Audience

An audience is a person or group of people; a piece of writing is intended to reach. In reading comprehension,
the audience is referred to as the reader or the addressee of the text. Or it might be any other people addressed
by the writer as a target group in relation to the purpose of the text.

When you approach a text, think of yourself as a detective, and try to figure out whom the writer is
communicating with. To identify the target audience:
 Find the central idea of the text.
 Ask Who/What type of reader would be interested in reading this text?

Types of Audience:

General readers: Those are the general or ordinary people who read about everything regardless of their
major or domain of work as men, women, girls, boys, students, teachers…

Interested readers: Those are readers who read a text because they are motivated by its topic or they like
the issue it addresses. Discriminated men, working women, Lebanese girls, football fans, addicts,
teenagers, NGO's (Non-Governmental Organizations), etc. are samples.

Specialist readers: Those are the readers who are specialized in the domain of the text or work in the
field it belongs to such as environmentalists, economists, historians, social workers, archeologists,
psychologists, scientists, sociologists, journalists, city planners, government officials,
dietitians/nutritionists, researchers…

SECONDARY LEVEL CLASSES MAHA SHHADEH

Example: Identify the target audience of the below text.

Save the Children

1 For a long time, child abuse has been recorded in literature, art, and science in many parts of the world. Reports
on children killing, abandonment, and other forms of violence against children dating back to ancient civilizations.
The historical record is also filled with reports on weak and malnourished children cast out by families. For a
long time too, there have been groups of professionals who have advocated the protection of children.
2 A greater understanding of risk factors can help professionals working with children and families identify
high-risk situations so they can intervene appropriately. Research has uncovered several risk factors or attributes
commonly associated with maltreatment. Children in families and environments where these factors exist have a
higher probability of experiencing abuse. However, research has emphasized that while certain factors are usually
present among families where maltreatment occurs, this does not mean that the presence of these factors
necessarily leads to child abuse.
3 Sociologists have revealed several causal factors in child abuse. One is the intergenerational transmission of
violence. Parents are likely to abuse their children if they have acquired in their childhood that it is alright to use
force in dealing with child-rearing problems. This learning may emerge from the experience of being abused as
children.

Sample Answer
Several audience/readers/addressees might be interested in reading the above selection. First, journalists
might be interested in highlighting the agonies of children who are abandoned and abused savagely by their
parents. A second audience might be sociologists who would like to study the significant factors of abuse and
highlight its drastic impacts on the children as well as society. A third one might be humanitarian organizations
such as UNICEF who would like to protect vulnerable children from neglect, violence, and abuse.

SECONDARY LEVEL CLASSES MAHA SHHADEH

 Purpose

In reading comprehension, the purpose is referred to as the writer’s aim or the goal behind writing a text
having the audience into consideration. It answers the question: Why does the writer write the text?

The writer’s purpose varies according to the type of writing. For example:

 In Narrative writing, the writer’s purpose is to tell, narrate, teach, or entertain.

 In Descriptive writing, the writer’s purpose is to describe.
 In Persuasive writing, it is to persuade/convince or argue.
 In Expository writing, it is to show facts, compare, contrast, or illustrate.

Other Examples:

- to shed light on / to highlight, to prove, to criticize, to evaluate, to instruct / to teach, to

compare and contrast, to clarify

 Sample Questions:

6. Specify/Identify the author's purpose/aim.

7. What is the writer’s aim behind writing the above text? Explain.
8. What is the writer’s purpose in the above selection? Support your answer with evidence.

Example: Identify the author’s aim in the below text.

Save the Children

1 For a long time, child abuse has been recorded in literature, art, and science in many parts of the world —
reports on children killing, abandonment and other forms of violence against children dating back to ancient
civilizations. The historical record is also filled with reports on weak and malnourished children cast out by
families. For a long time too, there have been groups of professionals who have advocated the protection of
children.

2 A greater understanding of risk factors can help professionals working with children and families identify
high-risk situations so they can intervene appropriately. Research has uncovered several risk factors or attributes
commonly associated with maltreatment. Children in families and environments where these factors exist have a
higher probability of experiencing maltreatment. However, research has emphasized that while certain factors are
usually present among families where maltreatment occurs, this does not mean that the presence of these factors
necessarily leads to child abuse.

3 Sociologists have revealed several causal factors in child abuse. One is the intergenerational transmission of
violence. Parents are likely to abuse their children if they have acquired in their childhood that it is alright to use
force in dealing with child-rearing problems. This learning may emerge from the experience of being abused as
children.
SECONDARY LEVEL CLASSES MAHA SHHADEH
 Sample Answer

The writer’s aim behind writing the above text is to highlight the agonies of battered and neglected
children who are guiltless victims of abusive parents. He also wants to show facts about the major factors that
might push parents to abuse their kids and how they can adversely affect their kids’ development. Finally, he
aims to persuade responsible agents and professional people to take action to stop violence against children and
advocate the protection of children against any form of abuse, neglect, or exploitation.

