network communication via email and the Internet.ICT can be
viewed as an extension of IT.

ICT (information and communications technology - or technologies) is an umbrella term that includes any
communication device or application, encompassing: radio, television, cellular phones, computer and network
hardware and software, satellite systems and so on, as well as the various services and applications

In IT, hardware is the basic computer box and associated peripheral devices: scanners, printers, CD-ROM, DVD
drive and so on. Software consists of the programs a user installs for personal use, such as the operating system
(Windows/Linux/Mac OS), word processors, spreadsheets, databases, graphic design and photo manipulation. IT
skills are those associated with the proper use of the operating system and other installed programs.

In ICT, hardware necessarily includes those devices, such as modems, routers and servers that makes
communication possible within and between networks. The benefit of ICT over IT is that it improves task
effectiveness by providing access to a broader range of software, which is usually held in centralized server
locations. It also makes possible increased system-management efficiency.

Computer Networking

A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share resources (such as printers and
CDs), exchange files, or allow electronic communications. The computers on a network may be linked through
cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared light beams.

What is Computer Network

A computer network is a group of computer systems and other computing hardware devices that are linked
together through communication channels to facilitate communication and resource-sharing among a wide range
of users. Networks are commonly categorized based on their characteristics.

What are the Components of a Network?

1. Client: Any computer that is the part of a common network other than the Server is called as client. The
division is based on the storage capacity and responsibility of the computer. For example a Server has a
large storage area and its responsibilities are pretty different than client computers.

2. Server: A server is just like any other computer of the network however it can be distinguished with its
large storage capacity and the role that is assigned to it. This is the administrator that controls functioning
of other computers and responsible for the division of labor among computers in a shared network.

3. Media: The physical device through which various components of a computer network are connected
with each other is called as the Media it may includes wire, cable or any other thing. However, these days
with advances in technology wireless communication between various components of a computer is also
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possible. Thanks to those scientists and research scholars who work day-in and day-out to bestow us with
such technologies.

Types of Network Media

Computer network Media includes the major parts that are needed to install a network both at the office
and home level. Before delving into the installation process, you should be familiar with each part so that
you could choose and buy the right component that fits with your network system.
These include cable, Hub, Switch, NIC (network interface card), modem and router. Depending on the
type of network you are going to install, some of the parts can be eliminated. For example, in a wireless
network you don’t need cables, hubs so on.
We will discuss about the main computer network components required to install simple computer
network, often called LAN (local area network).
Computer network is a group of two or more computers that connect with each other to share a resource.
Sharing of devices and resources is the purpose of computer network. You can share printers, fax
machines, scanners, network connection, local drives, copiers and other resources.
In computer network technology, there are several types of networks that range from simple to complex
level. However, in any case in order to connect computers with each other or to the existing network or
planning to install from scratch, the required devices and rules (protocols) are mostly the same.
Major computer network Medias
Computer network requires the following devices (some of them are optional):-
• Network Interface Card (NIC)
• Hub
• Switches
• Cables and connectors
• Router
• Modem

I. Network Interface Card

Network adapter is a device that enables a computer to talk with other computer/network. Using unique
hardware addresses (MAC address) encoded on the card chip, the data-link protocol employs these
addresses to discover other systems on the network so that it can transfer data to the right destination.
There are two types of network cards: wired and wireless. The wired NIC uses cables and connectors as a
medium to transfer data, whereas in the wireless card, the connection is made using antenna that employs
radio wave technology. All modern laptop computers incorporated wireless NIC in addition to the wired
adapter.

Network Card Speed

Network Interface card, one of the main computer network components, comes with different speeds,
10Mbps, 100Mbps, and 1000Mbps, so on. Recent standard network cards built with Gigabit (1000Mbps)
connection speed. It also supports to connect slower speeds such as 10Mbps and 100Mbps. However, the
speed of the card depends on your LAN speed.
For example, if you have a switch that supports up to 100Mbps, your NIC will also transfer a data with
this same speed even though your computer NIC has still the capability to transfer data at 1000Mbps
(1Gbps). In modern computers, network adapter is integrated with a computer motherboard. However if
you want advanced and fast Ethernet card, you may buy and install on your computer using the PCI slot
found on the motherboard (desktop) and ExpressCard slots on laptop .

II. Hub
Hub is a device that splits a network connection into multiple computers. It is like a distribution center.
When a computer request information from a network or a specific computer, it sends the request to the
hub through a cable. The hub will receive the request and transmit it to the entire network. Each
computer in the network should then figure out whether the broadcast data is for them or not. Currently

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 Hubs are becoming obsolete and replaced by more advanced communication devices such as Switchs and
Routers.

III. Switch
Switch is a telecommunication device grouped as one of computer network components. Switch is like a
Hub but built in with advanced features. It uses physical device addresses in each incoming messages so
that it can deliver the message to the right destination or port.
Like Hub, switch don’t broadcast the received message to entire network, rather before sending it checks
to which system or port should the message be sent. In other words switch connects the source and
destination directly which increases the speed of the network. Both switch and hub have common
features: Multiple RJ-45 ports, power supply and connection lights.

IV. Cables and Connectors

Cable is one way of transmission media which can transmit communication signals. The wired network
typology uses special type of cable to connect computers on a network.
There are a number of solid transmission Media types, which are listed below. - Twisted pair wire
It is classified as Category 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 5E, 6 and 7. Category 5E, 6 and 7 are high-speed cables that can
transmit 1Gbps or more. -
Coaxial cable
Coaxial cable more resembles like TV installation cable. It is more expensive than twisted-pair cable but
provide high data transmission speed.
Fiber-optic cable
It is a high-speed cable which transmits data using light beams through a glass bound fibers. Fiber-optic
cable is high data transmission cable comparing to the other cable types. But the cost of fiber optics is
very expensive which can only be purchased and installed on governmental level.

V. Router
When we talk about computer network components, the other device that used to connect a LAN with an
internet connection is called Router. When you have two distinct networks (LANs) or want to share a
single internet connection to multiple computers, we use a Router.
In most cases, recent routers also include a switch which in other words can be used as a switch. You
don’t need to buy both switch and router, particularly if you are installing small business and home
networks. There are two types of Router: wired and wireless. The choice depends on your physical
office/home setting, speed and cost.

VI. Modems
A modem enables you to connect your computer to the available internet connection over the existing
telephone line. Like NIC, Modem is not integrated with a computer motherboard. It comes as separate
part which can be installed on the PCI slots found on motherboard.
A modem is not necessary for LAN, but required for internet connection such as dial-up and DSL.
There are some types of modems, which differs in speed and transmission rate. Standard PC modem or
Dial-up modems (56Kb data transmission speed), Cellular modem (used in a laptop that enables to
connect while on the go), cable modem (500 times faster than standard modem) and DSL Modems are
the most popular.

4. Protocols: Generally any set of rules is a Protocol. A Network Protocol is usually an agreed-upon or
standardized set of rules used for transmitting data and/or establishing communication between them.
Just as two people need to have a common language between them to exchange their views, so
computers need to have a common language so as to share information and the Protocol is something that
offers that platform.

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Types of Networks

There are several different types of computer networks. Computer networks can be characterized by their size as
well as their purpose.

The size of a network can be expressed by the geographic area they occupy and the number of computers that are
part of the network. Networks can cover anything from a handful of devices within a single room to millions of
devices spread across the entire globe.

Some of the different networks based on size are:

 Personal area network, or PAN

 Local area network, or LAN
 Metropolitan area network, or MAN
 Wide area network, or WAN

In terms of purpose, many networks can be considered general purpose, which means they are used for everything
from sending files to a printer to accessing the Internet. Some types of networks, however, serve a very particular
purpose. Some of the different networks based on their main purpose are:

 Storage area network, or SAN

 Enterprise private network, or EPN
 Virtual private network, or VPN

Personal Area Network

A personal area network, or PAN, is a computer network organized around an individual person within a single
building. This could be inside a small office or residence. A typical PAN would include one or more computers,
telephones, peripheral devices, video game consoles and other personal entertainment devices.

If multiple individuals use the same network within a residence, the network is sometimes referred to as a home
area network, or HAN. In a very typical setup, a residence will have a single wired Internet connection connected
to a modem. This modem then provides both wired and wireless connections for multiple devices. The network is
typically managed from a single computer but can be accessed from any device.

This type of network provides great flexibility. For example, it allows you to:

 Send a document to the printer in the office upstairs while you are sitting on the couch with your laptop.
 Upload the photo from your cell phone to your desktop computer.
 Watch movies from an online streaming service to your TV.

If this sounds familiar to you, you likely have a PAN in your house without having called it by its name.

Local Area Network

A local area network, or LAN, consists of a computer network at a single site, typically an individual office
building. A LAN is very useful for sharing resources, such as data storage and printers. LANs can be built with
relatively inexpensive hardware, such as hubs, network adapters and Ethernet cables. The smallest LAN may
only use two computers, while larger LANs can accommodate thousands of computers. A LAN typically relies
mostly on wired connections for increased speed and security, but wireless connections can also be part of a LAN.
High speed and relatively low cost are the defining characteristics of LANs.

LANs are typically used for single sites where people need to share resources among themselves but not with the
rest of the outside world. Think of an office building where everybody should be able to access files on a central
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server or be able to print a document to one or more central printers. Those tasks should be easy for everybody
working in the same office, but you would not want somebody just walking outside to be able to send a document
to the printer from their cell phone! If a local area network, or LAN, is entirely wireless, it is referred to as a
wireless local area network, or WLAN.

Metropolitan Area Network

A metropolitan area network, or MAN, consists of a computer network across an entire city, college campus or
small region. A MAN is larger than a LAN, which is typically limited to a single building or site. Depending on
the configuration, this type of network can cover an area from several miles to tens of miles. A MAN is often used
to connect several LANs together to form a bigger network. When this type of network is specifically designed for
a college campus, it is sometimes referred to as a campus area network, or CAN.

Wide Area Network

A wide area network, or WAN, occupies a very large area, such as an entire country or the entire world. A WAN
can contain multiple smaller networks, such as LANs or MANs. The Internet is the best-known example of a
public WAN.

