Basic Writing Skills For Student

School of Foreign Languages and Journalism
Department of English Language and Literature
Basic Writing Skills for Managers
Dinaol Dugasa (MA)
1
Prepared by Dinaol Dugasa 1/20/2022
Ground Rules
 Punctuality
 Active participation
 Use only target language in class
 Putting off or silencing your cell phone
1/20/2022 Prepared by Dinaol Dugasa 2

Assessment criteria
 Class test (10%)
 Group work (10%)
 Assignment (15%)
 Individual class work (10%)
 Class performance + Attendance (5%)
 Total = 50%
Focus area for the course
1. Word
2. Phrase
3. Clause
4. Sentence
 Definition
 Constituent
 Features of a good sentence
 Common sentence errors & ways of
correction
Cont’d…
5. Paragraph
 Definition
 Parts of a paragraph
 Features of a good paragraph
 Types of a paragraph
6. Essay
 Definition
 Parts of an essay
 Features of a good essay
 Types of an essay
 Strategies to write a concluding paragraph
1. INTRODUCTORY UNIT
Word, Phrase, Clause and Sentence
Group-work
Be in groups of four and write your answers for the
following questions.
1. Write your own definition of word, phrase, clause and
sentence, and give at least two examples of each.
2. Name the types of words, phrases , clauses and sentences
and give two examples of each.

1. Word
 A word is a letter or a group of letters that has a particular
meaning. It is a written symbol or written symbols representing a
speech sound or speech sounds that give a meaningful unit.
 There are two types of words: function words and content words .
A) Function words: Words that express relationships among other
words are said to be function (grammatical) words. Therefore,
prepositions, conjunctions, articles, pronouns and modals are
function words.
B) Content Words: Words which have meanings beyond grammar
function are content words. Since nouns, adjectives, verbs and
adverbs primarily convey meanings rather than grammatical
functions, they are generally called content words.
In short

2. Phrase
 A phrase is a combination of two or more words that work
together as a unit . Phrase lacks either subject or finite verb
or both.
Examples:
1. at the mountain (prepositional phrase [no subject, no
verb] )
2. Agricultural Economics … (noun phrase that can be a
subject)
3. organized this report (verb phrase with a finite verb)
Types of Phrase
1) Noun Phrase
• A noun phrase comprises a noun(s) or a pronoun(s) and all of
its/their modifier(s), if any. Noun phrases can function as the
subject, the object or the complement of a sentence.
Examples:
1. The old, dark and ramshackle house collapsed. (as subject)
2. I have bought an interesting book. (as object)
3. Ali wants to be a known scientist. (as complement)
Note: A noun phrase can be used as an appositive or an absolute
phrase.
2) Appositives and Appositive Phrases
 An appositive is a noun or a pronoun that renames another noun
or pronoun. Appositives are placed directly after the nouns or
pronouns they identify. Appositive phrases are nouns or
pronouns with modifiers.
Examples:
1. Lelisa, my lovely friend, should have understood my fear. (The
appositive “my lovely friend” renames the noun Lelisa)
2. Ujulu’s new car, a revolution, ran out of gas on the highway
yesterday. (The appositive “a PT Cruiser” renames the noun
car)
3) Absolute Phrases
 An absolute phrase modifies an entire sentence. In other

words, it does not modify one single word in the sentence.
An absolute phrase includes a noun or a pronoun and their
related modifiers, objects or complements.
Examples:
1. We felt safe for the night, the door having been locked with
two bolts.
2. No more money being available, the committee has voted to
keep last year’s budget.
4) Verb Phrase
 A verb phrase is made up of a finite verb (main verb)
and maybe, its helping verbs.
Examples: Verb Phrase
1. you should have photographed me yesterday.

Verb phrase
2. The oldest apartment in this town has been sold to an

American.
5) Prepositional phrase
It is a group of words that begins with a preposition
and ends with a noun or a pronoun. This noun or
pronoun is called the object of the preposition.
Examples:
 by the wall, near the closet, over the garage, with help, in
the desert, below sea level
Note: A prepositional phrase can be used as an adjective or an
adverb. If so, it is called adjectival phrase or
adverbial phrase. An adverbial phrase may also consist
of an adverb modifying another adverb.
Examples:
1. The girl with curly hair is my sister.

2. Buna Football Team played at Bahir Dar Stadium. (The
adverbial phrase “at Bahir Dar Stadium” modifies the verb
played)
3. Derartu ran very quickly. (very modifies quickly)

6) Verbal phrase (non-finite verb phrase)
 Verbal is a word derived from a verb.
 Verbal phrases can function as nouns, adjectives or adverbs.
However, they cannot be used as verbs as they are non-
finite.
Examples:
1. Walking is a good exercise. (verbal as a noun)
2. The man wearing a red sweater has won a lottery. (verbal
as adjective)
3. My child went crawling across the floor yesterday. (verbal
as adverb)
Cont’d…
A verbal may take modifiers, objects or complements to form a
verbal phrase.
There are three kinds of verbal phrases: participial phrases,
gerund phrases and infinitive phrases.
7) Participial phrases:
A participial phrase begins with a present participle, a past
participle or a perfect participle. Participial phrases function as
adjectives. The italicized part in each sentence below is a
participial phrase.

Examples:
1. Established in 1954, Haramaya University has been noted

for its agriculture-based programs.
2. Working in groups, my students solved the problem.
3. Having done the assignment, I submitted it to the
department yesterday.
4. My uncle, looking very upset, barged into my room.

8) Gerund phrases
Just as some participial phrases do, a gerund phrase uses -ing
form of the verb, yet gerund phrases are always used as
nouns.
Gerunds can function as subjects, direct objects, indirect
objects, objects of a preposition, predicate nominative and
appositives.
Examples:
1. Doing literature review succinctly is a novice researcher’s
challenge.
2. The instructor praised my acting in both scenes.
9) Infinitive phrases
An infinitive phrase is formed using the infinitive i.e. to form of
a verb: to go, to be, to live, etc. It can function as an adverb, an
adjective or a noun. An infinitive phrase can be the subject,
subject or object complement, or direct object in a sentence.
Examples:
1. To get a degree in Management is my ambition.
2. Dr. Jeylan has made efforts to scrutinize reasons for students’
dropouts.
Note: If a phrase comes at the beginning, use a comma to separate
it from the sentence. However, a phrase has to be set off with two
commas if it appears in the middle of the sentence.
3. Clause
 Clause is a group of words that has a subject-verb
combination. It, in other words, consists of at least a subject
and a finite (main) verb.
 Clauses allow you to combine ideas to show their
relationship. This adds logic and cohesion to your writing.
Examples: All of the following are clauses as they consist of
both a subject and a finite verb.
1. When the managers presents the financial statement of this
company.
2. We need immediate seas fire to save Ethiopia.
3. In case fire breaks out in this jungle.
Cont’d…
4. who discovered the answer for the question.