SECONDARY LEVEL CLASSES MAHA SHHADEH

 Summarizing

Summarizing is defined as taking a lot of information and creating a condensed version that covers the main
points. It is always shorter than the original since the idea is to include only the main points of the original work
and to leave out the details.

o Steps for Summarizing:

Writing a good summary demonstrates that you clearly understand a text and that you can communicate that
understanding to your readers. A summary can be tricky to write at first because it's tempting to include too much
or too little information. But by following these steps, you will be able to summarize texts quickly and
successfully:

1-
Read the original text thoroughly to understand all the ideas included.
2-
Identify the main idea as it indicates the most crucial information.
3-
Write the main idea in your own words.
4-
Check for accuracy. Reread your summary and make sure that you have accurately represented the
author's ideas and key points.
5- Revise. Once you are sure that your summary is accurate, you should revise it for style, grammar, and
punctuation.
6- Cite the source of the original text.
Citation: In sentence (..) of paragraph (…) of the text entitled “………”, the author states/
Indicates/describes…………
o Sample Questions:

1. Write a one-sentence summary of Paragraph X.

2. The following is a poor version of a one-sentence summary of Paragraph X. Refer to the paragraph and
then write an improved version.

o Examples:

1- Write a one-sentence summary of the paragraph below.

The nationality law still prohibits Lebanese women married to foreigners from granting their nationality to
their husband and children. The inherent discrimination in the law stems from the country’s reliance on religious
personal status laws that women’s rights groups have argued place women at a disadvantage. After a ministerial
committee rejected amending the nationality law in January because it would disrupt the country's demographic
balance by potentially naturalizing Palestinians, NCLW responded with a detailed riposte.

Summary: In the above paragraph, the author states that according to the nationality law, Lebanese women
married to foreigner don't have the right to pass their nationality to their spouses and children due to specific
reasons.

2- The following is a poor version of a one-sentence summary of the Paragraph below. Refer to the
paragraph and then write an improved version.

Poor version: Spending too much time sitting has its adverse impacts on health with an increased chance of
diseases such as cardiovascular disease and diabetes.
 Keeping your body stationary for prolonged periods can increase your chances of developing a range of
diseases, including certain cancers, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and stroke. But, according to the study,
factoring in one hour of physical activity for each day spent sitting can offset your chances of illness. The study
comes along with a solution that the health impacts of an eight-hour workday spent bound to a computer or in a
car can be alleviated by activities as simple as cycling at speeds of more than 16 kilometers per hour or walking
briskly at 5.6 kilometers per hour for more than 60 minutes each day. The researchers hope this guidance will
kick people and governments into action to get populations moving more.
Improved version: Sitting for a long time has its dangerous impacts on health, but fortunately, this can be
avoided by one hour of physical activity daily.

 The following is a poor version of a one-sentence summary of the Paragraph below. Refer to the
paragraph and then write an improved version.

Poor version: Technology should be taken into consideration by educators in classrooms for its benefits of
having better learning.

Technology changes by the minute, and as educators, we need to keep up with the times to best prepare our
students for this ever-changing world that we live in. While we just saw how integrating technology into the
classroom has its benefits; it's important to note that traditional learning processes are just as essential. Educators
need to take time to learn about each element of ed-tech that they will incorporate into their classroom. When
they do, they will find that technology can have a profound impact on their students’ learning.

Improved version:

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
 Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing is re-writing another writer’s words or ideas in your own words without altering the meaning. It
includes both key points and sub-points. Because a paraphrase includes detailed information, it can sometimes be
as long (if not longer) than the original source.

Steps for Paraphrasing

To paraphrase sentences, paragraphs, or passages that present important points, explanations, or arguments,
follow these steps:

o Read the original passage. Before you paraphrase a document, you have to understand it fully. Reread it
until you have entirely grasped the meaning.
o Write the author’s original meaning in your own words:
 Underline the keywords and phrases in each sentence.
 Replace them with:
a- Synonyms
b- Definition
c- Not + antonym
d- Change the part of speech of the word
 Change sentence structure from:
a- Passive to active (vice versa)
b- Quoted to reported (vice versa)
c- Simple sentence to compound sentence, or complex sentence and vice versa.
d- Start with a prepositional phrase, gerund phrase, or participle phrase.
o Check for accuracy. Reread your paraphrase, compare your version to the original and make sure that you
have accurately represented the author’s words in a new form.
o Revise. Once you are sure that your paraphrase is accurate, you should revise it for style, grammar, and
punctuation.
o Mention/ cite the source of the original text.
Citation: In sentence (. . .) of paragraph (…) of the text entitled “………” the author states that /
indicates that / describes that / shows that …………

Sample Questions:

1- Paraphrase the italicized statement in Paragraph X.

2- Paraphrase the following statements extracted from Paragraph X.

Sample Answers:

Original: The problem is that the economic hardship has compelled residents to burn low quality fuel, such as
wood and waste materials, that pollutes the air.

Paraphrase: The trouble is that the economic tightness has forced citizens to low fire type of fuel like lumber
and trash items which lead to the contamination of the air.

SECONDARY LEVEL CLASSES MAHA SHHADEH

 Introductory Paragraph

A. What is an introductory paragraph?

The introductory paragraph is the first paragraph of your essay. It introduces the main idea of your essay. A
good opening paragraph captures the interest of your reader and tells why your topic is essential.

