Aircraft Engine Instruments

ENGINE INSTRUMENTS
It would be difficult to fly a modern aircraft safely without its engine instruments. Engine instruments
ensure effective management of the aircraft engine. The principal types of engines in use are piston
(unsupercharged and turbocharged), Gas turbine - turbo propeller and pure turbine. The selection of
the means of propulsion for any one type of aircraft depends on its size and operational category. In
order to ensure designed performance ratings within specific limitations certain engine parameters
must be monitored. Engine instruments will show;
1. engine condition - oil pressure and oil temperature and the exhaust gas temperature gauge
2. engine performance (shows how well the engine is performing) - engine rpm, manifold
pressure gauge, engine pressure ratio etc.
They therefore ensure effective management of the aircraft engine. The table below shows some
common engine instruments. Some aircraft may not have all these instruments or may be equipped
with others.

TEMPERATURE SENSING.
Piston and gas turbine aircraft engines are heat engines. The power they produce is directly
proportional to the heat released during combustion of fuel. Engine components and systems are
designed to withstand certain temperatures. If their limits are exceeded, they may fail. To allow safe
operation, the engine temperatures must be monitored. The effect of ambient temperatures as well
as combustion must be considered. The following temperatures are monitored on piston and gas
turbine engines: Air Inlet, Piston Cylinder Heads, Piston Exhaust Gas, Gas Turbine
Compressor outlets, Turbines Oil and Fuel systems and Internal Air system. The temperatures
monitored may range from -56°C to + 1200°C. Different sensors are used depending on the
temperature range to be monitored, broadly categorised as either High temperature and low
temperatures. There are four major types of measuring devices and these are;
Expansion Type - This relies on the principle that most solids, liquids and gases expand and
contract with temperature changes. e.g., The mercury Thermometer and Bi-metallic strip
Vapour Pressure Type - Liquids when subjected to a rise in temperature change their state from
liquid to vapour. Therefore, by measuring the pressure of the vapour an indication of temperature
can be gained.
Electrical Type - A change in temperature of an electrical conductor can cause a change in
resistance of the conductor. Thus, measuring the change in resistance can indicate the temperature
of the conductor. This sensor is called the Resistance Type (Temperature Bulb). In addition, two
dissimilar metals when joined together at their ends (a junction) can produce an electrical potential
which is dependent on the temperature difference between the junctions. This is known as a
'Thermo-Electric Type' or 'Thermo-couple'.
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Radiation type - The radiation emitted by anybody at any wavelength is dependent upon the
temperature of that body. This is termed its 'emissivity'. If the radiation is measured and the
emissivity is knowing the temperature of the body can be determined. Such a measuring technique
is known as Pyrometry.
Generally, the Expansion and Vapour Pressure sensors are used to indicate lower
temperatures. They are direct reading e.g., Thermometer. The Electrical and Radiation sensors
are used to measure higher temperatures and can be direct reading to a moving coil Indicator.
e.g., Piston Engine Exhaust Gas Temperature. However, most systems today use remote sensors
that feed to servo-operated indicators after the signal from the sensor has been amplified. A
Wheatstone Bridge Balancing circuit that alters the magnetic field in a coil, can be used to produces
a torque to drive an indicator.
Pressure Sensing
In many of the systems associated with the operation of the aircraft and its engines, liquids and
gases are used the pressures of which must be measured and indicated. The gauges and indicating
systems fall into two categories: Direct Reading and Remote Indicating. Remote indicating is
where a separate sensing element is connected to a pressure source at some remote point.
Pressure, is defined as force per unit area. It is normally indicated either as Pounds Per Square
Inch (PSI) or Inches of Mercury (in Hg). Pressure measurements to be made are Absolute Pressure,
Gauge Pressure and differential pressure. The sensing elements commonly used are Diaphragms,
Capsules, Bellows and Bourdon tubes.
Piston Engine Instruments.
Cylinder Temperature Gauge (CHT) - Most engines are fitted with a CHT on one cylinder only.
Every engine design has a cylinder that runs slightly hotter than the rest. The cylinder chosen for the
hot junction thermocouple installation is the one that runs the hottest under most operating
conditions. The cold junction is installed in the instrument case. The location of this cylinder varies
with different engines. If the temperature climbs towards the red line, it may indicate a serious
problem.
The hot junction of the thermocouple will vary in shape depending on its application. Two common
types are the gasket and the bayonet. In the gasket type, two rings of the dissimilar metals are
pressed together to form a gasket that can be installed under a spark plug or cylinder hold down
nut. In the bayonet type, the metals come together inside a perforated protective sheath. Bayonet
thermocouples fit into a hole or well in a cylinder head.