5. In ancient times, there was theocracy in different parts of the
world.
Activity 1
Which of the above clauses are independent (simple sentences)
and which ones are dependent (subordinate)? Why?

Groups of clause
On the basis of meaning (thought) completeness, clauses are
grouped into two: independent clauses and dependent
(subordinate) clauses.
Examples:
1. Our English teacher awarded a student who discovered the
answer for a question. (The italicized and red colored part is
independent [main] clause whereas the bold-faced & green one
is dependent [subordinate] clause)
2. After I had had lunch with a bank manager… (dependent
clause)
3. Where is your briefcase? (independent clause, simple sentence)
Independent Clauses
An independent clause contains a subject and a verb, and it
expresses a complete thought. It can stand alone as a sentence
does. The italized parts of the sentences below are independent
clauses.
Examples:
1. If ice is heated, it melts.
2. Do the second exercise after you finish writing a job
application letter.
3. The man I live with is a lecturer at Dire Dawa University.
4. When eagles soar high above the cliffs, they are beautiful.
Dependent (Subordinate) Clauses
A dependent clause does not give a complete thought, so it cannot
be punctuated as a sentence .
Examples: The bold-faced clauses in the following sentences are
dependent clauses.
1. This is Mr. Khalid, who is the general manager of Ras Hotel
in Dire Dawa.
2. Unless you have good command of communication skills,
your leadership may not be effective and efficient.
3. My father always says a student must work hard to keep
himself/herself knowledgeable.
4. While I was fixing a chair, it started to rain.
Notes
 A dependent clause must be attached to an independent

clause; otherwise, it becomes fragment, which is
incomplete.
 A dependent clause may be put into the middle of an
independent clause. In this case, the dependent clause must
be set off with commas both sides.
Example:
The burglar, when he saw policemen, ran as fast as he could.

Cont’d…
 Normally, a dependent clause begins with a subordinating
conjunction. However, it may be unmarked; the
subordinator may be left out if the subordinator is that,
which or whom which is used as object
pronoun/complementizer in defining relative clause or cleft
sentences. The bold-faced parts are dependent clause.
Examples:
A)I am studying hard so that I can do the exam well. (marked
dependent clause)
B) The car I bought last September is not economical.
(unmarked dependent clause)
Cont’d…
 Dependent clauses function in sentences as adjectives, adverbs or
nouns.
i. Adjective clauses: An adjective clause modifies a noun or
pronoun, and this clause is usually written right after the noun or
pronoun it refers to. Relative pronouns or relative adverbs are
used to connect adjective clauses.
Examples:
1. A political turmoil which may endanger lives of citizens can be
caused by maladministration.
2. The biopsy that my physician ordered was benign.
3. Ebola, which is a deadliest disease, has killed thousands of people
across the world. Prepared by Dinaol Dugasa
1/20/2022 28
Cont’d…
ii. Adverb clauses: An adverb clause describes a verb, an
adjective or an adverb, and it tells when (time), why (cause),
what and how. Adverb clauses can also show cause,
comparison, contrast, purpose etc.
Examples:
1. I came home early yesterday because I didn't feel very well.
2. Do not forget to bring the handbook whenever you have class
with me.
3. Whoever says, it is still nonsense.
4. After we had talked for an hour, we began to get nervous.
Cont’d…
iii. Noun clauses: A noun clause is used as a subject, an object or
complement.
Examples:
1. It seems that things are improving. (a noun clause as a
complement)
2. What I saw on TV shocked me. (a noun clause as a subject)
3. We voted for whom we love most. (a noun clause as object of
the preposition)
4. Perplexed students do not usually grasp what they read. (a
noun clause as direct object of the verb)
5. We are happy that we have you. (noun clause as complement)
Cont’d…
6. The mechanic asked whether the radiator of my car was

damaged.
7. Dawit asked us if we could give him our ball.
8. The class was surprised that the instructor canceled the
final exam.
9. That his film is a critical success is beyond doubt.
10.That Debre Markos is a fast-growing city has made us
happy.

Cont’d…
 When a subordinating conjunction is added to a clause, the

clause becomes dependent. Therefore, a dependent clause is
a combination of a subordinator and an independent clause.
That is, dependent clause (DC) = subordinator + independent clause
(IC) .
subordinating conjunction Independent clause (IC)
Example: Gemeda works hard. If Gemeda works hard,
Dependent clause (DC)

Cont’d…
 In short, subordinating conjunctions link an independent
clause to a dependent clause. Each subordinating
conjunction expresses a relationship between the dependent
clause and the independent clause. For example, some
conjunctions show time order while others indicate result or
effect.
Examples:
1. Couples were walking while the band was playing on. (time
relationship)
2. Most of the graduates were excited though few felt sad and
depressed.
Note
In some cases, the subordinator can be omitted. However, this does
not mean the clause is independent. Although the subordinating
conjunction is not explicitly mentioned, the clause is still dependent
(subordinate).
Examples:
1. Had I been in the meeting hall, I might have talked to our prime-
minister.
2. The first issue we should address very soon is the current
maladministration in our country.
3. The car I bought last year is fuel-consuming.
All of the italicized parts in the sentences above are dependent clauses
as the subordinators implicitly exist, or they are obviously known to
exist.
The following chart enlists the subordinating conjunctions and
the relationships they express:
Subordinating Conjunctions Relationship Examples
(meaning)
unless, provided (that), if, condition 1. You can take my bike provided you ride it carefully.
unless, as/so long as, 2. Even if I’m too late, I must go to work.
providing that, only if, 3. Acetaminophen is dangerous to children only if dosage is
too high.
because, as, since, now that, Reason (cause) Now that we have finished the first chapter, let us proceed to
inasmuch as the next.
since, as, after, when, till, Time 1. After we visit Lalibela Rock-hewn Churches, we will go
until, as soon as, before, after, to Ras Dejen, the highest mountain in Ethiopia.
whenever, by the time, while, 2. You should stay at home until it stops raining.
once, so long as, just as
as though, as if, how, as, just Manner (how?) 1. John acts as if he were a kid.
as, like 2. I ran just as my brother did.
where, wherever, anywhere, Place 1. I found my earring where I forgot it.
everywhere 2. You can find bargains anywhere you shop.
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Cont’d…

Cont’d…
Notes:
1. Relative pronouns are subordinating conjunctions (which,
who, whose, what/whatever, whom)
2. The following care also subordinators:
except that assuming that rather than
admitting that granting that the fact that
given that supposing that seeing that
considering that whatsoever whether

More examples
1. Admitting that we have made mistakes, we can try to do

better in the future.
2. The business magazine which was released last week
deserves reading.
3. In spite of the fact that the price of goods is swiftly
increasing, it is still affordable.