The introduction is made up of:

Hook

Lead-in sentence

Thesis Statement
Topic Controlling Idea 1 Controlling Idea 2 Controlling Idea 3

B. Function/ Purpose/ Aim of the introductory paragraph:

The introductory paragraph introduces the topic, gives background information, grabs the reader’s
attention and arouses his/her curiosity, and finally prepares the reader for a thorough discussion of the
topic in the rest of the selection.

o Sample Questions (Function of the Introduction):

1- What purpose does the introductory paragraph serve?

2- What function does Paragraph 1 serve in the text? Explain.
3- In relation to the rest of the text, what is the function of the opening paragraph?
4-
o Example: What function does Paragraph 1 serve in the text? Explain.

For 86-year-old Adib Mezher, Lebanon’s garbage crisis is a matter of life and death. Any irritation
induced by the slightest of elements, even the smell of fried food and dust, can be enough to trigger a respiratory
fit as his lungs struggle from years of pollution and stress. Under the weight of thick smoke that too often invades
his home in Dekwaneh, a suburb north of Beirut, Adib suffers as he is moved from room to room while his family
rushes to shut all windows and doors. He manages a frail smile for a photo from behind an oxygen mask, which
has become his constant companion.

o Sample Answer:
Paragraph 1 is the introduction. It introduces the main idea of the text which is the ongoing garbage crisis
which has left Lebanon's streets filled with rotting trash. It also captures the reader’s attention through
narrating the story of an 86 year-old Lebanese citizen who suffers from the terrible effects of the pollution around
him. Finally, it provides background knowledge about the horrific consequences of the garbage crisis on the
Lebanese people.

C. Types of Introductory Paragraph:

There are many ways for a writer to get the readers’ attention in an introductory paragraph. Five of the most
common ones are the following:

General to specific: Begin with a general statement and then follow it with more particular or specific
statements leading to your thesis statement. This introductory strategy is referred to as a funnel introduction
because, like a funnel, it is broad at the opening and narrow at the bottom. For example:

The life of a teenager in modern America is not always pleasant. He or she is faced with a multitude of
conflicts and problems. Many of which seem almost impossible to overcome. Most of these problems center
around the school, which is not surprising considering that the teenager devotes an average of eight hours a
day to school and school-related activities. Since school is not an option, teenagers need to be more aware.
Primary problems created by a school are the intense pressure for good grades and the even more intense
pressure of peers.

An Anecdote or Brief narration: Many people enjoy stories. For most, reading about real people in real
situations is far more convincing and exciting than reading about general ideas. For that reason, opening an
essay with a short description of what happened to a person can be an effective way to grab your reader's
attention. For example:
The 23-year-old Ibrahim Sabbagh was worrying about his future after graduation. "When I finish
university, I have to go out to work because I cannot work here," Sabbagh said, adding "but everything about
me is Lebanese except my ID card." A son of a Syrian father and Lebanese mother, he was denied by Lebanese
law his mother's nationality; an unfortunate fact which adversely affects his life.

Surprising Facts or Statistics: A fact can be used as a striking lead-in to an essay. To write this kind of
introduction, you need to be aware of commonly known information. Once you have captured the attention
of your reader through a strategy like a striking or interesting fact, he or she will tend to keep reading. For
example:
 Child abuse is becoming one of the fastest-growing acts of violence in the United States. According to
the American Humane Association, 1.4 million cases of child abuse were reported in the U.S. in 1982. Nearly
50percent of these victims were teenagers between the ages of 13and 17.

Historical Introduction: You may also choose to write a brief historical introduction to your essay. Naturally,
this is not meant to be a comprehensive account; it merely provides a general historical background. For
example:
In the 16th century, when the Catholic Church in Rome refused to grant King Henry VIII a divorce, he
broke away from the church and created the Church of England, of which he made himself the leader. Today,
centuries after King Henry's rebellious act, divorce is easy to obtain in Britain. It became even more
comfortable with the introduction of civil marriage, which does not require partners to change their religion
or sect. The situation is very different in Lebanon. Christians who wish to be granted a divorce have to change
their religious sect to do so.

Series of Questions: A common type of introductory paragraphs start with a series of inspiring questions
about a topic. It ends up with a specific statement that demonstrates the writer's view(s) or answer(s) to these
questions. For example:

What is the best road to health? Medicine or lifestyle? In my opinion, our lifestyle choices help to shape
our health but equally, we cannot be held accountable if we fall sick and require medicine. Sometimes our
health is not within our control, and at such time we rely on medication to restore our health.

A Quotation: A quotation from someone connected with your topic, from an article you're writing about, or
from an expert on your subject can be a right way of opening your introduction. You might look up a famous
quotation on your subject in a book such as Bartlett’s Familiar Quotations. Use these sparingly.