Differentiate between the following LAN and WAN

LAN WAN
WAN is a network that covers a
LAN is a computer network that
Definition broad area using private or public
connects computers in small areas.
network transports.
WAN has lower data transfer rates
Data transfer rates LAN offers high data transfer rates.
due to congestion
Speed 80-90 mbps 10-20 mbps
WAN uses technologies such as
LANs use technologies such as
MPLS, ATM, Frame Relay and X.25
Technology Ethernet and Token Ring to connect
for data connection over greater
to other networks.
distances.
High bandwidth is available for Low bandwidth available for
Bandwidth
transmission. transmission.
Computers connected to a wide-area
network are often connected through
One LAN can be connected to other
public networks, such as the
Connection LANs over any distance via
telephone system. They can also be
telephone lines and radio waves.
connected through leased lines or
satellites.
Layers 3 devices Routers, Multi-layer
Layer 2 devices like switches,
Switches and Technology specific
Components bridges. Layer 1 devices like hubs,
devices like ATM or Frame-relay
repeaters.
Switches etc.
WANs have more problems due to
LANs tend to have fewer problems
Problems the large amount of system and data
associated with them.
that is present.
LAN networks can be owned up WAN are not owned up any one
Ownership private companies or people that set organization but exist under
it up at homes. collective or distributed ownership.
Experiences fewer data transmission Experiences more data transmission
Data Transmission Error
errors. errors.
Set-up costs are high, especially in
Set-up costs are low as the devices remote locations where set-up is not
Cost required to set up the networks are done. However, WANs using public
cheap. networks are cheap.

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 The network is spread to a very small The network can be spread world-
Spread
location. wide.
Maintenance costs are low as the area Maintenance costs are high as the
Maintenance costs
coverage is small. area coverage is world-wide.
Congestion Less congestion More congestion

Advantages of Installing a School Network

User access control.

Modern networks almost always have one or more servers which allows centralized management for
users and for network resources to which they have access. User credentials on a privately-owned and
operated network may be as simple as a user name and password, but with ever-increasing attention to
computing security issues, these servers are critical to ensuring that sensitive information is only
available to authorized users.
Information storing and sharing.
Computers allow users to create and manipulate information. Information takes on a life of its own on a
network. The network provides both a place to store the information and mechanisms to share that
information with other network users.
Connections.
Administrators, instructors, and even students and guests can be connected using the campus network.
Services.
The school can provide services, such as registration, school directories, course schedules, access to
research, and email accounts, and many others. (Remember, network services are generally provided by
servers).
Internet.
The school can provide network users with access to the internet, via an internet gateway.
Computing resources.
The school can provide access to special purpose computing devices which individual users would not
normally own. For example, a school network might have high-speed high quality printers strategically
located around a campus for instructor or student use.
Flexible Access.
School networks allow students to access their information from connected devices throughout the
school. Students can begin an assignment in their classroom, save part of it on a public access area of the
network, then go to the media center after school to finish their work. Students can also work
cooperatively through the network.
Workgroup Computing.
Collaborative software allows many users to work on a document or project concurrently. For example,
educators located at various schools within a county could simultaneously contribute their ideas about
new curriculum standards to the same document, spreadsheets, or website.

Disadvantages of Installing a School Network

Expensive to Install.
Large campus networks can carry hefty price tags. Cabling, network cards, routers, bridges, firewalls,
wireless access points, and software can get expensive, and the installation would certainly require the
services of technicians. But, with the ease of setup of home networks, a simple network with internet
access can be setup for a small campus in an afternoon.
Requires Administrative Time.
Proper maintenance of a network requires considerable time and expertise. Many schools have installed a
network, only to find that they did not budget for the necessary administrative support.
Servers Fail.
Although a network server is no more susceptible to failure than any other computer, when the files
server "goes down" the entire network may come to a halt. Good network design practices say that
critical network services (provided by servers) should be redundant on the network whenever possible.
Cables May Break.
The Topology chapter presents information about the various configurations of cables. Some of the
configurations are designed to minimize the inconvenience of a broken cable; with other configurations,
one broken cable can stop the entire network.
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Security and compliance.
Network security is expensive. It is also very important. A school network would possibly be subject to
more stringent security requirements than a similarly-sized corporate network, because of its likelihood
of storing personal and confidential information of network users, the danger of which can be
compounded if any network users are minors. A great deal of attention must be paid to network services
to ensure all network content is appropriate for the network community it serves.

Working Exercises I

1. What is the advantage and disadvantage of local area networks?

2. What is mesh network?
3. List three types of transmission media and describe their respective advantages and disadvantages.

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 UNIT 2
Network Topology

What is a Topology?

The physical topology of a network refers to the configuration of cables, computers, and other peripherals.
Physical topology should not be confused with logical topology which is the method used to pass information
between workstations. Logical topology was discussed in the Protocol chapter.

Bus Topology

Bus networks (not to be confused with the system bus of a computer) use a common backbone to connect all
devices. A single cable, the backbone functions as a shared communication medium that devices attach or tap into
with an interface connector. A device wanting to communicate with another device on the network sends a
broadcast message onto the wire that all other devices see, but only the intended recipient actually accepts and
processes the message.

Ring Topology

In a ring network, every device has exactly two neighbors for communication purposes. All messages travel
through a ring in the same direction (either "clockwise" or "counterclockwise"). A failure in any cable or device
breaks the loop and can take down the entire network.

Star Topology

Many home networks use the star topology. A star network features a central connection point called a "hub node"
that may be a network hub , switch or router . Devices typically connect to the hub with Unshielded Twisted Pair
(UTP) Ethernet.

Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires more cable, but a failure in any star network
cable will only take down one computer's network access and not the entire LAN. (If the hub fails, however, the
entire network also fails.)

Mesh Topology

Mesh topologies involve the concept of routes. Unlike each of the previous topologies, messages sent on a mesh
network can take any of several possible paths from source to destination. (Recall that even in a ring, although
two cable paths exist, messages can only travel in one direction.) Some WANs , most notably the Internet, employ
mesh routing.

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A mesh network in which every device connects to every other is called a full mesh. As shown in the illustration
below, partial mesh networks also exist in which some devices connect only indirectly to others.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Bus Network

-Advantages

 Easy to implement and extend

 Well suited for temporary networks (quick setup)
 Initially less expensive than other topologies
 Cheap

-Disadvantages

 Difficult to administer/troubleshoot.
 Limited cable length and number of stations.
 If there is a problem with the cable, the entire network goes down.
 Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run.
 Performance degrades as additional computers are added or on heavy traffic.
 Low security (all computers on the bus can see all data transmissions).
 One virus in the network will affect all of them (but not as badly as a star or ring network).
 Proper termination is required.(loop must be in closed path).
 If one node fails, the whole network will shut down.
 If many computers are attached, the amount of data flowing causes the network to slow down.

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Ring Network

-Advantages

 Data is quickly transferred without a ‘bottle neck’. (very fast, all data traffic is in the same direction)
 The transmission of data is relatively simple as packets travel in one direction only.
 Adding additional nodes has very little impact on bandwidth
 It prevents network collisions because of the media access method or architecture required.

-Disadvantages

 Data packets must pass through every computer between the sender and recipient therefore this makes it
slower.
 If any of the nodes fail then the ring is broken and data cannot be transmitted successfully.
 It is difficult to troubleshoot the ring.
 Because all stations are wired together, to add a station you must shut down the network temporarily.
 In order for all computers to communicate with each other, all computers must be turned on.
 Total dependence upon the one cable

Star Network

-Advantages

 Good performance
 easy to set up and to expand. Any non-centralised failure will have very little effect on the network,
whereas on a ring network it would all fail with one fault

-Disadvantages

 Expensive to install
 Extra hardware required

Mesh Network

Advantages

▸ The arrangement of the network nodes is such that it is possible to transmit data from one node to many other
nodes at the same time.

▸ The failure of a single node does not cause the entire network to fail as there are alternate paths for data
transmission.

▸ It can handle heavy traffic, as there are dedicated paths between any two network nodes.

▸ Point-to-point contact between every pair of nodes, makes it easy to identify faults.

Disadvantages

▸ The arrangement wherein every network node is connected to every other node of the network, many
connections serve no major purpose. This leads to redundancy of many network connections.

▸ A lot of cabling is required. Thus, the costs incurred in setup and maintenance are high.

▸ Owing to its complexity, the administration of a mesh network is difficult.

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Considerations When Choosing a Topology

 Money. A linear bus network may be the least expensive way to install a network; you do not have to
purchase concentrators.
 Length of cable needed. The linear bus network uses shorter lengths of cable.
 Future growth. With a star topology, expanding a network is easily done by adding another
concentrator.
 Cable type. The most common cable in schools is unshielded twisted pair, which is most often used with
star topologies.

Summary Chart

Physical Topology Common Cable Common Protocol

Twisted Pair
Linear Bus Coaxial Ethernet
Fiber
Twisted Pair
Star Ethernet
Fiber

The Importance of Computer Networks

Information and communication are two of the most important strategic issues for the success of every enterprise.
While today nearly every organization uses a substantial number of computers and communication tools (like
telephone or fax), they are often still isolated. While managers today are able to use applications like
wordprocessors or spreadsheets, not very many of them use computer-based tools to communicate with other
departments or information retrieval programs.
To overcome these obstacles in an effective usage of information technology, computer networks are necessary.
They are a new kind (one might call it paradigm) of organization of computer systems produced by the need to
merge computers and communications. At the same time they are the means to converge the two areas; the
unnecessary distinction between tools to process and store information and tools to collect and transport
information can disappear. Computer networks can manage to put down the barriers between information held on
several (not only computer) systems. Only with the help of computer networks can a borderless communication
and information environment be built.

Computer networks allow the user to access remote programs and remote databases either of the same
organization or from other enterprises or public sources. Computer networks provide communication possibilities
faster than other facilities. Because of these optimal information and communication possibilities, computer
networks may increase the organizational learning rate, which many authors declare as the only fundamental
advantage in competition.

Besides this major reason why any organization should not fail to have a computer network, there are other
reasons as well:

 cost reduction by sharing hard- and software resources

 high reliability by having multiple sources of supply
 cost reduction by downsizing to microcomputer-based networks instead of using mainframes
 greater flexibility because of possibility to connect devices from various vendors
Working Execrsice II

1. Give 2 Advantages and 2 disadvantages for the following topology

i. Bus topology
ii. Mesh topology
iii. Star Topology
2. What is Computer Network Topology?