A cylinder head temperature thermocouple with a gasket type hot junction is made to be installed
under the spark plug or a cylinder hold down nut of the hottest cylinder (A). A bayonet type
thermocouple is installed in a bore in the cylinder wall (B).
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Exhaust Gas Temperature - The gauge measures the temperature of the gases at the exhaust
manifold. This temperature varies with the ratio of fuel to air entering the cylinders and can be used
as a basis for regulating the fuel-air mixture. The EGT gauge is highly accurate in indicating the
correct fuel-air mixture setting. When using the EGT to aid in leaning the fuel-air mixture, fuel
consumption can be reduced and efficiency increased.
Oil Temperature - The oil temperature gauge is important for monitoring the wellbeing of the
engine. High power should not be used until the temperature has climbed into the operating range
as damage can occur to the engine. Temperature has a large effect on the viscosity of the oil and its
ability to adequately lubricate the engine. The oil temperature gauge line in the aircraft is connected
at the oil inlet to the engine. This is basically a thermocouple hot junction with you cold junction
located in the instrument case
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Engine Oil Temp Probe Cockpit Instrument (dual oil temp and press)
High oil temperature indications may signal: Plugged oil line or cooler, low oil quantity (possible
engine failure). High oil temperatures can lead to metal on metal contact as viscosity decreases.
Low oil temperature indications may signal improper oil viscosity during cold weather operations.
Some aircraft are fitted with a carburetor temperature gauge which can be useful in preventing and
diagnosing carburetor icing.
Manifold Absolute Pressure Gauge - typically ranges from a value less than ambient atmospheric
pressure to a small amount (perhaps 1 or 2 bar) above, and so it must be measured against
absolute zero (i.e., the pressure in a total vacuum). To achieve this, two sensing capsules are used,
one of which is evacuated and spring loaded to respond to ambient atmospheric pressure and the
other of which is connected internally to the engine manifold by piping. The two capsules are linked
mechanically to the instrument pointer. The manifold pressure gauge in an airplane measures the
pressure of the fuel/air mixture within the intake manifold of the engine. It is measured in inches, just
like a barometric pressure gauge. If you look at the manifold pressure gauge when the engine is
turned off, you’ll notice it reads the barometric pressure. That’s because when the engine isn’t
turning, there’s not a vacuum being created. It’ll just read the outside pressure because it’s nothing
more than a pressure gauge.

Gas Turbine Engine Instruments

Engine instruments that indicate oil pressure, oil temperature, engine speed, exhaust gas
temperature, and fuel flow are common to both turbine and reciprocating engines. However, there
are some instruments that are unique to turbine engines. These instruments provide indications of
engine pressure ratio, turbine discharge pressure, and torque. In addition, most gas turbine engines
have multiple temperature-sensing thermocouples, which provide pilots with temperature readings
in and around the turbine section.
Engine Pressure Ratio (EPR)
An engine pressure ratio (EPR) gauge is used to indicate the power output of a turbojet/turbofan
engine. EPR is the ratio of turbine discharge to compressor inlet pressure. Pressure measurements
are recorded by probes installed in the engine inlet and at the exhaust. Once collected, the data is
sent to a differential pressure transducer, which converts the measured differential pressure to an
electric signal that operates a flight deck EPR gauge. EPR system design automatically
compensates for the effects of airspeed and altitude. Changes in ambient temperature require a
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correction be applied to EPR indications to provide accurate engine power settings. When EPR is
used, the pressures are measured in front of the compressor and behind the turbine.
It is therefore defined as the ratio of the turbine exit pressure to the engine intake pressure. Since
the EPR gauge compares two pressures, it is a differential pressure gauge

Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT)

A limiting factor in a gas turbine engine is the temperature of the turbine section. The temperature of
a turbine section must be monitored closely to prevent overheating the turbine blades and other
exhaust section components. One common way of monitoring the temperature of a turbine section
is with an EGT gauge. EGT is an engine operating limit used to monitor overall engine operating
conditions. Variations of EGT systems bear different names based on the location of the
temperature sensors. Common turbine temperature sensing gauges include the turbine inlet
temperature (TIT) gauge, turbine outlet temperature (TOT) gauge, interstage turbine temperature
(ITT) gauge, and turbine gas temperature (TGT) gauge.
Oil Pressure
The oil pressure gauge provides a direct indication of the oil system operation. It ensures the
pressure in pounds per square inch (psi) of the oil supplied to the engine. Green indicates the
normal operating range, while red indicates the minimum and maximum pressures. There should be
an indication of oil pressure during engine start. The Bourdon tube can be manufactured to indicate
high or low pressures, but is normally associated with higher pressures such as engine oil pressure.