"A sound mind is in a sound body." This proverb is precisely correct when tackling the issue of obesity. A
significant number of people in the world suffer from obesity. In Merriam-Webster, obesity is defined as "a
condition characterized by the excessive accumulation and storage of fat in the body." Is obesity a severe
issue? In fact, obesity has detrimental effects on obese. Most obese people are destroyed psychosocially and
harmed physiologically so that interventions should be planned by parents, schools, and governments to
alleviate the harmful effects of obesity.

o Sample Questions/ types+ function of the introduction:

1- What type of introduction does the writer of the above selection use? What purpose (s) does it serve?
2- What type of introduction does the author of the above text use? Justify his/her purpose(s) behind using
such a technique?
o Example: Identify the type of introduction which the writer employs. What purpose(s) does it serve?
Explain.
Before his brother was killed, Charbel Naaman didn’t support the death penalty. Now, he has decorated the
entrance to the garage where his brother was slain with banners reading: “We want the death penalty” and “Hell
awaits you.” Some might find his means of expressing extreme, but he speaks about his views calmly. He states
that if his brother’s murderers are not sentenced to death, he’s going to kill them himself. “They have killed my
brother, and he is not their first victim,” he says.

o Sample Answer:
The introduction is an anecdote; hence, the writer narrates a short story about Charbal Namman, a supporter
of the death penalty. Such a type introduces the main idea of the text which is arguing with or against the death
penalty. It also catches the readers’ attention and arouses their curiosity through narrating the story of Charbel
Naaman, who demands the implementation of the death penalty to revenge the death of his guiltless brother.
Finally, it prepares the readers for a thorough discussion about the death penalty debate in the rest of the
selection.
 Types of Evidence

Objectivity is accomplished when the writer refrains from expressing his/her points of view or suppresses
his/her feeling about the topic. Furthermore, the writer mustn't be biased. Instead, he must become a mere
onlooker whose job is to report events instead of taking part in them.

Each writer has a purpose behind writing any piece of writing; however, regardless of any, writers seek to be
believed. Therefore, to achieve credibility & objectivity, the writers rely on different types of evidence.

 Types of Evidence:
 Facts such as real names, real places, specific dates, real-life examples
 Results of researches, studies, scientific reports
 Statistical figures and numbers, scientific journals, facts
 Experts’ opinions/ testimony, experiments, a quotation by experts

o Sample Questions:

1. How does the writer of the text achieve credibility and objectivity? Give examples to illustrate your
point of view.
2. What means of support does the writer use in the above text? What is the aim of using such support?
Give at least three different specific examples to justify your answer.
3. The writer in the above text relies heavily on lives examples. Why does he resort to this technique?

Example:

In 2007, hip-hop superstar Kanye West's mother, Donda West, passed away at the age of 58 after receiving
a breast reduction. She suffered extreme bleeding after going home to recover from the operation. According to
the journal Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, one of 51,459 teens dies from cosmetic operations. Plastic surgery
can be dangerous to their body, but it can also be equally hazardous to their mental health as well. Media and
society have raised the bar for every teenager and woman. The Aesthetic Surgery Journal states that 13 percent
of plastic surgery patients are unhappy with the outcome of their procedures. If women continue to be dissatisfied
with their physical appearance, it can be followed by a severe addiction to cosmetic operations. Cosmetic surgery
addiction is the ongoing desire to receive plastic surgery to the point of excess. Addicts are usually physically
distinguishable because of their fake, unnatural appearance. Nearly half of plastic surgery patients have had more
than one cosmetic procedure.

o Sample Answers:

To give his writing a great touch of authenticity and to achieve credibility and accuracy, the writer
used different types of evidence. To elaborate, he used real names “Kanye West, Donda West “and real journal
name "Aesthetic Surgery Journal." He also used statistical figures "According to the journal Plastic, and
Reconstructive Surgery, one of 51,459 teens dies from cosmetic operations; 13 percent of plastic surgery patients
are unhappy with the outcome”. Finally, he used specific dates “In 2007, hip-hop superstar Kanye West’s
mother.''

OR
 The writer used different means of support. To elaborate, he used real names “Kanye West, Donda West
“and real journal name "Aesthetic Surgery Journal." He also used statistical figures “According to the journal
Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, one of 51,459 teens dies from cosmetic operations; 13 percent of plastic
surgery patients are unhappy with the outcome of their procedures” Finally, he used specific dates “In 2007, hip-
hop superstar Kanye West’s mother’’. His aim behind using these means of support is to achieve credibility,
accuracy and objectivity.
 The Tone/ Attitude

In reading comprehension, the tone is referred to as the attitude - stated or implied - or as the writer’s voice.
It is the attitude that the writer takes toward his topic or probably toward his reading audience. Three people can
write on the same topic, but one might be warning, the other skeptical, and the third humorous. So to know the
tone of the writer, we should look at the writer's choice of words and their positive & negative connotations.

The “step method” of analyzing tone:

 Step 1: Look at word choice. Words have positive, negative, and neutral associations, even if they are
not being used to describe. Pay attention to the connotations of words.
 Step 2: Analyze the phrasing used to describe events. Is the author sarcastic? Do they use many
metaphors or layout facts without an opinion?
 Step 3: Ask yourself how the information is presented. What order do you receive information in?
How is the author trying to persuade you if they are?
 Step 4: Read the hidden text. What information is not present? What has been ignored or omitted? This
will tell you the author's intention and help to clue you in to tone.
 Step 5: Consider how you feel when reading. What emotions come naturally to you? Do you get angry,
sad, or joyous? Do you feel that the author's trying to persuade you?