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 UNIT 3
Internet and Intranet

Network, Internet and Intranet Protocols

When two humans converse, they may have to use the same language but they generally understand each other
without having to adhere to rigid rules of grammar or formal language frameworks. Computers, on the other hand,
have to have everything explicitly defined and structured. If computers wish to communicate with one another,
they have to know in advance exactly how information is to be exchanged and precisely what the format will be.
Therefore, standard methods of transmitting and processing various kinds of information are used and
these methods are called "protocols". Protocols are established by international agreement and ensure that
computers everywhere can talk to one another. There are a variety of protocols for different kinds of information
and functions.

Protocol, is a set of rules or procedures for transmitting data between electronic devices, such as computers.
In order for computers to exchange information, there must be a preexisting agreement as to how the information
will be structured and how each side will send and receive it. Without a protocol, a transmitting computer, for
example, could be sending its data in 8-bit packets while the receiving computer might expect the data in 16-bit
packets

TCP/IP

TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and IP (Internet Protocol) are two different procedures that are often linked
together. The linking of several protocols is common since the functions of different protocols can be
complementary so that together they carry out some complete task. The combination of several protocols to carry
out a particular task is often called a "stack" because it has layers of operations. In fact, the term "TCP/IP" is
normally used to refer to a whole suite of protocols, each with different functions. This suite of protocols is what
carries out the basic operations of the Web. TCP/IP is also used on many local area networks. The details of how
the Web works are beyond the scope of this article but I will briefly describe some of the basics of this very
important group of protocols

When information is sent over the Internet, it is generally broken up into smaller pieces or "packets". The use of
packets facilitates speedy transmission since different parts of a message can be sent by different routes and then
reassembled at the destination. It is also a safety measure to minimize the chances of losing information in the
transmission process. TCP is the means for creating the packets, putting them back together in the correct order at
the end, and checking to make sure that no packets got lost in transmission. If necessary, TCP will request that a
packet be resent.

Internet Protocol (IP) is the method used to route information to the proper address. Every computer on the
Internet has to have it own unique address known as the IP address. Every packet sent will contain an IP address
showing where it is supposed to go. A packet may go through a number of computer routers before arriving at its
final destination and IP controls the process of getting everything to the designated computer. Note that IP does
not make physical connections between computers but relies on TCP for this function. IP is also used in
conjunction with other protocols that create connections.

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

Another member of the TCP/IP suite is User Datagram Protocol (UDP). (A datagram is almost the same as a
packet except that sometimes a packet will contain more than one datagram.) This protocol is used together with
IP when small amounts of information are involved. It is simpler than TCP and lacks the flow-control and error-
recovery functions of TCP. Thus, it uses fewer system resources. With UDP, computer applications can send
messages, in this case referred to as datagrams, to other hosts on an Internet Protocol (IP) network without
requiring prior communications to set up special transmission channels or data paths. UDP is sometimes called the
Universal Datagram Protocol.

UDP uses a simple transmission model without implicit hand-shaking dialogues for guaranteeing reliability,
ordering, or data integrity. Thus, UDP provides an unreliable service and datagrams may arrive out of order,
appear duplicated, or go missing without notice. UDP assumes that error checking and correction is either not
15
necessary or performed in the application, avoiding the overhead of such processing at the network interface level.
Time-sensitive applications often use UDP because dropping packets is preferable to waiting for delayed packets,
which may not be an option in a real-time system. If error correction facilities are needed at the network interface
level, an application may use the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) or Stream Control Transmission Protocol
(SCTP) which are designed for this purpose.

UDP's stateless nature is also useful for servers that answer small queries from huge numbers of clients. Unlike
TCP, UDP is compatible with packet broadcast (sending to all on local network) and multicasting (send to all
subscribers).

Common network applications that use UDP include: the Domain Name System (DNS), streaming media
applications such as IPTV, Voice over IP (VoIP), Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP) and many online games.

INTERNET CONTROL MESSAGE PROTOCOL (ICMP)

The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is one of the core protocols of the Internet Protocol Suite. It is
chiefly used by the operating systems of networked computers to send error messages indicating, for example,
that a requested service is not available or that a host or router could not be reached. ICMP can also be used to
relay query messages.

ICMP differs from transport protocols such as TCP and UDP in that it is not typically used to exchange data
between systems, nor is it regularly employed by end-user network applications. It defines a small number of
messages used for diagnostic and management purposes. It is also used by Ping and Traceroute.

Ping is an old Unix tool that has been around for a long time but many PC users are unfamiliar with the Windows
version. Ping sends out a packet to a designated internet host or network computer and measures its response
time. The target computer will return (hopefully) a signal. It is a way of determining the quality of your
connection to another site. You will also receive an IP address that corresponds to the user-friendly type of URL.
To use ping, open a command window and type: ping <hostname>. For example to ping Dell, enter: ping dell.com
Please note the use of a hostname, not a complete URL. The prefix "http://" is never used. Many sites also do not
require "www" . By convention, 32 byte packets will be transmitted four times. You will receive a screen output
that looks like:

The screen tells me that the IP for dell.com is 143.166.83.230 (For the moment, at least. This can change.) It also
tells me that the average round trip time for a packet was 69 milliseconds, which means I have a good connection
to dell.com. Long reply times of several hundred milliseconds are indicative of a slow connection. Note that some
major sites such as microsoft.com do not like being pinged and block pings. In that case you will get a "Request
timed out" message.

Tracert

Tracert (traceroute) is another old tool borrowed from Unix. The actual path between two computers on the
Internet is not a straight line but consists of numerous segments or "hops" from one intermediate computer to
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another. Tracert shows each step of the path taken. It can be interesting to see just how convoluted it is. The times
for each hop and the IP addresses for each intermediate computer are displayed. Tracert shows up to 30 hops. It is
convenient for finding if there is one particular segment that is causing a slow or bad connection. A typical
command might be "tracert dell.com".

THE INTERNET PROTOCOL SUITE

The Internet protocol suite is the set of communications protocols used for the Internet and similar networks,
and generally the most popular protocol stack for wide area networks. It is commonly known as TCP/IP, because
of its most important protocols: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP), which were the
first networking protocols defined in this standard. It is occasionally known as the DoD model due to the
foundational influence of the ARPANET in the 1970s (operated by DARPA, an agency of the United States
Department of Defense).

TCP/IP provides end-to-end connectivity specifying how data should be formatted, addressed, transmitted, routed
and received at the destination. It has four abstraction layers, each with its own protocols From lowest to highest,
the layers are:

1. The link layer (commonly Ethernet) contains communication technologies for a local network.
2. The internet layer (IP) connects local networks, thus establishing internetworking.
3. The transport layer (TCP) handles host-to-host communication.
4. The application layer (for example HTTP) contains all protocols for specific data communications
services on a process-to-process level (for example how a web browser communicates with a web
server).

 Application layer (process-to-process): This is the scope within which applications create user data and
communicate this data to other processes or applications on another or the same host. The
communications partners are often called peers. This is where the "higher level" protocols such as
SMTP, FTP, SSH, HTTP, etc. operate.
 Transport layer (host-to-host): The transport layer constitutes the networking regime between two
network hosts, either on the local network or on remote networks separated by routers. The transport
layer provides a uniform networking interface that hides the actual topology (layout) of the underlying
network connections. This is where flow-control, error-correction, and connection protocols exist, such
as TCP. This layer deals with opening and maintaining connections between Internet hosts.
 Internet layer (internetworking): The internet layer has the task of exchanging datagrams across network
boundaries. It is therefore also referred to as the layer that establishes internetworking, indeed, it defines
and establishes the Internet. This layer defines the addressing and routing structures used for the TCP/IP
protocol suite. The primary protocol in this scope is the Internet Protocol, which defines IP addresses. Its
function in routing is to transport datagrams to the next IP router that has the connectivity to a network
closer to the final data destination.
 Link layer: This layer defines the networking methods within the scope of the local network link on
which hosts communicate without intervening routers. This layer describes the protocols used to describe

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 the local network topology and the interfaces needed to affect transmission of Internet layer datagrams to
next-neighbor hosts. (cf. the OSI Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) mode ) (data link layer).

MAIL PROTOCOLS
Email requires its own set of protocols and there are a variety, both for sending and for receiving mail. The most
common protocol for sending mail is Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP). When configuring email clients
such as Outlook Express, an Internet address for an SMTP server must be entered. The most common protocol for
receiving mail is Post Office Protocol (POP). It is now in version 3 so it is called POP3. Email clients such as
Outlook Express require an address for a POP3 server before they can read mail. The SMTP and POP3 servers
may or may not be the same address. Both SMTP and POP3 use TCP for managing the transmission and delivery
of mail across the Internet.

A more powerful but less common protocol for reading mail is Interactive Mail Access Protocol (IMAP). This
protocol allows for the reading of individual mailboxes at a single account and is more common in business
environments. IMAP also uses TCP to manage the actual transmission of mail.

It is increasingly popular to use Web based email such as Yahoo. Web mail, of course, involves the same protocol
as a Web page and this is discussed next.

HYPERTEXT TRANSFER PROTOCOL

Web pages are constructed according to a standard method called Hypertext Markup Language (HTML). An
HTML page is transmitted over the Web in a standard way and format known as Hypertext Transfer Protocol
(HTTP). This protocol uses TCP/IP to manage the Web transmission.
A related protocol is Hypertext Transfer Protocol over Secure Socket Layer (HTTPS), first introduced by
Netscape. It provides for the transmission in encrypted form to provide security for sensitive data. A Web page
using this protocol will have https: at the front of its URL.

FTP (FILE TRANSFER PROTOCOL)

This was one of the first Internet services developed and it allows users to move files from one computer to
another. Using the FTP program, a user can logon to a remote computer, browse through its files, and either
download or upload files (if the remote computer allows). These can be any type of file, but the user is only
allowed to see the file name; no description of the file content is included. You might encounter the FTP protocol
if you try to download any software applications from the World Wide Web. Many sites that offer downloadable
applications use the FTP protocol. Sites that have a lot of downloading (software sites, for example) will often
have an FTP server to handle the traffic. If FTP is involved, the URL will have ftp: at the front

An example of a FTP Protocol Window:

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File retrieval protocols
This type of service was one of the earliest ways of retrieving information from computers connected to the
Internet. You could view the names of the files stored on the serving computer, but you didn't have any type of
graphics and sometimes no description of a file's content. You would need to have advanced knowledge of which
files contained the information you sought.