Exercise
 Read the following and identify each as phrase, dependent

clause or independent clause (simple sentence).
1. Covered with ice
2. As soon as we finish painting the walls
3. Call me later
4. Making a profit
5. While knocking at the door

Cont’d…
6. Megersa is a man of action

7. To be a successful businessman
8. None of them have submitted the report
9. All of the students and their parents
10.bought a medical dictionary

Exercise
 Identify the dependent and independent clauses in each of
the sentences below.
1. Dawit wore dark glasses so that no one would recognize
him.
2. Once lameness has been identified, the next step is to try to
understand its underlying causes.
3. He spends money as if there were no tomorrow.
4. Physicians recommend that patients with hypertension
should be engaged in 30 minutes of aerobic exercise.

Cont’d…
5. Writing allows us to share our communication not only with
our contemporaries but also with future generations as it
provides a relatively permanent record of information,
beliefs, opinions, arguments, etc.
6. A complete physical examination and history is often
necessary to determine the location of stomatitis and define
its cause if some symptoms are observed.
7. A veterinary nurse may perform minor surgery to any
animal provided that the animal is under the care of a
registered veterinary surgeon .

Cont’d…
8. Had I met my spouse , I would have told him that my laptop

had been fixed.
9. Eyob , when he was in Addis, used to visit Entoto
Observatory Center.
10.Would you buy a villa or an automobile first if you married
the woman you love most?

4. Sentence
4.1. What is Sentence?
 Communication, whether oral or written, is all about
understanding.
 Since sentence is the basic unit of written communication, it is
not formed by simply stringing words together like beads on a
necklace. The words should be arranged in the way that can
make sense so that the target readers can grasp the writer’s
intended message.
 A sentence is a word or a group of words that you use to
communicate your ideas. Every sentence is formed from one or
more clauses and expresses a complete thought.
 In short, sentences have to be complete and consist of logically
ordered words.
Examples
1. Astronauts have written a lot about Mars.

2. Machines should be inspected before they are used.
3. Corona is a deadly disease.
4. Sisay will be graduated from Harvard University in 2025.

4.2. Constituent Elements of Sentence
A complete sentence in written standard English must have
these two components: subject and verb.
■ Subject is what the sentence tells about.
■ Verb describes an action, state or occurrence. It forms the
main part of the predicate of a sentence.
Examples: Blue represents the subject whereas the red stands
for the verb of each sentence below.
Corona is a deadly disease.
Sisay will be graduated from Harvard University in 2025.
The assignment has been submitted to our instructor.
Cont’d…
 Note: A sentence may also comprise complement, object
or both.
Examples: Complement
Dr. Dawit is going to Addis Ababa next week.
direct object
I hate smoking cigarette.
indirect object direct object
Can you give me your pen?
Cont’d…
From the examples given in the previous slide, one can
conclude that a sentence/clause has two parts: subject and
predicate. Together, these parts express a complete thought.
The subject is the noun or pronoun that tells whom or what the
sentence is about, and the predicate contains the verb that
describes an action, state or occurrence.
Examples:
Subject predicate
Dadi, my elder brother, is taking six courses this semester.
Subject Predicate
It rained a lot last night.
Cont’d…
Every stand-alone sentence has a subject . However, the
subject may not be easily recognized or identified in
imperatives and reversed structures.
a) In imperatives, the subject is you.
Example: Be there at 9 am. (The subject in this sentence is you)
In a reversed structure, the subject is explicitly stated. If you are not able
to recognize the subject, locate the verb and try to identify what or
whom it is about. The identified part, then, is said to be subject.

Cont’d…
Examples:
Is Chala a physician? (The subject is Chala)

There were three different desserts arranged on the
table.(The subject is three different desserts)

Exercise
Identify the predicate and the subject of each sentence below.
1. Ali, the principal of this school, has been married to a
businesswoman.
2. Yesterday, after lunch, the students were complaining about the
short recess.
3. Yohannes and Gidey went to Harar to visit the hyena-men.
4. Here is a celebrated journalist and politician.
5. The rapidly approaching train swerved on the rickety tracks.
6. May you always do for others
7. Was this villa built in 1934?
8. Have your advisees submitted the report?
9. Little has been known about the ancient civilization of Ethiopia.

4.3. Kinds of sentences
 What is our tools to classify a sentence in English?
 Sentences are classified according to their function (for
what purpose?) and structure (internal composition).
 Sentences according to their function/purpose
1. Interrogative sentence
2. Declarative sentence
3. Imperative sentence
4. Exclamatory Sentence
5. Optative Sentences
1. Interrogative sentence
An interrogative sentence asks a question. This type of
sentence begins with an interrogative pronoun, a modal or
do/does/did/has/have, and it ends with a question mark.
Examples :
a. When are you going to turn in your writing assignment?
b. Do you know what the weather will be tomorrow?
c. Can’t Abdul speak Arabic?
d. Does your wife live in Hawassa?
e. What would you do with the power if you won the election?

2. Declarative sentence
A declarative sentence simply makes a statement that can be
true or false, or it expresses an opinion. In other words, it
makes a declaration. This kind of sentence ends with a period.
Examples:
a) It was the first time that I had seen a lion in this

jungle.
b) To respect criticism is a sign of maturity.
c) I want to be a good writer.
d) My friend is a really good writer.
3. Imperative sentence
In English grammar, an imperative sentence gives advice or

instructions; it can also express a request or command. These
kinds of sentences are also known as directives because they
provide direction to whoever is being addressed.
Examples:
1. Do your chores!
2. Raise your hands and turn around.
3. Please open the door, would you?

4. Exclamatory Sentence
The sentence which expresses a sudden and intense
excitement, disgust, admiration, shock, or sorrow, etc. is called
an exclamatory sentence. This kind of sentence must have a
note of exclamation (!) at the end or in the middle of the
sentence.
Examples:
a) Alas! I could not be at her funeral.
b) What a boring day!
c) What a gorgeous girl she is!
5. Optative Sentences
An optative sentence expresses a prayer, keen wish, curse etc.
This kind of sentence generally starts with ‘may’ and ‘wish’.
Sometimes, ‘may’ remains hidden. In short, optative is a
category of grammatical mood that expresses a wish, hope, or
desire.
Examples:
1) May your wishes all come true.
2) Long live Jaal Marro!
3) May God/Allah bless us all.
4) Wish you a happy journey together.
 Sentences according to their structure
According two their structure, sentences are of four

types:
1. Simple sentences
2. Compound sentences
3. Complex Sentences
4. Compound-complex Sentences

Cont’d…
In other words, sentences are categorized according to the
number and type of clauses they contain.
Using different sentence structures is important for two
reasons. First, it adds variety into a piece of writing. This in
turn makes the piece of writing appealing. On the contrary,
readers get bored when they see the same sentence pattern
repeated over and over in it. Varied sentence structure is also
helpful to indicate which idea should be emphasized. That is,
selecting which sentence pattern to use can help you
emphasize one important idea over another.