The Attitude OR the Tone must be described through using ADJECTIVES. It can be:

Caring approving admiring creative fearful

critical comic hopeful hopeless frightened
appreciated cheerful optimistic pessimistic scared
uncertain joyful encouraging angry alarmed
skeptical excited supportive disappointed warning
doubtful humorous objective gloomy threatening
worried delightful subjective anxious persuasive
confused straightforward regretful ashamed Ironic
revengeful nostalgic sorrowful rebellious sarcastic
determined arrogant imaginative respectful apathetic
tolerant Grateful affectionate sentimental ambiguous

 Sample Questions:

1- What is the writer’s tone in paragraph X of the above text?

2- How would you describe the writer’s attitude (tone) in paragraphs X and Y? Explain.
3- Identify the shift in the writer’s tone in Paragraphs 5 and 7. Support your answer with evidence from the text.
4- Identify the writer’s tone in Paragraph X. How does it change in Paragraph Y?
 Mood

The mood is the overall feelings or emotions that are created in the reader; it is the overall atmosphere of a
piece of literature. The choice of setting, objects, details, images, and words all contribute towards creating a
specific mood.

The commonly used moods are pessimism, optimism, happiness/ gladness, sadness, hopefulness,
hopelessness, doubt, worry, gloom, melancholy, sorrow, romanticism, desolation, isolation, loneliness,
tranquility …etc.

 Sample Questions

1- What is the dominating mood in Paragraph 5?

2- Describe the atmosphere (feelings) the writer creates in the selection.
3- What is the mood in Paragraph 2? How does it shift in Paragraph 7? Explain.
4- How does the mood of Paragraph 7 contrast with the mood of Paragraph 8? Explain.

Example: Describe the atmosphere which the writer creates in the below paragraph.
On 3 April, a police officer said, “ A heroic mother, perished with two of her three children after their car
plunged into New South Wales River, died trying to save her kids.” Stephanie King, 43, was behind the wheel in
the flood-ravaged town of Tumbulgum when the car turned off the muddy road and into Tweed River. Her eight-
year-old daughter Chloe May was somehow able to escape from the sinking vehicle, but King, her seven-year-
old son Jacob and 11-year-old daughter Ella Jane drowned.

Sample Answer

Sadness, fear, and sorrow are the best words to describe the atmosphere the writer creates in the above
paragraph. A mood of sadness dominated the paragraph when we read about the mother who died while she
was trying to save her kids. Then, there was a mood of fear when an 8-year-old girl was able to escape from the
sinking car. A feeling of sorrow overwhelmed the paragraph when we realize that this mother and her children
could have been saved.

SECONDARY LEVEL CLASSES MAHA SHHADEH

 Types of Writing

There are five main types of writing: expository, descriptive, persuasive, argumentative, and narrative. Each of
these writing styles is used for a specific purpose. A single text may include more than one writing style.

1. Expository – Writing in which the author’s purpose is to inform or explain the subject to the reader.

 Types of Expository Essay: Problem-Solution Essay.- Comparison-Contrast Essay.- Cause-Effect

Essay- Definition Essay- Advantage &Disadvantage Essay- Exemplification Essay- Classification Essay

2. Descriptive – A type of writing in which the author uses the five senses to paint a picture for the reader.
This writing incorporates imagery and specific details.

3. Persuasive – Writing that states the opinion of the writer and attempts to influence the reader.

4. Argumentative: In this kind of writing, the author not only gives information but also presents an argument
with the PROS (supporting ideas) and CONS (opposing views) of an argumentative issue.

5. Narrative – Writing in which the author tells a story. The story could be fact or fiction.

 Types of Narrative writing: Biography- Autobiography- Historical documents- Short stories/Novels.

Sample Question and Answer:

1- What type of writing is the above text? Explain.

The above text is a cause-effect essay, a type of expository writing where the author gives the readers ample
information and evidence on water pollution and its damaging impacts.
 Patterns of Organization

I. Paragraph Patterns of Organization

A pattern of the organization refers to how information is structured in a paragraph. Within the same text, the
pattern of organization changes from one paragraph to another. Depending on his aim, the writer can use a specific
pattern of organization to develop his main idea.

The following patterns of organization are most common in writing:

1- Time order/ Chronological order

2- Cause-Effect
3- Compare- Contrast
4- Problem- Solution
5- Classification
6- Definition
7- Exemplification
8- Listing

Sample Questions

1- Identify the pattern of organization of Paragraph X. Pick signal words to support your answer.
2- What pattern of organization does the writer of the above text use in Paragraph 9? Select clues to show this
pattern.

Example: What pattern of organization does the writer use in the below Paragraph? Explain.

Plastic surgery is a harmful way to convert yourself into society’s unrealistic depiction of beauty. Having
cosmetic procedures done can have many health risks, can create a false idea of beauty, as well as an addiction to
this unhealthy habit. There are many health concerns associated with cosmetic surgery. Plastic surgery can cause
excessive bleeding, scarring, necrosis which is the death of tissues, as well as more severe effects such as nerve
damage which can eventually lead to muscle paralysis. In some sporadic cases, uncontrolled bleeding can even
lead to death.

Sample Answer:

The organizational pattern of paragraph two is cause-effect. The writer introduces the cause which is plastic
surgery that leads to many harmful effects such as “excessive bleeding, scarring, necrosis, nerve damage & death."