Gopher
Gopher offers downloadable files with some content description to make it easier to find the file you need. The
files are arranged on the remote computer in a hierarchical manner, much like the files on your computer's hard
drive are arranged. This protocol isn't widely used anymore, but you can still find some operational gopher sites.

An example of a Gopher Window:

News (or Usenet)

o Network News Transfer Protocol (NNTP) is used for serving Usenet posts Usenet is similar to
the forums that many web sites have. Usenet has forums that are dedicated to specific
companies as well as forums that have a wide range of topics. Usenet is divided into several
areas. Some of the forums that are included in Usenet are comp. for discussion of computer-
related topics, sci. for discussion of scientific subjects, rec. for discussion of recreational
activities (e.g. games and hobbies) and talk. for discussion of contentious issues such as religion
and politics.

Gopher

o Another tool of the Internet is Gopher, a menu-based program that enables you to browse for
information without knowing where the material is located. It lets you search a list of resources
and then sends the material to you.

Telnet

o Telnet lets you log in to a remote computer just as you would if you were there. So any
commands that you would be able to run from the remote computer if you were sitting in front
of it, you would be able to run from the computer you logged in from.
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TELNET (TErminaL NETwork) is a network protocol used on the Internet or local area networks to provide a
bidirectional interactive communications facility. Typically, telnet provides access to a command-line interface on
a remote host via a virtual terminal connection which consists of an 8-bit byte oriented data connection over the
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP). User data is interspersed in-band with TELNET control information.

Telnet was developed in 1969 beginning with RFC 15, extended in RFC 854, and standardized as Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF) Internet Standard STD 8, one of the first Internet standards.

The term telnet may also refer to the software that implements the client part of the protocol. Telnet client
applications are available for virtually all computer platforms. Most network equipment and operating systems
with a TCP/IP stack support a Telnet service for remote

What Is Internet

The Internet is a global system of interconnected computer networks that use the standard Internet protocol suite
(often called TCP/IP, although not all applications use TCP) to serve billions of users worldwide. It is a network
of networks that consists of millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks, of local to
global scope, that are linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless and optical networking technologies. The
Internet carries an extensive range of information resources and services, such as the inter-linked hypertext
documents of the World Wide Web (WWW) and the infrastructure to support email.

Most traditional communications media including telephone, music, film, and television are reshaped or redefined
by the Internet, giving birth to new services such as Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) and Internet Protocol
Television (IPTV). Newspaper, book and other print publishing are adapting to Web site technology, or are
reshaped into blogging and web feeds. The Internet has enabled and accelerated new forms of human interactions
through instant messaging, Internet forums, and social networking. Online shopping has boomed both for major
retail outlets and small artisans and traders. Business-to-business and financial services on the Internet affect
supply chains across entire industries.

What is Intranet

An intranet is a computer network that uses Internet Protocol technology to share information, operational
systems, or computing services within an organization. The term is used in contrast to internet, a network between
organizations, and instead refers to a network within an organization. Sometimes, the term refers only to the
organization's internal website, but may be a more extensive part of the organization's information technology
infrastructure, and may be composed of multiple local area networks. The objective is to organise each
individual's desktop with minimal cost, time and effort to be more productive, cost efficient, timely, and
competitive.

An intranet may host multiple private websites and constitute an important component and focal point of internal
communication and collaboration. Any of the well-known Internet protocols may be found in an intranet, such as
HTTP (web services), SMTP (e-mail), and FTP (file transfer protocol). Internet technologies are often deployed to
provide modern interfaces to legacy information systems hosting corporate data.

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Internet
This is the world-wide network of computers
accessible to anyone who knows their Internet
Protocol (IP) address - the IP address is a unique
set of numbers (such as 209.33.27.100) that defines
the computer's location. Most will have accessed a
computer using a name such as
http://www.hcidata.com. Before this named
computer can be accessed, the name needs to be
resolved (translated) into an IP address. To do this
your browser (for example Netscape or Internet
Explorer) will access a Domain Name Server
(DNS) computer to lookup the name and return an
IP address - or issue an error message to indicate
that the name was not found. Once your browser
has the IP address it can access the remote
computer. The actual server (the computer that
serves up the web pages) does not reside behind a
firewall - if it did, it would be an Extranet. It may
implement security at a directory level so that
access is via a username and password, but
otherwise all the information is accessible. To see
typical security have a look at a sample secure
directory - the username is Dr and the password is
Who (both username and password are case
sensitive).
Intranet
This is a network that is not available to the world outside of the Intranet. If the
Intranet network is connected to the Internet, the Intranet will reside behind a
firewall and, if it allows access from the Internet, will be an Extranet. The
firewall helps to control access between the Intranet and Internet to permit
access to the Intranet only to people who are members of the same company or
organisation.
In its simplest form, an Intranet can be set up on a networked PC without any
PC on the network having access via the Intranet network to the Internet.
For example, consider an office with a few PCs and a few printers all
networked together. The network would not be connected to the outside world.
On one of the drives of one of the PCs there would be a directory of web pages
that comprise the Intranet. Other PCs on the network could access this Intranet
by pointing their browser (Netscape or Internet Explorer) to this directory - for
example
U:\inet\index.htm.
From then onwards they would navigate around the Intranet in the same way as
they would get around the Internet.
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Extranet
An Extranet is actually an Intranet that is
partially accessible to authorised outsiders.
The actual server (the computer that serves up
the web pages) will reside behind a firewall.
The firewall helps to control access between
the Intranet and Internet permitting access to
the Intranet only to people who are suitably
authorised. The level of access can be set to
different levels for individuals or groups of
outside users. The access can be based on a
username and password or an IP address (a
unique set of numbers such as 209.33.27.100
that defines the computer that the user is on).
The History of Internet
The revolutionary idea
In 1962, as Communism grew stronger, the US Air Force asked a small team of researchers to create a military
communications network that could withstand a nuclear strike. The concept of this network relied on a
decentralised system, so that the network could continue to function even if one or several machines were
destroyed.

The Baran model

Paul Baran is considered one of the main figures in the creation of the Internet. In 1964, he had the idea to create
a network in the form of a large web. He had realised that a centralised system was vulnerable, as destroying its
core would bring down all communications. For this reason, he created a hybrid network using both mesh and
star topology, in which data would travel dynamically, "searching" for the clearest pathway, and "waiting" if all
routes were blocked. This technology was called "packet switching."

ARPANET
In August 1969, separate from the military project, the experimental network ARPANET was created by ARPA
(Advanced Research Projects Agency, a division of the United States Department of Defense) in order to link
four universities together:
 The Stanford Research Institute;
 The University of California at Los Angeles;
 The University of California at Santa Barbara;
 The University of Utah.
The ARPANET is now considered the precursor to the Internet. At that time, it already included several
fundamental characteristics of the current network:
 One or several cores could be destroyed without disrupting the network's operation;
 Communication between machines could take place without the direction of a central machine;
 The protocols used were basic.

The World Wide Web

Beginning in 1980, Tim Berners-Lee, a researcher at CERN in Geneva, engineered a hypertext navigation
system, and developed, with the help of Robert Caillia, a software program called Enquire for navigating it.
In late 1990, Tim Berners-Lee finished the protocol HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), as well as HTML
(HyperText Markup Language) for browsing networks by using hyperlinks. The World Wide Web was born.

Uses of Internet

Internet is today one of the most important part of our daily life. There are large numbers of things that can be
done using the internet and so it is very important. You can say that with the progress in the internet we are
progressing in every sphere of life as it not only makes our tasks easier but also saves a lot of time. Today
internet is used for different purposes depending upon the requirement. Here in this very article we have
mentioned then ten best uses of the internet. Here goes the list.

1. Communication

At the moment the easiest thing that can be done using the internet is that we can communicate with the people
living far away from us with extreme ease. Earlier the communication used to be a daunting task but all that
chanced once internet came into the life of the common people. Now people can not only chat but can also do
the video conferencing. It has become extremely easy to contact the loved ones who are in some other part of
the world. Communication is the most important gift that the internet has given to the common man. Email,
social networking sites are some of the prime example of it. This is one such gift of the internet which is
cherished by everyone and has made our life easier to much extent.

2. Research
In order to do research you need to go through hundreds of books as well as the references and that was one of
the most difficult jobs to do earlier. Since the internet came into life, everything is available just a click away.

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You just have to search for the concerned topic and you will get hundreds of references that may be beneficial
for your research. And since internet is here to make your research public, you can then benefit a large amount
of people from the research work that you have done. Research is one such thing which has got lots of benefit
from this evolution of internet. Research process has now got wings and has gained the most due to the internet.

3. Education
Education is one of the best things that the internet can provide. There are a number of books, reference books,
online help centres, expert’s views and other study oriented material on the internet that can make the learning
process very easier as well as a fun learning experience. There are lots and lots of websites which are related to
different topic. One can visit them and can gain endless amount of knowledge that you wish to have. With the
use of internet for education, you are non-longer dependent on some other person to come and teach you. There
are various number of tutorials available over the internet using which you can learn so many thing very easily.
There can’t be any excellent use of the internet other than education as it is the key to achieve everything in life.

4. Financial Transaction
Financial transaction is the term which is used when there is exchange of money. With the use of internet in the
financial transaction, your work has become a lot easier. Now you don’t need to stand in the queue at the branch
of your particular bank rather you can just log in on to the bank website with the credential that has been
provided to you by the bank and then can do any transaction related to finance at your will. With the ability to
do the financial transaction easily over the internet you can purchase or sell items so easily. Financial
transaction can be considered as one of the best uses of resource in the right direction.

5. Real Time Updates

This has been mentioned here in regards to the news and other happenings that may be on-going in different
parts of the world but with the use of internet we come to know about it very easily and without any difficulty.
There are various websites on the internet which provides you with the real time updates in every field be it in
business, sports, finance, politics, entertainment and others. Many a time the decisions are taken on the real time
updates that are happening in various parts of the world and this is where internet is very essential and helpful.

6. Leisure
Right from watching your favourite videos to listening songs, watching movies, playing games, chatting with
the loved ones has been possible due to internet. Internet has progressed with so much pace that today whenever
you get time, you just move on to the internet and so such activities which helps you to relax. Leisure is one of
the most important uses of internet and that has surely one thing that attracts people towards it. Internet is home
of some of the excellent resources using which you can freshen up your mood in minutes.