A. Simple sentences
A sentence is “Simple” as long as it contains one independent
clause. Hence, independent clauses are simple sentences.
Examples:
a) It rained a lot yesterday.
b) Harar is an ancient city in Ethiopia.
c) We have to preserve our previous natural endowments for the
next generation not what we are practicing in politics now.
d) Have you bought a laptop?
Note: A simple sentence can have compound subject, compound
predicate or both.
Cont’d…
Examples:
a. Samuel and his friends ran outside to play basketball.
(compound subject)
b. The little girl picked up her doll and climbed into bed.
(compound predicate)
c. The drone and the helicopter flew over the sky and
bombed the capital of Tigray Mekele. (compound
subject, compound predicate)

B. Compound sentences
A compound sentence is formed by joining two or more

independent clauses. You can construct compound sentences in
four ways:
i. Coordinating conjunctions
ii. Conjunctive adverbs
iii. Correlative conjunctions
iv. Semicolon

i. Coordinating conjunctions
Coordinating conjunction can be used to make compound
sentences. Coordinating conjunctions are preceded by comma.
Hence, you need to put a comma before a coordinating
conjunctions.
Or Yet
For FANBOYS So
And Nor But

Cont’d…
F Reason
A Addition
N Negation (negative addition)
B Contrast
O Alternative/option
Y Unexpected result (the opposite happens)
S Result
Examples:
1. Marta registered for all of her classes by mail, but Hirpha
was not able to do so.
2. I could not catch the train, for I arrived at the station too
late.
3. The farmer worked hard, yet the harvest was rather poor.
4. My daughter doesn’t drink milk, nor does she eat butter.
 Note: Nor means “also not”. The wording after NOR is
reversed structure. In other word, when you use NOR as a
coordinating conjunction, write the affirmative form of the
auxiliary verb (be verbs, modals, have verbs, do verbs)
before the subject.
Cont’d…
Simple sentences
The students were not wearing raincoats. They were not
carrying umbrellas.
Compound sentence
The students were not wearing raincoats, nor were they
carrying umbrellas.

ii. Conjunctive adverbs
You can use conjunctive adverbs to form compound sentences.

Use a semicolon (;) before and a comma (,) after conjunctive
adverbs when you are using them. Here below are some
common conjunctive adverbs:
also however likewise nevertheless
conversely indeed meanwhile otherwise
for example in addition moreover similarly
furthermore instead namely Subsequently
then therefore
Examples
1. You must do your homework; otherwise, you might get a

bad grade.
2. The use of text matching software is a significant advance in
plagiarism avoidance; moreover, it assists students to
monitor their own writing.

iii.Correlative conjunctions
Correlative conjunction such as either…or, neither…nor and
not only… but also can be used to make compound sentence.
Thus, they can join independent clauses.
Examples:
1. Either your watch is fast, or mine is slow.
2. Not only has Ayantu loved Bishoftu, but she also has
decided to stay forever.
3. Neither did I join a university in my country, nor did I win a
scholarship abroad.

iv. Semicolon
A compound sentence can also be made by putting a

semicolon (;) between two closely related independent
clauses.
Example:
There must be wrong with my eyes; I cannot take them
off her.

C.Complex Sentences
A complex sentence is composed of only one main
clause and one or more subordinate (dependent)
clauses. This type of sentences can be formed in three
ways:
i. Subordinating conjunctions
ii. Participial phrases
iii.Relative pronouns

Examples:
1. After Dejen retired from the army, he ran for president.
2. Funded by the federal government, this factory produces
various pharmaceuticals.
3. My grandfather, who fought in Italo-Ethiopian War II,
wrote a book about his experiences.
5. A text matching report is generated when you use Turnitin.
6. Students for whom referencing is difficult can attend
workshops to assist them.

Cont’d…
Note: In some case, the subordinating conjunction or the
relative pronoun may not be explicitly stated; however, the
clause still remains dependent.
Examples:
1. The woman you met at the hospital yesterday is my wife.
(The woman whom you…)
2. Had I worked hard, I could have scored better grades. (If I
had worked …)
3. Hanna believes she is descent. (Hanna believes that…)
D.Compound-complex Sentence
The compound-complex sentence is a combination of the
compound and the complex sentence patterns. It is made up of
two or more main clauses and one or more subordinate clauses.
Examples:
1. Although he was exhausted, Geresu cooked dinner for his
mother, and after dinner, he cleaned the kitchen.
2. Hundessa believes in the system; he knows that justice will
prevail after the murderer has been sent to jail.
3. After the two soccer players lost their game, they joined
their other teammates for lunch, and they went to the
movies.
Exercise
Direction: Identify each sentence below as simple, compound, complex
or Compound-complex sentence.
1. Our coach will host a pizza party when we win our first game.
2. Olivia and Caroline went to the movies.
3. James grilled burgers, and Patrick made a salad.
4. Since I made the honor roll, my parents let me have a friend spend
the night.
5. Before Alice called me, she called her mom, and her mom asked her
to babysit her brother.
6. Referencing is an essential, non-negotiable feature of academic
writing; therefore, students should use the university resources that
assist them to achieve the required skills.
Unit 1
Writing Effective Sentences
a. The definition of an Effective Sentences
Activity
Reflect on the following questions.
1. What is an effective sentence? Write a definition of your
own.
2. Which of the following sentences are effective sentences?
Why?
a) To do the exam well, the notes must be read carefully.
b) Medicine is an ever-changing science.
c) A piece of stone threw me.
Cont’d…
a) Every homemade man always wishes to have meals.

b) Finding the course difficult, it was dropped.
c) The mother of the boy and the girl will arrive soon.
d) Does Addis Ababa live in Ethiopia?
3. How do you know whether a written sentence is effective?
4. Write four sentences of your own and show them to your
partner. Has your partner found your sentences error-free?