Practice: What pattern of organization does the writer use in the below Paragraphs? Explain.

Although they are sisters, Jennifer and Jessica are complete opposites. Jennifer enjoys playing sports, while
Jessica would rather watch. Jennifer has no interest in playing a musical instrument, while Jessica is the first chair
violinist. Jennifer listens to new age music, while Jessica prefers country. Jennifer’s favorite subject is English,
II. Sentence Patterns of Organization

1- Cause/Reason: a statement which states why something happened.

Transitions: Because, for, since, due to, as
Example: Isabella wanted to become a professional actress. That’s why she moved to New York City.

2- Effect/ Result: a statement which suggests results, effects, or consequences.

Transitions: Thus, therefore, consequently, as a result, hence, so, thereby
Example: Isabella wanted to become a professional actress. That’s why she moved to New York City.

3- Cause-effect: A cause-effect sentence states how one person, thing, idea… influences or causes another.
Transitions: then, if, therefore, consequently, because, because of, since, now that, due to the fact that, so,
such…that, so…that, for, as a result, hence, thus …
Example: Because Isabella wanted to become a professional actress, she moved to New York City.

4- Contrast: a statement which shows how two or more things/ ideas/events differ.
Transitions: even though, although, though, whereas, while, however, nevertheless, nonetheless, on the other
hand, but, yet, despite, in spite of, unlike, in contrast, on the contrary…
Example: Mike studied and made a passing grade. Joe, however, didn’t study and failed.

5- Comparison: a statement which shows how two or more items are alike (similar).
Transitions: both, in same way, also, compared to, the same as, similar to, likewise, similarly…
Example: There are identical safety features on all the cars in the showroom.

6- Comparison-Contrast: a statement which shows both the similarities and differences which exist between
two or more ideas, event or things
Transitions: Also, likewise, similarly, similar to, compared with, although, however, but, never the less, yet,
on the contrary, on the one hand, on the other hand, at the same time
Example: Mary, like her sister, has brown hair. However, the two differ when it comes to eye color.

7- Exemplification: a statement which illustrates or clarifies an idea with an example.

Transitions: such as, for example, for instance, that is, thus, to illustrate, as demonstrated,
Example: Food labels provide valuable information. For example, the label on Rich Harvest Sweet Dark
Whole Grain bread states that one slice has 120 calories.

8- Definition: a statement that describes, defines, or gives a meaning of something, idea, word, etc.
Transitions: means, can be defined as, the same as, like…
Example: Repression is the mind’s power to block fearful thoughts, impulses, and memories.

9- Time Order/ Chronological order: it is organizing events according to the time in which they happen.
Transitions: while, when, five days later, today, before, then, first, last, by the time, later on, once, after,
afterward, at that time, during, now, since, until…
Example: When Rita first began to drink, she did not realize the risks she faced. Over time, her drinking
slowly but surely took total control of her life.
10- Listing: a statement that enumerates ideas, events, names, or things in a parallel form. It is mentioning things
one after the other.
Transitions: Next, then, first, second, third, last, finally
Example: Domestic violence, child abuse, welfare, and bankrupt are linked to gambling.
 Figures of Speech

Figurative language is used to compare things that are not literally alike but are so in the eye of the writer. It
is used to create a unique effect or feeling. It adds freshness, meaning, and originality to a writer's style.
Writers use it to draw a clear image in the reader's mind, especially when the idea is abstract/.
The most used figures of speech are:

1. Simile: is a direct comparison between two persons, things or ideas which do not resemble each other but
have one feature in common. The comparison is introduced by using such words as ''as'' '' as…. as,'' ''so…as,''
''as if,'' and ''Like.''

Example: “My heart is like an apple tree whose boughs are bent with thickest fruit.”

2. Metaphor: is an indirect comparison between two persons, things or ideas which do not resemble each
other but have one feature in common. In a metaphor, we do not use words like ''as'' or ''like''.

Example: Children are the most beautiful flowers of all.

3. Personification: is a comparison between a non-living being or an animal and a person. Here the thing or
animal is treated like a person and is given human characteristics.

Example: The raindrops smiled as they gently fell to the earth.

4. Hyperbole: is the use of exaggeration in a literary work. Its purpose is to create a strong impression in the
reader's mind about a particular person, object, or action.

Example: I have told you a million times.

5. Antithesis: is used to depict an opposition or contrast of ideas.

Example: War destructs, but peace constructs.

6. Paradox: is a literary device which in appearance seems to be false but might be true in reality.

Example: the child is the father of a man

This statement has a seemingly incorrect supposition, but when we look deep into its meaning, we see the
truth. The writer is saying that childhood experiences become the basis for all adult occurrences. The
childhood of a person shapes his life, and consequently "fathers" or creates the grown-up adult. So, "The child
is a father of the man."

7. Rhetorical Question: is posed to make a point rather than to be answered. Indeed, it helps the reader imagine
the answer. Orators often used rhetorical questions to emphasize a point, criticize, or persuade.