7. Online Booking
Not only the online booking process is easier as well as less tedious but is also reliable. There is no need to visit
the booking counters to book tickets or to contact the agents that might ask for more money in order to process
your request. You can do all these things sitting at home, using internet. This is the reason it has been placed at
the number. The booking process has simplified because of the internet and this is the best use of the resources
that you have.

8. Job Search
Job search is one such thing which required updates from every corner as well the patience from the person
searching for it. Using internet, this has become an easier task. Job search has been placed at the number eighth
place. There are endless amount of websites on the internet that provided with the news about the vacancy in
various companies. You just need to get yourself registered at these website and they will do the rest. They will
not only send you the email mentioning job vacancy according to your choice but will also help you to select the
best out of them. Job search is easier now.

9. Blogging
There are many people who are very much interested in writing blogs and for them internet is the best place.
They can not only write blogs as per their wish but can also publicize their work so that their work reaches to
most of the people and they get appreciated. There is huge number of websites over the internet which allows
you to write blogs. You just need to get yourself registered as per their procedure and then start writing. And if
your blogs are really good and so many people visit your blog then there is chance that you might get elected to
write blogs for big organisations. Blogging has reached to all new level with the help of internet and is one such
use which is beneficial to everyone.
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10. Shopping
Shopping has now become one of the most pleasing things to do using the internet. Whenever you find time,
just visit the concerned websites and order the items that you need from there. Those items will be delivered to
you in best possible time. There is huge number of options available for a common people to buy or to sell any
particular item using the internet. Using internet now it is possible to buy products from all over the world.

11. Information Dissemination

The intranet is the most logical central location for HR documents. When changes happen, it’s easy to replace
them with the most current version, thus reducing confusion. Here’s a sampling of documents that can be
uploaded into the intranet:
 policies and procedures
 job descriptions and compensation information
 benefits and entitlements
 leave information for employees
HR-related news are also easily disseminated on the intranet. Examples include announcements about new hires,
changes in policies and procedures, upcoming holidays, and job vacancies.
An HR calendar provides at-a-glance information on training schedules, deadlines, and other important events.
The intranet is also the perfect place to gather and respond to employees’ HR-related questions. Answers are
archived for the benefit of other staff members. Proper tagging and use of meta-data make answers easily
searchable.
By using the intranet for information dissemination, the number of inquiries to HR can be greatly reduced,
freeing up HR staff for other tasks.

12. Information Collection

HR can also use the intranet for faster information collection. For example, the employee database can be
housed in the intranet, and employees can update their personal data as changes happen.
HR can also create an intranet e-form to perform a needs assessment of staff. This information can be used for
planning many other HR activities.

13. Training
Everything from planning, scheduling and delivering training can be done on the intranet. Text, photos,
slideshows, and videos can be embedded in a wikion the intranet. Because the training materials are no longer in
a physical format, they are available simultaneously to users (whereas previously training DVDs, for example,
were limited in number and availability).
The intranet also makes it easy for HR staff to monitor completion of training courses, respond to questions, and
assess learning.

14. Feedback Gathering

The intranet also makes it easy for HR to gather feedback. Aside from collecting employee questions, HR can
easily get staff members’ comments on documents and other content. Polls and surveys help HR collect
employee opinions and input. By analyzing the content analysis of staff members’ status updates, blog posts,
and intranet comments, HR can get a sense of the general mood and emotions of staff.

15. Performance Management

Performance management processes can be completed in the intranet. For example, an e-form can be used to
document key result areas for each employee. Performance tracking and appraisals can also be done on the
intranet.

Working Exercises III

1. Differentiate between Internet and Intranet

2. Give 5uses of Internet

3. State 5 Relevance of Internet to Education

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FEDERAL COLLEGE OF EDUCATION (TECHNICAL), AKOKA
DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE LEARNING PROGRAMME

COURSE CODE:
CSC 326

COURSE TITLE:
COMPUTER
MAINTENANCE/TROUBLESHOOTING

This study material belongs to Federal College of Education (Tech.), Akoka.

All Rights Reserved.

25
Course Objectives

At the end of the course, students should be able to:

1. Identify and Explain five equipment required in a computer Laboratory

2. Identify and Explain five Dos and Don’ts in a computer Laboratory
3. Troubleshoot basic operating System problem
4. Prevent/clear Viruses on computer System Unit
5. Identify and replace faulty computer components

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 UNIT 1

OVERVIEW OF COMPUTER LABORATORYENVIRONMENT

A computer laboratory is a space which provides computer services to a defined community. Computer labs are
typically provided by libraries to the public, by academic institutions to students who attend the institution, or
by other institutions to the public or to people affiliated with that institution. Users typically must follow a
certain user policy to retain access to the computers. This generally consists of the user not engaging in illegal
activities or attempting to circumvent any security or content-control software while using the computers. In
public settings, computer lab users are often subject to time limits, in order to allow more people a chance to use
the lab, whereas in other institutions, computer access typically requires valid personal login credentials, which
may also allow the institution to track the user's activities. Computers in computer labs are typically equipped
with internet access, while scanners and printers may augment the lab setup. Computers in computer labs are
typically arranged either in rows, so that every workstation has a similar view of one end of the room to
facilitate lecturing or presentations, or in clusters, to facilitate small group work. In some cases, generally in
academic institutions, student laptops or laptop carts take the place of dedicated computer labs, although
computer labs still have a place in applications requiring special software or hardware not practically
implementable in personal computers.

Important Rules for Computer Laboratory

Every school is different so these rules are not perfect for everyone. However, at least some of them are quite
useful. For example, ‘print only when necessary’ is a great tip that is eco-friendly and saves your school a bit of
coin on printing costs.
On the other hand, ‘work quietly’ may not suit every school’s computer lab. These are labs, not libraries. It can
be okay to do group work or to have some collaborative project-based learning in the lab. Again (can’t stress
this enough), it’s up to every individual school to determine the proper rules for a classroom / school computer
lab.
The following list of rules are succinct and meant to be printed out and posted on your lab’s walls. They may
not have much description to go along with each rule, but it’s a great starting point.

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The ‘surf safely’ rule is one of the most important. Honestly, it’s more important than working quietly or
(heaven forbid!) not changing settings on a computer. Most of the technical stuff can be accomplished using
preventive software or parental controls (like on an iPad). But the ‘surf safely’ (shouldn’t it be ‘safely surf?’)
rule is key because it brings to mind the idea of digital citizenship. To give you a quick idea of what I mean,

28
digital citizenship means you should be aware that your information is public, everything you do online is
public, and that you will be held accountable for any action you take.

STEPS TO BUILD A COMPUTER LABORATORY

With a little work you can build a low cost computer lab out of old computers. Turning old computers into thin
clients is a great way to extend usefulness of computers

1. Identify the lab space.

2. Estimate number of computers you can fit in a classroom.
3. Evaluate furniture needs and options.
4. Consider seating configuration.
5. Identify power sources.
6. Determine number of computers and monitors that can be sufficiently powered with available power
supply.
7. Ask community for old working computers and etc. and offer in exchange tax deductions.
8. Arrange lab furniture avoiding trip and difficult to see zones.
9. Connect computers and monitors to lab power supply.
10. Install Terminal Server Project on clients and server.
11. Connect computers to network.
12. Test thin clients.
13. Create users.

Computer Laboratory Management,Rules and Regulations

1. Students are prohibited to enter the lab unless authorized by the teacher

2. Scan diskettes/ thumb drive before using them.

3. Report all the problems related to the system to the teacher

4. Do not attempt to repair lab equipment.

5. Be responsible when using equipment, software and facilities in the lab.

6. Do not move any equipment from original position.

7. Do not remove or load any software into the computer.

8. Do not change the settings in the computer.

9. Save all work in the external storage device and not in the computer.

10. Do not bring in bags, food and drink into the lab.

11. Turn off the computer accordingly after use.

12. Switch off all power supplies before leaving the lab.

13. Internet facilities is strictly for educational purposes only.

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14. All users should record the use of computer in the computer logbook.

15. The lab should be kept clean and tidy at all times.

IMPORTANT INSTRUCTIONS OF COMPUTER ETHICS

1. You should not use a computer to harm other people.

2. You shall not interfere with other people’s computer work.

3. You shall not use a computer to steal

4. You shall not copy or use software for which you have not paid illegally

5. You shall not use other people’s computer resources without permission or proper compensation.

6. You shall not look around in other people’s computer files

7. You shall not use a computer to give false identity.

8. You shall not correct other people’s ideas or works

9. You shall think about the social effects on the program you are writing or the system you are designing.

10.You shall always use a computer in ways that ensure consideration and respect for your fellow friends.

COPYRIGHT

Copyright is a legal right created by the law of a country that grants the creator of an original work exclusive
rights for its use and distribution. This is usually only for a limited time. The exclusive rights are not absolute
but limited by limitations and exceptions to copyright law, including fair use. A major limitation on copyright is
that copyright protects only the original expression of ideas, and not the underlying ideas themselves.

Copyright is a form of intellectual property, applicable to certain forms of creative work. Some, but not all
jurisdictions require "fixing" copyrighted works in a tangible form. It is often shared among multiple authors,
each of whom holds a set of rights to use or license the work, and who are commonly referred to as rights
holders.[3][4][5][6] These rights frequently include reproduction, control over derivative works, distribution, public
performance, and moral rights such as attribution.

A Copyright Owner's Rights

The primary goal of copyright law is to protect the time, effort, and creativity of the work's creator. As such, the
Copyright Act gives the copyright owner certain exclusive rights, including the right to:

 Reproduce the work

 Prepare "derivative works" (other works based on the original work)
 Distribute copies of the work by sale, lease, or other transfer of ownership
 Perform the work publicly
 Display the work publicly

The copyright owner also has the right to authorize other people to do any of the rights mentioned above. The
copyright owner has the option and ability to transfer his or her exclusive rights -- or any subdivision of those
rights -- to others as well. The Copyright Office does not have forms for these transfers, so a transfer of
copyright is usually done through a contract. It is not legally required for a transfer to be recorded with the
Copyright Office, but having a legal record of the transaction is often a good idea.

30
If an author or artist creates a work for a company or in the course of his or her employment, the creator is
usually not the copyright owner. This situation is known as a "work made for hire," and it gives copyright
ownership to the employer or person who commissioned the work. A work made for hire situation can occur
when an independent contractor is hired to create a particular work, or if the work is created by an employee
while he or she is on the job. For example, if an employee writes articles for a company, the company is the
copyright owner not the actual writer.