The Definition
 An effective sentence is error-free so long as it

communicates the writer’s intended message.
Hence, effective sentences have much more
power in communicating a message and
helping your business.

b. Features of good sentences
The following the salient characteristics of good sentences.
a) Correctness: The first quality of an effective sentence is
correctness; that is, the sentence should be grammatically
correct.
b) Completeness: sentences should communicate complete
thoughts; they should not be fragments.
c) Clearness: To achieve the purpose of communication, your
sentences should have clear meaning. However,
misunderstanding and ambiguity are often caused by
misplaced modifiers, vague references of pronouns, vague
comparisons and confusing shifts, etc.
Cont’d…
d) Unity: In terms of meaning, a unified sentence should
express a single complete thought. “It does not contain
ideas that are not closely related, nor does it express a
thought that is not complete by itself”
e) Coherence: Coherence means that the parts of a sentence
are so arranged that they stick together, and the thought
progresses in a logical sequence. One way to achieve
coherence is to resort to parallelism, which can clarify the
relationship between a writer’s parallel ideas, or between
parallel parts of a single idea, by expressing similar ideas in
similar grammatical forms.
Cont’d…
f) Emphasis: To emphasize means to show the relative

importance of ideas in a sentence. Therefore,
emphasis is an effective means to achieve impressive
expression of people’s ideas. There also a lot of ways
to achieve emphasis including inversion, the passive
voice, repetition, negative-positive statements,
climatic order, rhetorical question and some kinds of
sentences.

We have seen that sentences should be correct, clear,
complete, unified and coherent. Writing such sentences
is, however, a challenge for most foreign learners of
English.
This sub-section discuses the types of errors and their
respective corrective techniques.

1. Fragment
 A sentence fragment is a word group or part of a sentence
that does not make a complete sense or express a complete
thought when standing alone. It is written as though it were
a sentence. It can be a dependent clause, a phrase or any
other word group which violets the accepted sentence
pattern. It does not express a complete thought because it
lacks a subject or a verb.
 Merriam-Webster defines fragment as a part broken off,
detached or incomplete. Hence, fragment is a segment
which is treated as if it could stand alone. It is not a sentence
as it cannot communicate a complete thought.
How does a fragment occur?
Anyone can answer this question if he/she has understood the
abovementioned definition of fragment. Here below are the
symptoms of fragment.
1. When a the sentence lacks an appropriate subject or a
finite verb, a fragment appears.
Examples:
a. Astronauts in Ethiopia? (This sentence lacks finite verb. It
does not tell what is done or what happens.)
b. were waltzing while the band was playing on. (This is a
fragment as readers cannot recognize who [the subject]
were waltzing).
Cont’d…
2. If a phrase or a dependent clause is detached or disconnected from
the nearby independent clause, fragment occurs.
Examples:
a. There may be exit examination next year. To do the exam
well. Candidates should work hard from the start.
b. Good writing skill does not come to anyone naturally.
Students need to make efforts. If they want to be good
writers.
The boldfaced parts in the above sentences are fragment. They cannot
stand by themselves.

How can fragments be corrected?
The following are the suggested ways that can help writers correct
fragments in their writings.
1. Transforming fragments into sentences: if a subject or finite
verb is missing in a written sentence, the writer (the editor) can
supply the appropriate subject or finite verb.
Examples:
Fragment: were waltzing while the band was playing on.
Complete: Couples were waltzing while the band was playing on.
Fragment: astronauts in Ethiopia?
Complete: Are there astronauts in Ethiopia?

Cont’d…
2. Connecting the phrase or dependent clause to the nearby
independent clause: Phrases and dependent (subordinate) clauses
cannot function as sentences. Therefore, a phrase or a dependent
clause should always be connected to the nearby independent clause
with which it has logical relationship.
Examples:
Fragment: Civil war has broken out in our country Ethiopia. Unless
government seas fire and come to table. This serious war may
breakup Ethiopia.
Correct: Civil war has broken out in our country Ethiopia. Unless
government seas fire and come to table, this serious war may breakup
Ethiopia.
2. Run-On sentences
 Run-on sentences are simply two or more independent sentences
mistakenly written as one without putting appropriate conjunctions
between them. A run-on is an error in writing sentence that occurs
when a sentence ends with a comma or no punctuation mark & the
next one begins with small letter.
 Therefore, there are two aspects of run-on sentences: comma splice
and fused sentences.
Examples:
1. The results of the study were inconclusive therefore more research
needs to be done on the topic. (fused sentences)
2. Participants could leave the study at any time, they needed to
indicate their preference. (comma splice)
How to fix run-ons?
Run-on sentences can be corrected in three ways:
i. Sentence combination: you can use coordinating
conjunctions, subordinating conjunctions, conjunctive
adverbs or semicolon to combine run-on sentences.
ii. Writing the sentences independently
iii. Converting one of the independent clauses to a
phrase
Example
I love to write papers, and I would write one every day
if I had the time.
3. Faulty Parallelism
Parallel construction deals with the use of the same pattern in
two or more equally important words, phrases or clauses. Thus,
a sentence is coherent if the joined parts are of the same
structural weight.
Examples:
a) Thinking and running often accompany one another as I
exercise. (parallel elements with Coordinative conjunction)
b) I don’t enjoy thinking or running.
c) Please bring the bill after we have had some coffee or when
your shift is over.
d) I wonder who Jaal Marro was and what he is doing.
When does faulty parallelism occur?
Faulty parallelism occurs when items in a series (the combined

parts) lack structural sameness. For example, if a clause is
joined with a phrase, faulty parallelism appears. Similarly,
when a gerund is connected to an infinitive, wrong parallelism
happens.
Since faulty parallelism negatively affects the coherence of
your sentence, make sure that the joined parts (items on the
list) are grammatically and logically alike.

Examples:
1. Faulty: Mohammed enjoys reading fiction, likes to ride bike and

playing games.
 Correct: John enjoys reading fiction, riding bike and playing
games.
2. Faulty: I promised to dress properly and that I will arrive on time.
 Correct: I promised to dress properly and to arrive on time.
3. Faulty: My name is difficult to pronounce, and you can't spell it
easily.
 Correct: My name is difficult to pronounce and to spell it easily.

Exercise
Direction: Read each sentence below and make the combined
parts structurally parallel.
1. I like swimming, fishing and to sing.
2. You put the cheese between two slices and frying it in a
pan.
3. To be a doctor, one must have ambition, patience and be
willing to work a long hour.
4. Three reasons why steel companies keep losing money are
that their plants are inefficient, high labor costs, and foreign
competition is increasing.
4. Modifiers
a) Dangling Modifier: A dangling modifier is a word, phrase
or clause that does not logically modify any word in the
sentence in which it appears. It modifies a word not clearly
stated in the sentence.
 Dangling construction is a phrase or clause that either
modifies nothing in the sentence or that seems to modify a
word to which it is not logically related. In other words, it is
a modifier that modifies what is implied but not actually
stated in a sentence. The result of such sentences has
usually an unintended meaning.