Example: “Am I so stupid to try it?” said sixteen-old Mary to Mark, who invited her to snort cocaine
with him.
(This is a rhetorical question, requiring no answer. It highlights Mark’s addictive habit for cocaine and Mary’s
abstinence).
 Figures of Speech

Irony: is a contradiction of expectation between what is said and what is meant or incongruity between what
might be expected and what actually occurs. There are three types of irony:

1- Verbal Irony occurs when the intended meaning is different from what is said.

Example: ''How tender and affectionate parents are when they bash their teens!

Describing parents as “tender and affectionate” doesn’t apply when they hit or punch their teens
hard. No doubt, the writer means the opposite of what he or she says, and that is ironic.

2- Dramatic Irony occurs when there is a contrast between what the character knows and what his audience
knows (the character is unaware of something the audience is aware of).

Example: Dramatic irony is manifested when you watch a film, for instance, featuring a police officer
posing undercover as a crack addict and trying to produce a dose from a dealer. The audience knows
that the police officer is planning to trap and arrest the dealer, but the latter is totally in the dark.
3- Situational Irony occurs when the outcome of an event or a circumstance is opposite to what is expected.

Example: Sam Fledge, a social worker in a drug rehab center, was found dead in the bathroom stall at
home after an apparent heroin overdose.
(This is ironic because the expectation is that a social worker who helps and coaches addicts through rough
patches would himself be sober and clean).

Practice: Read the following sentences then identify the type of irony used in each one.

1- Tim’s parents are proud of the “A” he got on the test, but we know he cheated.
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2- A man looked out of the window to see the storm intensify. He turned to his friend and said, "Fantastic
weather we're having!
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3- The chef won't eat his/her cooking.
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4- The teacher’s daughter is a high school dropout.
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5- "This is my brilliant son, who failed out of college."
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6- The student in a class with the highest grades in middle school drops out of high school.
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7- The best substitute for experience is being sixteen.
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8- Alex writes a love poem to Judy, but we know that Judy loves Devin.
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9- Water, water, everywhere, and all the boards did shrink; water, water, everywhere, nor any drop to drink.
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 Cohesive Devices: Direct and Indirect

Linking Hooks or Cohesive Links between Paragraphs:

Cohesion means a logical arrangement of ideas and supporting sentences in a piece of writing. Coherence in
a piece of writing can practically be gained through the use of two types of links: direct links and indirect links.

1. A direct link (Direct linking hooks):

Cohesive devices are linking words or phrases that connect sentences and paragraphs. One type of cohesive
device is transition signals, the direct links which indicate the logical relations between ideas, making it
easier for a reader to understand the writer’s message and for ideas to flow smoothly.

 Addition: to add another idea to one(s) mentioned: moreover, again, equally valid, further, in addition to
 Contrast: to restrict or reverse one idea with another: and yet, however, otherwise, yet, conversely, on the
contrary…etc.
 Comparison: to compare one idea with another: similarly, still, comparatively, likewise
 Result: to establish a cause-effect relationship between ideas: as a result, resulting in, since, because,
therefore, consequently
 Time Order: to set a time or spatial relationship between ideas: after, before first, next, later, finally, at
length, meanwhile, so far
 Exemplification: for example, for instance, as an illustration, particularly
 Summary: to summarize or serve as an example: as a result, in conclusion, in short, briefly, on the whole,
in summary

2. Indirect Linking Hooks:

Cohesion can also be achieved indirectly if a previously mentioned word or phrase is referred to again, along
with maintaining tense consistency. There are many types of indirect links:

 Synonyms: Instead of repeating the exact words, a writer can achieve cohesion via synonyms.
(1st paragraph: Al-Hanan School … 2nd paragraph: this academic center ...
 Repetition of keywords: a writer resorts to repeating keywords related to the central idea of the text or the
main idea of a paragraph to remind the reader of the point in focus.
 Pronoun-antecedent: A writer uses pronouns to refer back to an already mentioned noun or a noun phrase
in a previous sentence or paragraph.
(1st paragraph: Student … 2nd paragraph: they …)
 Tense Consistency: A writer generally maintains one tense consistently and clearly, for when he or she
begins in one tense. Then, he shifts unnecessarily to another; he or she confuses readers and weakens
cohesion.
SECONDARY LEVEL CLASSES MAHA SHHADEH
 Cohesive devices, whether direct or indirect, help you follow a writer’s idea and even create powerful
links between sentences and paragraphs. Likewise, using cohesive devices in your writing smoothly guides
readers from one thought to the next and saves you unnecessary repetition.

Sample Questions:

1- What linking hook (direct or indirect) does the writer of the above text use to join or connect
paragraphs 1 and 2 together?
The writer uses an indirect linking hook, a noun/pronoun-antecedent in this case. Paragraph 2 starts with ‘'this''
which is a demonstrative pronoun that refers to an idea stated in paragraph 1. Thus the pronoun joins the two
paragraphs together.

2- How does the writer achieve coherence between paragraph 7 and 8?

How does the writer achieve coherence in paragraph 1?
The writer achieves coherence in paragraph 1 directly by using moreover (or any other direct linking hook).

3- How are paragraphs 1 and 2 connected to paragraph 3?

The three paragraphs are linked indirectly through repetition. Paragraph 1 and 2 focus on the trade report.
Paragraph 3 starts with ‘’the report'' to link the three paragraphs together.