Software copyright
Software copyright is the extension of copyright law to machine-readablesoftware. While many of the legal
principles and policy debates concerning software copyright have close parallels in other domains of copyright
law, there are a number of distinctive issues that arise with software.

Software copyright is used by Software Developers and proprietary software companies to prevent the
unauthorized copying of their software. Free and open source licenses also rely on copyright law to enforce their
terms. For instance, copyleft licenses impose a duty on licensees to share their modifications to the work with
the user or copy owner under some circumstances. No such duty would apply had the software in question been
in the public domain.

Working Exercise

1. What is a Computer Laboratory?

2. List 10 Rules for Computer Laboratory

3. What is the significance of false floor of in a computer laboratory?

4. What are the equipment found in a computer Laboratory?

31
 UNIT 2
HARDWARE COMPONENTS OF A COMPUTER

Inside a computer

Have you ever looked inside a computer case, or seen pictures of the inside of one? The small parts may look
complicated, but the inside of a computer case isn't really all that mysterious. This lesson will help you master
some of the basic terminology and understand a bit more about what goes on inside a computer.

Motherboard

The motherboard also called system board is the computer's main circuit board. It's a thin plate that holds the
CPU, memory, connectors for the hard drive and optical drives, expansion cards to control the video and audio,
and connections to your computer's ports (such as USB ports). The motherboard connects directly or indirectly
to every part of the computer.

CPU/processor

The central processing unit (CPU), also called a processor, is located inside the computer case on the
motherboard. It is sometimes called the brain of the computer, and its job is to carry out commands. Whenever
you press a key, click the mouse, or start an application, you're sending instructions to the CPU.

The CPU is usually a two-inch ceramic square with a silicon chip located inside. The chip is usually about the
size of a thumbnail. The CPU fits into the motherboard's CPU socket, which is covered by the heat sink, an
object that absorbs heat from the CPU.

A processor's speed is measured in megahertz (MHz), or millions of instructions per second; and gigahertz
(GHz), or billions of instructions per second. A faster processor can execute instructions more quickly.

32
However, the actual speed of the computer depends on the speed of many different components—not just the
processor.

RAM (Random Access Memory)

RAM is your system's short-term memory. Whenever your computer performs calculations, it temporarily stores
the data in the RAM until it is needed.

This short-term memory disappears when the computer is turned off. If you're working on a document,
spreadsheet, or other type of file, you'll need to save it to avoid losing it. When you save a file, the data is
written to the hard drive, which acts as long-term storage.

RAM is measured in megabytes (MB) or gigabytes (GB). The more RAM you have, the more things your
computer can do at the same time. If you don't have enough RAM, you may notice that your computer is
sluggish when you have several programs open. Because of this, many people add extra RAM to their
computers to improve performance.

Hard drive

The hard drive is where your software, documents, and other files are stored. The hard drive is long-term
storage, which means the data is still saved even if you turn the computer off or unplug it.

When you run a program or open a file, the computer copies some of the data from the hard drive onto the
RAM. When you save a file, the data is copied back to the hard drive. The faster the hard drive, the faster your
computer can start up and load programs.

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Power supply unit

The power supply unit in a computer converts the power from the wall outlet to the type of power needed by the
computer. It sends power through cables to the motherboard and other components.

If you decide to open the computer case and take a look, make sure to unplug the computer first. Before
touching the inside of the computer, you should touch a grounded metal object—or a metal part of the computer
casing—to discharge any static buildup. Static electricity can be transmitted through the computer circuits,
which can seriously damage your machine.

Expansion cards

Most computers have expansion slots on the motherboard that allow you to add various types of expansion
cards. These are sometimes called PCI (peripheral component interconnect) cards. You may never need to add
any PCI cards because most motherboards have built-in video, sound, network, and other capabilities.

However, if you want to boost the performance of your computer or update the capabilities of an older
computer, you can always add one or more cards. Below are some of the most common types of expansion
cards.

Video card

The video card is responsible for what you see on the monitor. Most computers have a GPU (graphics
processing unit) built into the motherboard instead of having a separate video card. If you like playing graphics-
intensive games, you can add a faster video card to one of the expansion slots to get better performance.

Sound card

The sound card—also called an audio card—is responsible for what you hear in the speakers or headphones.
Most motherboards have integrated sound, but you can upgrade to a dedicated sound card for higher-quality
sound.

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Network card

The network card allows your computer to communicate over a network and access the Internet. It can either
connect with an Ethernet cable or through a wireless connection (often called Wi-Fi). Many motherboards have
built-in network connections, and a network card can also be added to an expansion slot.

Bluetooth card (or adapter)

Bluetooth is a technology for wireless communication over short distances. It's often used in computers to
communicate with wireless keyboards, mice, and printers. It's commonly built into the motherboard or included
in a wireless network card. For computers that don't have Bluetooth, you can purchase a USB adapter, often
called a dongle.

The computer case

The computer case contains the most important components of the computer: the motherboard, the processor,
random access memory modules, the hard drive etc. It may not be possible to exchange the components in a
laptop computer, but in a desktop computer you have much more influence on the parts inside the case.

35
DVD and Blu-ray drives with writing capabilities

Most computers these days come with a Blu-ray drive or a DVD (Digital Versatile Disk) drive with writing
capabilities, with which you can burn such things as backup copies of important files to DVDs. CD drives are
older and have mostly been replaced with DVD drives. CD drives can only burn data on CDs, which have a
substantially smaller storage capacity, while DVD drivescan burn data to both CDs and DVDs with more
capacity (please see recording media for more information).

The display and display adapter

Most computer displays are so-called LCD displays (Liquid Crystal Display), where the image display is
produced by liquid crystals between two transparent sheets. Display sizes range between only a few inches in
handheld apparatuses to large 24 inch desktop displays.

One of the most important features of the display is its resolution, i.e. how many pixels (picture elements) the
image consists of. A normal 22 to 24-inch widescreen display usually has 1920 pixels horizontally and 1200
pixels vertically (1920×1200). These displays can reproduce FullHD (full high definition) image.

No matter what the type of display is, the computer must contain a so-called display adapter that allows you to
attach the display to the computer and controls the display image. Practically all motherboards come equipped
with a display adapter, so you do not need to buy one separately, unless you want to enhance the capabilities of
your desktop computer e.g. for gaming, video editing, or 3D imaging purporses.

Keyboard

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A standard keyboard has 102 keys. The keys are divided into alphabetical (a-z), numerical (1-0) and special
(Function, Ctrl, Alt etc keys).

In addition to the usual alphabetical and numerical keys, you should know at least the following special keys
that are located among the alphabetical ones.

Pointing devices

Traditionally, most programs have been designed to be used with a mouse. The mouse cursor seen on the screen
of the computer moves along with the mouse. The cursor can be used to select menu commands and areas, as
well as activating different objects by clicking the mouse keys.

Optical mouse| pointing stick and touchpad| touchscreen

Mouse

You can attach a traditional mouse with or without a cord to any computer. Cordless mice use radio waves to
relay movement from the mouse to the computer (for this mouse, a small radio receiver is attached to the
computer).

Touchpad

Almost all laptop computers have a touchpad which is used to move the cursor. Some models also have a so-
called pointing stick. In addition, portable computers have keys with the clicking function of mouse. The
touchpad is a pad where you can control the cursor by moving your finger along the pad. Tapping the pad serves
the same function as clicking a mouse.

Pointing stick

The pointing stick is a ‘nub’ located in the middle of the keyboard, and controls the cursor. The pointing stick
can be ‘clicked’ by tapping the stick or using the separate buttons in the keyboard. In the right-hand image
above, you can see a portable computer with both a pointing stick (blue) and a touchpad (the large, dark grey
area in front of the keyboard).

Touchscreen

Devices that are smaller than a laptop, such as phones and tablets, usually do not have a separate keyboard or
pointer device. In these devices, the entire screen of the device works as an input device. A touchscreen is used
like the track pad on a laptop, and when typing is required, a keyboard appears on the screen.

When using a mouse, keyboard and similar devices, please consider your ergonomics. Among other things,
make sure that your wrists are resting squarely on the worktop or on a separate wrist rest, and that your work
position does not strain your shoulders.

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 UNIT 3
CARE OF THE COMPUTER SYSTEM

Taking care of your computer is just as important as taking care of your books. Both the internal and the
external parts of the computer have to be cared for. Scanning, defragging and reformatting are some of the
activities performed to clean up the hard drive. These activities are best left to a grown up and such you should
not attempt them. However, there are certain tasks you can perform to ensure your computer is clean; here are a
few:

1. This one isn’t hard to understand: keep your drinks away, and don’t eat directly over the computer. Liquids
and electronics never mix, and crumbs under the keys are an open invitation for insects.
2. Protect your computer during lightning storms by installing surge protectors. Surge protector strips prevent
your electronic appliances from blowing out when lightning strikes.
3. The computer keyboard is the 3rd dirtiest surface in the household. Clean beneath the keys using a can of
compressed air, and spray a cloth with disinfectant to wipe down the key surfaces. Never spray disinfectant
directly onto the keyboard as the liquid could damage the components beneath the keys.
4. Don’t put your laptop on the floor. The fans that suck in air to cool down internal components can also suck
up dirt, clogging up the inside and reducing performance. Make sure the fan vents underneath your laptop are
kept clear. This prevents damage by overheating.
5. If you’re using a lithium-ion battery in your laptop (most new laptops have them), don’t let it completely run
out, as this shortens its lifespan. Recharge the battery before it is depleted ¾ of the way.
6. Keep magnets away from your computers. The hard drives of older-model computers can be wiped by
running magnets over them. For new-style computers with magnets there is a risk of damaging your hard drive.
7. When plugging external devices (such as USBs and cables) into your computer, never force them in. Always
plug them in gently to prevent damage to the delicate internal components.
8. Regularly scan your computer with certified, up-to-date anti-virus/ anti-spyware software. The last thing you
want is a virus corrupting your operating systems, and hackers stealing your information.
9. Defrag your hard drive from time to time to improve performance. Make sure it is done at a time when you
won’t need your computer, as it can take up to several hours.
10. Backup your data on a regular basis, should something happen to your computer. There is nothing more
frustrating than losing information, and having to replace it all over again.
 Shut your computer down when leaving for the day. This ensures that your work is "saved" and saves
the university money!
 Always "shut down", "suspend", or "hibernate" your laptop before moving it. This allows the hard
drive to "spin down" which prevents potential data loss when moving the laptop.
 Always use your carrying case when moving your laptop. Even a short fall can damage the hard drive
and result in the complete loss of your data!
 Do not use Windex, alcohol, or ammonia to clean LCD screens. Microfiber or very soft cloths are the
best options for cleaning LCD screens.