Therefore, a dangling modifier occurs
when the modifier:
i. Has no logical relationship with the subject of the independent
clause.
Examples:
 While I was driving, my car ran out of gas. (My car was driving!)
 While smoking a pipe, my dog sat with me in the house. (the dog
was smoking a pipe!)
ii. Has nothing to describe.
Example:
 To do the exam well, lecture notes should be read carefully. (Who
should do the exam well?)
How to correct dangling modifiers?
i. Add appropriate subject along with the finite verb to the
modifier.
Examples:
 While I was driving home, may car ran out of gas.
 While I was smoking a pipe, my dog sat with me in the house.
ii. Replace the subject of the independent part with an appropriate
subject.
Example:
 To do the exam well, students/candidates should read lecture-
notes carefully.
b) Misplaced Modifier
Adverbs and adjectives usually modify corresponding verbs
and nouns. Notice the placement of the modifiers and their
proximity to the word(s) they describe. When the modifier is
too far away from the word it gives more information on, that
is called a misplaced modifier.
Example:
 Falling from the top of the X-Building, we could see little
white pieces of paper.
By switching the placement of the two clauses, the modifier is
moved next to what it’s describing.
Cont’d…
 We could see little white pieces of paper falling from the

top of the Empire State Building.
 To make your sentences free of misplaced modifiers, you
need to logically keep (place) the modifiers right after or
right before the right word, phrase or clause.
 A large painting attracts the visitor's eye on the west wall.
 A large painting on the west wall attracts the visitor's eye.

c) Squinting Modifiers
 It is a modifier placed between two clauses without clearly

modifying either of them, which can cause confusion.
 Such modifiers are said "to squint" because they could

modify one of two possible grammatical structures/ideas. A
squinting modifier, also called a two-way modifier, is a
word, phrase or clause that can describe what precedes it or
what fallows it.

Examples
1. As the ship sank suddenly the life boats were lowered.
i. As the ship sank, suddenly the life boats were lowered.
ii. As the ship sank suddenly, the life boats were lowered.
2. The teacher said on Monday she would return our essay.
i. On Monday, the teacher said she would return our essay.
ii. The teacher said she would return our essay on Monday.
3. I told my son when the game was over I would play with him.
i. When the game was over, I told my son that I would play with him.
ii. I told my son I would play with him when the game was over.

Exercise
 Correct the squinting modifier in each sentence

below.
1. We cannot accept completely abstract logic.
2. Riding a bike quickly strengthens your muscles.
3. Students who do not attend class regularly miss quiz.

5. Faulty Agreement
Agreement is of two types:
A) Subject-verb Agreement
B) Pronoun-antecedent Agreement
Hence, faulty agreement occurs when the verb is not congruent
in number with its subject, or when the pronoun does not
match its referent (antecedent) in number, gender or person.

A. Subject-verb Agreement
A verb must agree with its subject in numbers. A singular
subject (person or thing) takes a singular verb & a plural
subject (more than one person or thing) takes a plural verb.
Case 1: subjects connected by “and”
Rule: If two subjects are joined by "and," they typically
require a plural verb form.
Examples:
1. Our lecturer and her brother-in-law have gone shopping.
2. A celebrated journalist and the famous politician criticize
unitary-based leadership in Ethiopia.
Cont’d…
However, in the following cases, compound subjects connected
by “and” require singular verb forms.
a) The verb is singular if the two subjects separated by "and"
refer to the same person, thing or idea.
Examples:
a) Red beans and rice is my mom's favorite dish.

b) Bread & tea is his every day breakfast

Cont’d…
b) If the subjects connected by “and” are preceded by "each,"

"every" or "no", a singular verb is used.
Example:
 No boy and girl is wearing sandals.

Exercise
Direction: Underline the correct verb.
1. Nowadays, every man and woman send/sends children to
school.
2. Jarra can speaks/speak Ge’ez fluently and accurately.
3. Our instructor together with his children has gone /have
gone to Harar to visit the hyena-men.
4. Not only the children but also their mother has/have been
accused of stealing the money.
5. Both Hailu and Gemechis are/is my confidants. Neither
smoke/smokes cigarette.
B. Pronoun antecedent agreement
The pronoun should agree with its antecedent in number,
gender and person.
Rule 1: A singular pronoun must replace a singular noun; a
plural pronoun must replace a plural noun.
Example:

Cont’d…
Rule 2: A phrase or clause between the subject and verb does

not change the number of the antecedent.
Example:

Cont’d…
Rule 3: Singular indefinite pronoun antecedents take singular

pronoun referents.

Cont’d…
Rule 4: Plural indefinite pronoun antecedents require plural

referents.
PLURAL: several, few, both, many

Example:

Cont’d…
Rule 5: Some indefinite pronouns that are modified by a

prepositional phrase may be either singular or plural.
EITHER SINGULAR OR PLURAL: some, any, none, all,
most
a) If the object of preposition is singular/uncountable noun,
use singular pronoun.
Example:

Cont’d…
b. When the object of the preposition is plural, use plural

pronoun.
Example:

Cont’d…
Rule 6: With compound subjects joined by or/nor, the referent

pronoun agrees with the antecedent closer to the
pronoun.
Examples:

Cont’d…
Rule 6: Plural form subjects with a singular meaning take a
singular referent. (news, measles, mumps, physics,
etc.)
Example:
Rule 7: The number of vs A number of before a subject

Cont’d…
Rule 8: if you are writing about people in general, do not be

gender biased.
1. Everybody is responsible for his/her actions

2. A teacher should respect his/her students.

6. Faulty pronoun reference
Every pronoun you write should refer clearly and unmistakably

to one particular noun. We call this noun the antecedent.
Unfortunately, it is very easy to create a sentence that uses a

pronoun without a clear, unmistakable noun antecedent.

When does an ambiguous pronoun
reference occur?
Faulty pronoun reference occurs when:

1. Two or more equally plausible antecedents or referents
appear in the sentence.
2. There is/are a hidden antecedent/hidden antecedents in the
sentence .
3. The pronoun does not have any referent/antecedent at all.

Examples
1. Take the radio out of my car and repair it.
2. Bilisumma told Gidey that he would go to the cinema after
class.
3. Jemila phoned Belay last night to criticize his driving. This
made Belay very angry.
4. Trumpet playing can be very entertaining, but it is a difficult
instrument to master.
5. We called the police station and told them about the
robbery

How to edit vague pronoun
reference?
1. If the pronoun has two or more plausible referents, replace
the pronoun with one of the referents. You can also use the
direct speech if the sentence is in reported form.
2. If the pronoun has a hidden antecedent, replace the pronoun
with the noun form of the implied antecedent.
3. The referent should be directly stated if the pronoun has no
referent/antecedent in the sentence.
4. Rephrasing the sentence with vague or hidden referents can
help to make the sentence clear.
Miscellaneous Exercise
Directions: In the paragraph below, there are erroneous

sentences. Identify and edit the errors in the
sentences, and rewrite the paragraph
correctly.