SECONDARY LEVEL CLASSES MAHA SHHADEH

 Thematic Relationship/link

A thematic relationship between two paragraphs refers to the relation between the main ideas. Once you
master the skill of identifying the main idea of a paragraph, it becomes less difficult to figure out the thematic
relationship between two paragraphs.

Following are the main thematic links:

o Cause-effect relationship:
When a paragraph introduces one or more causes of a particular issue, and another underscores the ensuring
effect(s), the thematic connections between the two will be cause and effect. For example, in Paragraph 2,
the writer explains the main reasons that push children to work; whereas, in Paragraph 3, he shows the
physical, psychological, and social impacts of child labor.

o Problem-solution relationship:
Whenever a paragraph raises a problem, and another recommends a solution, the thematic links between the
two will be a problem and a solution. For instance, Paragraph 2 sites the problem which is obesity in the US.
Paragraph 4 recommends solutions to reduce obesity.

o Idea- contrast relationship:

If two paragraphs discuss two different things or show differences between two items, the thematic
relationship will be contrasted. For instance, one paragraph may present that Florida requires 180 instructional
days in the school year in contrast with the 150 instructional days in the school year in Lebanon. Words like
(however, yet, but, unlike, nevertheless … etc.) emphasize my answer.

o Idea- comparison relationship:

If two paragraphs discuss two common things or show similarities between two points, the thematic
connection will be a comparison. For instance, one paragraph may present women's lifestyle in the US, while
the other paragraph may show the similarities between this lifestyle (American) and Lebanese women's
lifestyle. Words like (both, similarly, the same as, etc.) emphasize my answer.

o Idea- Addition
If a paragraph highlights an idea, and another discusses more points relevant to the same idea, the thematic
relationship between the two will be an addition. For instance, a paragraph may speak about the food stamps
given to immigrants with low incomes, and another may explain the federal assistance with healthcare and
nutrition to pregnant and breastfeeding immigrants.

o Idea- reinforcement /support or illustration:

If a paragraph states an idea and another illustrates or tries to support the same idea, the thematic relationship
between the two will be reinforcement /support or illustration.
Paragraph 1 focuses on … (Biological factors behind obesity, as an example). Paragraph 2 supports the same
idea.

o Question-answer relationship:
Whenever a paragraph raises a question(s), and another answers (s), the thematic relation between the two

SECONDARY LEVEL CLASSES MAHA SHHADEH

 will be question-answer. In paragraph 2, the writer raises an issue (about obesity as an example) in the form
of a question. In paragraph 3, the writer answers such a question in the form of an explanation.

Thematic Relationship between Introduction & Conclusion:

 What is the thematic relationship between the introduction and the conclusion?
The introductory paragraph introduces the topic and presents the thesis statement which focuses on … The
concluding paragraph restates the same idea, gives a final opinion, and leaves the reader with future
expectations. In this sense, the two paragraphs are thematically related.

Sample Questions:

1- How are paragraph 1 and 2 thematically related?

2- What thematic link is there between paragraph 2 and 3?
3- What is the thematic relationship between paragraph 3 and 4? Explain.
 Statistical Charts Interpretation

To answer questions that require the interpretation of a graphic organizer or a chart, follow this procedure:

1- Start with a topic sentence. (What is the chart/table about?)

2- Infer at least one essential point (data interpretation). (Compare and contrast bars, lines, rows, etc.
….vertically or horizontally).
3- Draw a conclusion. (Conclude at least one main thing based on what you have inferred.)

Sample Question:

The table below shows the numbers of China’s total fertility rate. Read the table carefully and then answer the
question that follows.

China’s Total Fertility Rate

Before the One-Child Policy Was Put in Place After the One-Child Policy Was Put in Place

Year Number of children per woman Year Number of children per woman

1950 5 to 6 children 1980 1 child

1960 5 to 6 children 1990 1 child
1970 4 to 5 children 2000 1 child
1978 2 children 2010 1 child

What does the table indicate about the number of the birth rate before and after the “One-Child Policy” was put
in place? Explain with evidence from the table.

Sample Answer:

The table shows China’s total fertility rate, a measure of the number of births a woman who enters her
reproductive life in a given year would have.
Before the one-child policy was put in place, women in the 1950s and 1960s gave birth to an average of about
six children. The number decreased to an average of 4 to 5 in 1970 and 2 in 1978. Whereas, after the one-child
policy was put in place, this number became one.
We can deduce from the above numbers that the policy has led to a dramatic decline in fertility birth rate;
hence, fertility fell from more than six in the 1950 s to just one in 2010. This shows a decrease in China’s
population.
Practices:

A- The graph below shows the top ten countries percentages of teenage suicides. Read the graph carefully and
then answer the following question.

What do the percentages indicate about the rates of suicidal teens in the mentioned countries? Explain with
evidence from the graph.

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B- The figure below shows the rate of primary school attendance for the poorest and richest children in Yemen.
Read it carefully and then answer the question that follows.

Primary School Net Attendance Rate for Children in the Poorest and Richest (Yemen, 2016)

How do the rate of educating the poorest and the richest boys and girls vary in Yemen? Provide evidence from
the chart.

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