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  Avoid extreme heat or cold. Computers operate best in the same temperatures that you do. Never leave
your laptop outside or in a car for extended periods.
 Avoid getting the computer wet. Never power on a wet machine! If the machine does become wet
carefully unplug the power from the wall and contact the Help Desk immediately!
 Keep the computer away from strong magnets or equipment that generates magnetic fields. In extreme
situations this can cause data loss.
 Do not block or push anything into the air vents. This will cause the machine to overheat.
 Do not leave your laptop or case unattended. Laptops are easy to spot and prime targets for theft!
 When traveling, do not check your laptop with your luggage, always carry it with you.
 All machines have CD/DVD writers to make backups easy. Backup your data frequently and store the
backups in a safe place.

Computer Care - Environment

Computers do best in a controlled environment.
 Dust or extreme moisture can cause damage. If you own your own computer, a vacuum cleaner can be
used to remove excess dust. You may need to open the computer case to get all the dust.
 Keep liquids away from computers. If by accident a cup of coffee or other liquid is spilled on the
computer, immediately turn off the power and unplug the machine. If no obvious signs of damage
occurred (like smoke or a sizzling sound), you can thoroughly dry everything out for a couple days and
then turn the computer back on. If you do see or hear signs of damage, bring your computer to a
competent computer repair service. Computers are sensitive devices.
 Do not drop items on a computer or drop the computer itself -- especially when it is running. Bumping
the computer case while the computer is running can cause the internal hard drive to crash, potentially
corrupting everything (programs and data) that are stored on it.
What is a computer virus?
Computer viruses are small software programs that are designed to spread from one computer to another and to
interfere with computer operation.
A computer virus is a program or piece of code that is loaded onto your computer without your knowledge and
runs against your wishes. Viruses can also replicate themselves. All computer viruses are man-made. A simple
virus that can make a copy of itself over and over again is relatively easy to produce. Even such a simple virus is
dangerous because it will quickly use all available memory and bring the system to a halt. An even more
dangerous type of virus is one capable of transmitting itself across networks and bypassing security systems.

What do computer viruses do?

Through the course of using the Internet and your computer, you may have come in to contact with computer
viruses. Many computer viruses are stopped before they can start, but there is still an ever growing concern as to
what do computer viruses do and the list of common computer virus symptoms. A computer virus might corrupt
or delete data on your computer, use your email program to spread itself to other computers, or even erase
everything on your hard disk.

39
Computer viruses are often spread by attachments in email messages or instant messaging messages. That is
why it is essential that you never open email attachments unless you know who it's from and you are expecting
it.
Viruses can be disguised as attachments of funny images, greeting cards, or audio and video files.
Computer viruses also spread through downloads on the Internet. They can be hidden in illicit software or other
files or programs you might download.
To help avoid computer viruses, it's essential that you keep your computer current with the latest updates and
antivirus tools, stay informed about recent threats, run your computer as a standard user (not as administrator),
and that you follow a few basic rules when you surf the Internet, download files, and open attachments.
Once a virus is on your computer, its type or the method it used to get there is not as important as removing it
and preventing further infection.

Antivirus protection and how to avoid viruses

Is your computer running more slowly than usual? Does it stop responding, freeze often, or display other odd
behavior? It might have a virus. Fortunately, if you update your computer regularly and use antivirus software,
you can help permanently remove unwanted software and prevent it from being installed in the first place.
Windows Defender (built in to Windows 8), Microsoft Security Essentials, and other antivirus software
programs download the latest updates over the Internet to fight new malware. Windows Defender Offline helps
protect against advanced malware that can't always be detected by antivirus software.

How to avoid viruses

Nothing can guarantee the security of your computer, but there's a lot you can do to help lower the chances that
your computer will become infected.

Use a firewall
Using a firewall is like locking the front door to your house—it helps keep intruders (in this case, hackers and
malicious software) from getting in. Windows Firewall is included in Windows and is turned on by default.
To learn more about firewalls, read Firewalls in versions of Windows.

Update your software

Microsoft releases security updates on the second Tuesday of every month. Open Windows Update to confirm
that you have automatic updating turned on and that you've downloaded and installed all the latest critical and
security updates.

Adjust Browser security settings

You can adjust the security settings in your Browsers web browser to specify how much—or how little—
information you want to accept from a website.

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Microsoft recommends that you set the security settings for the Internet zone to Medium or higher. (If you use
Windows 8, Windows 7, Windows Vista, or Windows XP Service Pack 2 and you use Browsers to browse the
web, your browser security settings for the Internet zone are set to Medium by default.)
Browsers also includes a number of features, such as SmartScreen Filter, to help protect against viruses,
spyware, and many other kinds of malicious, deceptive, or unwanted software.
To learn more about how SmartScreen technology helps you avoid malware, see the Use BrowsersSmartScreen
Filter section of this article.
Download and install antivirus software
Surf and download more safely
The best defense against spyware and other unwanted software is not to download it in the first place. Here are a
few tips that can help you avoid downloading software that you don't want:
 Download programs only from websites you trust. If you're not sure whether to trust a program you are
considering downloading, enter the name of the program into your favorite search engine to see if
anyone else has reported that it contains spyware. Files that end in the extensions .exe or .scr
commonly hide malware. However, even files with familiar extensions such as .docx, .xlsx, and .pdf
can be dangerous.
 Read all security warnings, license agreements, and privacy statements associated with any software
you download. Before you install something, consider the risks and benefits of installing it, and be
aware of the fine print. For example, make sure that the license agreement does not conceal a warning
that you are about to install software with unwanted behavior.
 Never click "Agree" or "OK" to close a window. Instead, click the red "x" in the corner of the window
or press Alt + F4 on your keyboard to close a window.
 Be wary of popular "free" music and movie file-sharing programs, and be sure you understand all of
the software that is packaged with those programs.
 Use a standard user account instead of an administrator account. Don't click links on suspicious
websites or in email messages. Instead, type the website address directly into your browser, or use
bookmarks.
 Don't automatically trust that instant messages, email messages, or messages on social networking
websites are from the person they appear to be from. Even if they are from someone you know, contact
the person before you click the link to ensure that they intended to send it.
Care of Computer System Components
"Take good care of your PC, and it will take good care of you."
It's a nice sentiment, but reality is more like "Take good care of your PC, and it won't crash, lose your data,
and cost you your job--probably." Follow these steps to stop PC problems before they stop you.
Your PC's two mortal enemies are heat and moisture. Excess heat accelerates the deterioration of the
delicate circuits in your system. The most common causes of overheating are dust and dirt: Clogged vents
and CPU cooling fans can keep heat-dissipating air from moving through the case, and even a thin coating
of dust or dirt can raise the temperature of your machine's components.

41
Any grime, but especially the residue of cigarette smoke, can corrode exposed metal contacts. That's why it
pays to keep your system clean, inside and out.
If your PC resides in a relatively clean, climate-controlled environment, an annual cleaning should be
sufficient. But in most real-world locations, such as dusty offices or shop floors, your system may need a
cleaning every few months.
All you need are lint-free wipes, a can of compressed air, a few drops of a mild cleaning solution such as
Formula 409 or Simple Green in a bowl of water, and an antistatic wrist strap to protect your system when
you clean inside the case.

Think Outside the Box

Before you get started cleaning, check around your PC for anything nearby that could raise its temperature
(such as a heating duct or sunshine coming through a window). Also clear away anything that might fall on
it or make it dirty, such as a bookcase or houseplants.
Always turn off and unplug the system before you clean any of its components. Never apply any liquid
directly to a component. Spray or pour the liquid on a lint-free cloth, and wipe the PC with the cloth.
Clean the case: Wipe the case and clear its ventilation ports of any obstructions. Compressed air is great
for this, but don't blow dust into the PC or its optical and floppy drives. Keep all cables firmly attached to
their connectors on the case.
Maintain your mechanical mouse: When a nonoptical mouse gets dirty, the pointer moves erratically.
Unscrew the ring on the bottom of the unit and remove the ball. Then scrape the accumulated gunk off the
two plastic rollers that are set 90 degrees apart inside the ball's housing.
Keep a neat keyboard: Turn the keyboard upside down and shake it to clear the crumbs from between the
keys. If that doesn't suffice, blast it (briefly) with compressed air. If your keys stick or your keyboard is
really dirty, pry the keys off for easier cleaning. Computer shops have special tools for removing keys, but
you can also pop them off by using two pencils with broken tips as jumbo tweezers--just be sure to use a
soft touch.
Make your monitor sparkle: Wipe the monitor case and clear its vents of obstructions, without pushing
dust into the unit. Clean the screen with a standard glass cleaner and a lint-free cloth. If your monitor has a
degauss button (look for a small magnet icon), push it to clear magnetic interference. Many LCDs can be
cleaned with isopropyl alcohol; check with your LCD manufacturer. Wipe your LCD lightly: The
underlying glass is fragile.
Check your power protection: Reseat the cables plugged into your surge protector. Check the unit's
warning indicator, if it has one. Surge protectors may power your PC even after being compromised by a
voltage spike (making your system susceptible to a second spike). If your power protector doesn't have a
warning indicator and your area suffers frequent power outages, replace it with one that has such an
indicator and is UL 1449 certified.
Swipe your CD and DVD media: Gently wipe each disc with a moistened, soft cloth. Use a motion that
starts at the center of the disc and then moves outward toward the edge. Never wipe a disc in a circular
motion.