Miscellaneous Exercise cont’d
Editing is an important final step in the writing process every paragraph and
sentence should be checked for correct grammar, punctuation and choose
words carefully to receive better marks. Checking for grammar includes.
Checking that verb forms are correct and consistent. Editing for
punctuation include checking that colons and semicolons as well as
commas have been used correctly. As stated in their book, diction is an
often neglected part of the editing process, but it is equally important as
grammar and punctuation because it affects the overall clarity of a piece of
writing. Therefore, when writing, technical terms should be used correctly,
all colloquial language have to be avoided. According to Hailu (2013). A
number of lecturers claims that that careful editing almost can improve a
student’s grade by 30%. Obtaining a good grade is just one motivation for
careful editing; there are also life-long learning benefits. Thus, not only
editing helps a writer to correct the usage but also to avoid wrongly used
punctuation marks and checking his word choice.
Unit Two
Writing Paragraphs
Reflective Activity
1. What is a paragraph?
2. How long should a paragraph be?
3. Enlist and discuss all the possible parts of a paragraph?
4. What are the salient features of a good paragraph?
Elaborate what each characteristics of effective paragraph
implies.

Cont’d…
5. How many kinds of paragraph do you remember. Explain

what writers do in each type of paragraph
6. Which patterns of paragraph development do you know?
List down as many patterns of paragraph development as
you can and discuss what each does.
7. What are transition signals (sign posts, cohesive devices?
What do they do in paragraphs?

2.1. What is a paragraph?
 A paragraph is a group of related sentences that discuss one

main idea. All sentences should relate to one main idea or
topic.
 A paragraph can be as short as five sentence or as long as

ten sentences. The number of sentences is unimportant;
however, the paragraph should be long enough to develop
the main idea clearly.

2.1. What is a paragraph?
 A paragraph is made of a few sentences that talk

about ONE single topic. You should have at least five
to seven sentences in your paragraph. Your topic can
have some evidence or examples to support it, but
these should all be related to each other. Do not
introduce any new topic. Each paragraph should have
coherence and cohesion

2.2. Different Parts of a Paragraph
1. Topic Sentence
 A Topic Sentence is a sentence that tells the reader what your

paragraph is about. You can write your topic sentence in the
beginning, middle, or end of your paragraph. If you are a
new writer, it might be easier for you to start your paragraph
with your topic sentence and take it from there.
For example, a topic sentence might be:
 There are many reasons why I have chosen to join
Haramaya University.
Remember the formula
 Topic Sentence= Topic + Controlling Idea
Topic mean the subject of the topic sentence/ what
the paragraph is about and controlling Idea, as the
name suggests, controlling idea controls your
thoughts and ideas. The controlling idea tells your
reader what specific aspect of this topic you are
going to write about.

2. Supporting Details
These sentences give explanation, evidence, and reason for
your claim. Suppose that, your paragraph has five sentences,
usually the three sentences after the Topic Sentence are called
the Supporting Details (Sentences). Note: Supporting
sentences are all sentences other than topic sentence.
Supporting sentences develop the topic sentence by providing
reasons or justifications, examples, facts, statistics and
quotations. In short, they provide the necessary information to
clarify or explain the general idea stated in the topic sentence.
In the above paragraph there are three supporting sentences or
details (sentences 2, 3, and 4). These sentences explain the
reasons stated in the topic sentence.
Example
(1) There are many reasons why people move. (2) Some
people move because of new job. (3) Others move
because they want to live in a city with better weather.
(4) Still others move because they want to live
somewhere cheaper. (5) In short, these are some reasons
why people move to new cities.

3. Concluding Sentence
The last sentence in your paragraph is called a

Concluding Sentence. The Concluding Sentence does
NOT introduce anything new. It either summarizes what
you already talked about or paraphrases the Topic
Sentence or reflect your personal point of view or
opinion. For example, in the above paragraph sentence
number (5) is concluding sentence.

2.2. Features of good paragraphs
An effective paragraph is unified, coherent and well-developed.
1. Unity:
The first characteristic of an effective paragraph is unity, which means

that all sentences in the paragraph explain, develop, and support a
central idea in some way. In other words, every paragraph must have a
purpose within your paper, and all the sentences must somehow advance
that purpose. This means that ALL sentences—topic sentence,
supporting ones, and concluding sentence—must be more than loosely
related to the subtopic.
2. Coherence
A coherent paragraph has sentences that all logically follow each

other; they are not isolated thoughts. Hence, coherence refers to
“rhetorical” aspects of your writing, which include developing and
supporting your argument (e.g. thesis statement development),
synthesizing and integrating readings, organizing and clarifying
ideas.
Cont’d…
A coherent paragraph has sentences that all logically follow
each other; they are not isolated thoughts.
Coherence allows the reader to move easily throughout the
essay from one idea to the next, from one sentence to the next,
and from one paragraph to the next.
Coherence can be achieved in several ways.
1. Use transitional words and phrases between paragraphs and
sentences, if necessary. Using transitions helps to connect
ideas from one sentence to the next.

3. Development
Effective paragraphs are not only unified, they are fully
developed, which means that they don’t leave any significant
questions in readers’ minds. when you are writing a paragraph,
you must be sure to trace the full development of your ideas
for readers so they will understand the assumptions, evidence
and reasoning you used. There are three ways to ensure that
your paragraphs are fully developed: by providing the right
level of supporting detail, choosing the right kind of evidence
and choosing the right pattern of development for your
purpose.
Steps in Writing a Paragraph
1. Creating Topic Sentences:
Topic sentence:
 introduces the topic immediately.
 helps to decide what to say about the topic.
 tells the main idea of the paragraph.
 helps to restrict the details to be included
 forecasts the kind of information readers can expect in
the body of the paragraph
Look at the following pairs of
sentences and pick a topic sentence
1) Early marriage has several problems (TS)
2) Early marriage can lead to divorce (SS)
a) President Mandela brought peace and democracy in South
Africa.
b) Some African leaders has done good things for their
country.
i. The first step in choosing a best wife is attraction towards
the lady.
ii. Choosing a best wife may involve several steps.
Cont’d…
2.Creating Details
3.Developing the Details
a) Sensory details
b) Exemplification
c) Facts and statistical figures and other descriptive
details
d) Incidents/stories or anecdotes

4.Ordering the details and writing the first draft
a. Topical or random sequence (related details closer

to each other )
b. Chronological Sequence (events in the time order )
c. Spatial sequence (visualize what an object looks like )
d. Climatic Sequence (order of importance )
e. Logical Sequence (logical relationship )

Cont’d…
5. Writing first draft.

6. Editing Drafts
 Grammatical error
 Spelling error
 Punctuation error
 Structural error

Types of paragraph
1. Descriptive Paragraph
 A descriptive pattern is characterized by vivid
sensory description. It uses sense words (e.g., bitter,
light, bright, pungent, loud) vivid action verbs, (e.g.,
dive, drip, rip) and transitions of space (e.g. here,
there, to the left, up) to give sense impressions of a
scene. This pattern is useful when you want to create
a dominant sensory impression.

2. Narrative Paragraph
In a Narrative Paragraph, you will share your story or

what happened with your reader. Again, to get your
readers involved in your story in a better way, try using
the Journalists’ Questions: why, who, where, what,
when, where. Try to write the events in your story
chronologically (in order of their occurrence). Narrative
uses transitions of time and space.

3. Persuasive/argumentation
The aim of this kinds of paragraph is to prove or persuade. In

argumentative paragraph you do two things: (1) you explain,
then (2) you persuade or convince. Therefore, argumentation
not only has its own goal but also includes the goals of
exposition.
Argumentation is a three-step process. In argumentative
paragraph, you will need to:

Cont’d…
a. Present a personal view point
b. Explain, clarify, and illustrate that view point
c. Convince the reader that the view point is valid
The first two step are also need in exposition. The third step is,
however, specific to argumentation. It is the very last step
that makes all the difference. An opinion needs to be
supported by facts, examples, statistics, personal experience
or authoritative works.

4. Expository Paragraph
 This type of paragraph provides information/explains it.
 We can achieve this form of paragraph in many ways.
 Process Paragraph (how to do something)
 Exemplification (uses examples)
 Comparison/contrast (similarities and differences)
 Definition (definition of a term)
 Cause and effect (causes or the effects of something)
 Classification Paragraph (groups or categories)

Unit 3
Writing Essays
3.1 What is Essay?
Essay is derived from the French word essayer, which means
“to attempt,” or “to try.” An essay is a short form of literary
composition based on a single subject matter, and often gives
the personal opinion of the author. A famous English essayist,
Aldous Huxley defines essays as, “a literary device for saying
almost everything about almost anything.” The Oxford
Dictionary describes it as “a short piece of writing on a
particular subject.” In simple words, we can define it as a
scholarly work in writing that provides the author’s personal
argument.
3.2. Parts of an essay

In general, an academic essay has three parts
1. An introduction that gives the reader an idea of what they

are about to learn and presents an argument in the form of a
thesis statement
2. A body, or middle section, that provides evidence used to
prove and persuade the reader to accept the writer's
particular point of view
3. A conclusion that summarizes the content and findings of
the essay
A. Introduction
The introductory paragraph is the first paragraph of an essay.
Such paragraph consists of two parts:
1. General statements:
 introduce the general topic of the essay.
 capture the reader's interest.
2. A thesis statement
A thesis statement for an essay is like a topic sentence for a
paragraph: It:
 states the specific topic.
 may list subtopics or subdivisions of the main topic or
subtopics.
 may indicate the pattern of organization of the essay.
 is normally the last sentence in the introductory paragraph.
B. Supporting Paragraphs (the body)
The body paragraphs in an essay are like the supporting
sentences in a paragraph.
They are the place to develop your topic and prove your
points. You should organize body paragraphs according to
some sort of pattern, such as chronological order or
comparison/contrast. Sometimes, depending on your topic,
you will need to use a combination of patterns.
A basic pattern for essays is logical division of ideas. In this
pattern, you divide your topic into subtopics and then discuss
each subtopic in a separate paragraph.
The Process
Topic Sentences
Topic Sentence Paragraph #1:
Thesis Statement The way you dress can have a big

impact on an interview panel’s first
A job interview can often impressions of you.
make or break your chances
of getting your dream job. Topic Sentence- Paragraph #2:
There are several things that An interview is an opportunity for
you can do in an interview potential employers to get to know you
to increase the possibility of better, so it is important that you
your success such as answer each question as completely as
dressing properly, possible.
answering interview
questions thoroughly, and Topic Sentence- Paragraph #3:
asking good questions at the By preparing some thoughtful
end of the interview. questions for the end of the interview,
you can show the panel that you have
prepared for the interview and want
the job.

3. The concluding paragraph
The conclusion is the final paragraph in an essay. It has three
purposes.
 It signals the end of the essay. To do so, begin your
conclusion with a transition signal.
 It reminds your reader of your main points, which you
can do in one of two ways: You can
 summarize your subtopics
 paraphrase your thesis.
 It leaves your reader with your final thoughts on the
topic. This is your opportunity to convey a strong,
effective message that your reader will
remember.
In general,
 The concluding paragraph leaves the reader thinking about

your topic. Leave an impression on them!
 In the concluding paragraph, there is no new information in

conclusion
 The concluding paragraph should follow logically from the

body of the essay

Strategies to write your concluding
paragraph
 Here are techniques that you can use to write a memorable
conclusion.
a) Making a prediction
b) Suggesting results or consequences
c) Suggesting a solution, making a recommendation, or
calling for action
d) Quoting an authority on the topic

References
Basic Writing Skills Module

College Writing Skills
The Art of Writing
Primary English Course

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Basic Writing Skills For Student

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Basic Writing Skills For Student

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School of Foreign Languages and Journalism

Department of English Language and Literature

Basic Writing Skills for Managers

Dinaol Dugasa (MA)

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 An absolute phrase modifies an entire sentence. In other

1. you should have photographed me yesterday.

2. The oldest apartment in this town has been sold to an

1. The girl with curly hair is my sister.

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1. Established in 1954, Haramaya University has been noted

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4. who discovered the answer for the question.

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 A dependent clause must be attached to an independent

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6. The mechanic asked whether the radiator of my car was

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 When a subordinating conjunction is added to a clause, the

Example: Gemeda works hard. If Gemeda works hard,

Dependent clause (DC)

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1. Admitting that we have made mistakes, we can try to do

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 Read the following and identify each as phrase, dependent

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6. Megersa is a man of action

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8. Had I met my spouse , I would have told him that my laptop

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1. Astronauts have written a lot about Mars.

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Is Chala a physician? (The subject is Chala)

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a) It was the first time that I had seen a lion in this

In English grammar, an imperative sentence gives advice or

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According two their structure, sentences are of four

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A compound sentence is formed by joining two or more

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And Nor But

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You can use conjunctive adverbs to form compound sentences.

1. You must do your homework; otherwise, you might get a

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A compound sentence can also be made by putting a

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