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Inside the Box
Before cracking open the case, turn off the power and unplug your PC. Ground yourself before you touch
anything inside to avoid destroying your circuitry with a static charge. If you don't have a grounding wrist strap,
you can ground yourself by touching any of various household objects, such as a water pipe, a lamp, or another
grounded electrical device. Be sure to unplug the power cord before you open the case.
Use antistatic wipes to remove dust from inside the case. Avoid touching any circuit-board surfaces. Pay close
attention to the power-supply fan, as well as to the case and to CPU fans, if you have them. Spray these
components with a blast of compressed air to loosen dust; but to remove the dust rather than rearrange it, you
should use a small vacuum.
If your PC is more than four years old, or if the expansion cards plugged into its motherboard are exceptionally
dirty, remove each card, clean its contacts with isopropyl alcohol, and reseat it. If your system is less than a
couple years old, however, just make sure each card is firmly seated by pressing gently downward on its top
edge while not touching its face. Likewise, check your power connectors, EIDE connectors, and other internal
cables for a snug fit.
For its location, check the motherboard manual. If your PC is more than four or five years old, the CMOS
battery may need to be replaced. (A system clock that loses time is one indicator of a dying CMOS battery.)
Look for Trouble
Give your PC a periodic checkup with a good hardware diagnostic utility. Two excellent choices are Sandra
Standard from SiSoftware and #1-TuffTest-Lite from #1-PC Diagnostics. Go to PC World's download page to
download the free version of Sandra (the full version of the application costs $35) or to download #1-TuffTest-
Lite (the fully functional version is $10).
Adding and removing system components leaves orphaned entries in the Windows Registry. This can increase
the time your PC takes to boot and can slow system performance. Many shareware utilities are designed to clean
the Registry, but my favorite is Registry Drill from Easy Desk Software. The program is free to try and $40 to
keep. Go to PC World's download page to download a trial copy of Registry Drill.
Windows stores files on a hard drive in rows of contiguous segments, but over time the disk fills and segments
become scattered, so they take longer to access. To keep your drive shipshape, run Windows' Disk
Defragmenter utility. Click Start, Programs (All Programs), Accessories, System Tools, Disk Defragmenter.
If your drive is heavily fragmented, you could boost performance Defragging may take hours, however. Disable
your screen saver and other automatic programs beforehand to keep the defrag from restarting every few
minutes.
Disk Defragmenter won't defragment the file on your hard drive that holds overflow data from system memory
(also known as the swap file). Since the swap file is frequently accessed, defragmenting it can give your PC
more pep. You can defragment your swap file by using a utility such as the SpeedDisk program included with
Norton SystemWorks 2004, but there's a way to reset it in Windows.
In Windows, right-click My Computer and choose Properties. Click Advanced, and then choose the Settings
button under Performance. Click Advanced again and the Change button under Virtual Memory. Select another
drive or partition, set your swap file size, and click OK.

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Hard-Drive Checkup
Windows offers a rudimentary evaluation of your hard disk's health with its error-checking utility: Right-click
the drive's icon in Windows Explorer and select Properties, Tools, Check Now. (Windows can fix errors and
recover bad sectors automatically if you wish.) If the check discovers a few file errors, don't worry, but if it
comes up with hundreds of errors, the drive could be in trouble.
Many hardware and software designers humbly assume you want their program running on your PC all the time,
so they tell Windows to load the application at startup (hence, the ever-growing string of icons in your system
tray). These programs eat up system resources and make hardware conflicts and compatibility problems more
likely. To prevent them from launching, just click Start, Run, type msconfig, and press Enter. The programs
listed under the Startup tab are set to start along with Windows. Uncheck the box at the left of each undesirable
program to prevent it from starting automatically.

How to Maintain Computer Hardware

Step treating computer is usually less attention than most of the owners or users of the computer itself. Usually
we just "screamed" when computers are taking damage. Actually caring for a routine computer is what the user
should do to keep thecomputer in the best performance.

How to Maintain Computer Hardware:

The first thing we should do is perform maintenance actions on components of computer hardware which
include:
Putting computers in place with good air circulation flow. It is very necessary to avoid overheating the computer
hardware.
Cleaning the dust regularly in and attached to the CPU casing role in hardware components. Cleaning can be
done with the help of a brush and a vacuum cleaner or use a wind from the compressor so that the cleaning of
dust can be maximized. This action is performed several times depending on the condition of each computer.

Using a Stabilizer that the electricity that goes into the Power Supply is always maintained its stability. Or
better, if you use a UPS (Uninterrupted Power Supply) that can keep your computer from losing electrical power
suddenly.

How to Maintain Computer Software

The second thing that is not less important of course is to maintain software or computer operating system.
There are several computer software maintenance actions that can be done, some are as follows:

Backing up your computer system.

Backing up your computer system is intended as a preventive maintenance action, so that we more easily
recover the system when the damage occurred. To back up this system I usually use the help of software
MacriumReflec Free Edition, EASEUS ToDo Backup or simply by running the System Restore utility (Create
Restore Point) before and after installing an application.

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Installing and Running Computer with Antivirus Scan.
Install an antivirus and computer with Antivirus Scan done periodically. Here I usually use Avast or AVG Free
Antivirus which proved powerful enough to protect your computer from virus infection. Also use also other
such Sanner Malware Malwarebyte or Norman Malware Cleaner to ensure your computer is free from viruses
and other malware.
1. Do a Windows Update, Update Antivirus and other software.
Automatically or manually, go to the Windows update, antivirus and other software such as MS Office,
Browser, Java and other applications, so in addition to closing the security hole can also use the latest
features of the various applications.

2. Perform Optimization System.

To perform system optimization, we can use some default Windows tools such as the following:
o Disk Clean Up, for cleaning files that are not needed.
o Check Disk, to check and repair the file system on the hard disk.
o Disk Defragmenter, to perform disk optimization by rearranging the files are "scattered" on
the hard drive.
1. In addition to using the default Windows tool, for easier maintenance and optimization of the system we
can also use the software for windows optimization like Advance System Care or Glarry Utilities.

Working Exercise
1. What steps would you take to maintain computer hardware

2. What steps are taken to maintain the software inside a computer?

3. Define troubleshooting as it refers to computer repair

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 UNIT 4
How to Tell a Hardware Problem from a Software Problem

Your computer seems to be malfunctioning — it’s slow, programs are crashing or Windows may be blue-

screening. Is your computer’s hardware failing, or does it have a software problem that you can fix on your

own?

This can actually be a bit tricky to figure out. Hardware problems and software problems can lead to the same

symptoms — for example, frequent blue screens of death may be caused by either software or hardware

problems.

Computer is Slow

We’ve all heard the stories — someone’s computer slows down over time because they install too much

software that runs at startup or it becomes infected with malware. The person concludes that their computer is

slowing down because it’s old, so they replace it. But they’re wrong.

If a computer is slowing down, it has a software problem that can be fixed. Hardware problems shouldn’t cause

your computer to slow down. There are some rare exceptions to this — perhaps your CPU is overheating and

it’sdownclocking itself, running slower to stay cooler — but most slowness is caused by software issues.

Blue Screens

Modern versions of Windows are much more stable than older versions of Windows. When used with reliable

hardware with well-programmed drivers, a typical Windows computer shouldn’t blue-screen at all.

If you are encountering frequent blue screens of death, there’s a good chance your computer’s hardware is

failing. Blue screens could also be caused by badly programmed hardware drivers, however.

If you just installed or upgraded hardware drivers and blue screens start, try uninstalling the drivers or using

system restore — there may be something wrong with the drivers. If you haven’t done anything with your

drivers recently and blue screens start, there’s a very good chance you have a hardware problem.

Computer Won’t Boot

If your computer won’t boot, you could have either a software problem or a hardware problem. Is Windows
attempting to boot and failing part-way through the boot process, or does the computer no longer recognize its
hard drive or not power on at all?
When Hardware Starts to Fail…
Here are some common components that can fail and the problems their failures may cause:

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  Hard Drive: If your hard drive starts failing, files on your hard drive may become corrupted. You may
see long delays when you attempt to access files or save to the hard drive. Windows may stop booting
entirely.
 CPU: A failing CPU may result in your computer not booting at all. If the CPU is overheating, your
computer may blue-screen when it’s under load — for example, when you’re playing a demanding
game or encoding video.
 RAM: Applications write data to your RAM and use it for short-term storage. If your RAM starts
failing, an application may write data to part of the RAM, then later read it back and get an incorrect
value. This can result in application crashes, blue screens, and file corruption.
 Graphics Card: Graphics card problems may result in graphical errors while rendering 3D content or
even just while displaying your desktop. If the graphics card is overheating, it may crash your graphics
driver or cause your computer to freeze while under load — for example, when playing demanding 3D
games.
 Fans: If any of the fans fail in your computer, components may overheat and you may see the above
CPU or graphics card problems. Your computer may also shut itself down abruptly so it doesn’t
overheat any further and damage itself.
 Motherboard: Motherboard problems can be extremely tough to diagnose. You may see occasional
blue screens or similar problems.
 Power Supply: A malfunctioning power supply is also tough to diagnose — it may deliver too much
power to a component, damaging it and causing it to malfunction. If the power supply dies completely,
your computer won’t power on and nothing will happen when you press the power button.
Other common problems — for example, a computer slowing down — are likely to be software problems.
It’s also possible that software problems can cause many of the above symptoms — malware that hooks deep
into the Windows kernel can cause your computer to blue-screen, for example.

The Only Way to Know For Sure

We’ve tried to give you some idea of the difference between common software problems and hardware
problems with the above examples. But it’s often tough to know for sure, and troubleshooting is usually a trial-
and-error process. This is especially true if you have an intermittent problem, such as your computer blue-
screening a few times a week.
You can try scanning your computer for malware and running System Restore to restore your computer’s
system software back to its previous working state, but these aren’t guaranteed ways to fix software problems.
The best way to determine whether the problem you have is a software or hardware one is to bite the bullet and
restore your computer’s software back to its default state. That means reinstalling Windows or using the Refresh
or reset feature on Windows . See whether the problem still persists after you restore its operating system to its
default state. If you still see the same problem – for example, if your computer is blue-screening and continues
to blue-screen after reinstalling Windows — you know you have a hardware problem and need to have your
computer fixed or replaced. If the computer crashes or freezes while reinstalling Windows, you definitely have a
hardware problem.
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Even this isn’t a completely perfect method — for example, you may reinstall Windows and install the same
hardware drivers afterwards. If the hardware drivers are badly programmed, the blue-screens may continue.
Blue screens of death aren’t as common on Windows these days — if you’re encountering them frequently, you
likely have a hardware problem. Most blue screens you encounter will likely be caused by hardware issues.
On the other hand, other common complaints like “my computer has slowed down” are easily fixable software
problems. When in doubt, back up your files and reinstall Windows.

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