ENGINE R.P.M.
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The measurement of engine speed is of vital importance, since together with other parameters
accurate control, and monitoring of the engine can be achieved. On piston engines it is crankshaft
speed that is measured, whilst on gas turbine engines it is the speed of the compressor. The RPM
indicator is called a Tachometer (Tacho). There are three basic methods of measuring engine
rotational speeds: -
1. Mechanical (Magnetic) Tachometer.
2. Electrical Generator System. (Tacho Genny)
3. Inductive Probe System.
There are no firm guidelines as to the application of each of the tachometer system, although
engine and aircraft design will dictate which system can be best utilised. The Mechanical
Tachometer is now only found on older piston aircraft. It consists of a Flexible Drive Shaft that is
connected to the flight deck Tacho Indicator. The input drive causes a magnet in the indicator to
rotate. The magnet rotates inside a copper or aluminium drag-cup, this induces Eddy Currents in the
drag-cup which opposes the magnetic field of the magnet. A torque is established which turns the
drag-cup in the same direction as the permanent magnet. A shaft extends from the drag-cup and is
connected to a pointer. The turning motion of the pointer is against the tension of a Hairspring which
controls the drag cup position and hence the position of the pointer. The flexible drive is driven at
reduced speed, but true speed will be shown on the indicator. The indicator incorporates
compensation devices for change in temperature.

The Electrical Generator System is possibly the oldest form of engine speed measurement still in
use on large aircraft. It utilises a small three phase (tacho) generator, driven by the engine. The
output of this generator is then taken to an indicator which consists of a synchronous motor turning
a drag cup assembly which moves a pointer over a scale as in the mechanical system.

The indicator can either show the actual revolutions per minute (not too common), or the speed as a
percentage of maximum engine speed.
On twin or triple spool engines the speed of rotation of the high, intermediate and low pressure
compressors can be displayed. These would be termed N3, N2 and Nl. N being the SI symbol for
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rotational speed. An overspeed pointer ( Trailing or Limit pointer) can also be fitted concentrically
with the main pointer, and is initially positioned at the appropriate max RPM graduation. If the main
pointer exceeds this position, the limit pointer is carried with it. When speed is reduced the limit
pointer will remain at the maximum speed reached. It can be reset by applying a separate 28V DC
supply to a solenoid in the indicator. Although there would always be provision on the H.P.
compressor spool for driving a tacho-generator through the high speed gear box. Facilities may not
always be available for driving tacho-generators from the intermediate and low pressure compressor
shafts. If this is the case, a Speed Probe , can be used to very good effect.

The speed probe is positioned on the compressor casing in line with either a phonic wheel, or the
actual fan blades. As the spool rotates, the magnetic flux in the probe or sensor head is altered. This
changes the current flowing in the coil fitted inside the probe and the frequency with which it
changes is directly related to the spool speed. This frequency is fed to an indicator in the cockpit to
show the spool rotational speed. In addition to providing an indication of spool speed, the tacho-
generator or speed probe can both be used to provide a signal which will illuminate a warning lamp
on the engine start control panel. This can tell the pilot not only that the engine is turning, but also
whether the engine is turning in the correct direction. This is particularly important during engine
start as it is used to inform the pilot when to open the H.P. Fuel Cock. This lamp is only illuminated
during the start cycle. An advantage of this system is the reduction in moving parts required in the
engine, and that a number of separate electrical outputs additional to those required for speed
indications can be provided, e.g. automatic power control and flight data acquisition systems. The
Tacho indicators mentioned above receive their speed signals directly from speed sensors or via
servo operated systems. These indicators require a power source from the aircraft airborne power
supply. In the event of power supply or signal failure, the indicator is returned to an Off Scale
position, and a Power Off Flag may be displayed.
As previously stated, presentation of speed is now usually displayed as a percentage figure. It is
only piston engine aircraft where the actual speed of rotation is displayed. Gas turbine engines have
dial displays which show percentage speed, with 100% corresponding to the optimum turbine
speed. Two scales are displayed, a main scale calibrated 0 to 100% in 10% increments. A second
pointer or digital counter displays speed in 1% increments. As well as digital read out vertical ribbon
displays are used. In line with other instruments, coloured arcs or indicators lines are used to show
ranges and limits of engine speed. Green representing normal operating range, with Amber
denoting caution. Red arcs show maximum or minimum speed, and ranges that are restricted
because of excessive vibration. On a piston engine the reference RPM should also be placarded.
On multi-engine aircraft, to reduce structural vibration and noise the speed of all engines must be
synchronised. It is impractical to have the pilot adjust the throttle of each engine manually to
synchronise the speed, and individual indicators may vary in accuracy. In order to facilitate manual
adjustment of speed an additional instrument known as a Synchroscope is used. The instrument
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was designed at the outset for operation from the AC generated by the tachometer system. The
instrument provides qualitative indication of the difference in speeds between two or more engines.
One engine is selected as a master, the others are slaves to it. The instrument shows clearly
whether a slave engine is running faster or slower than the master. An example of the dial
presentation for synchroscopes for a Twin and Four-engine aircraft, and Combined tacho and
Synchroscope are shown.

Propeller Synchronization and Synchrophasing

Most multi-engine aircraft are equipped with propeller synchronization systems. Synchronization
systems provide a means of controlling and synchronizing engine rpm. Synchronization reduces
vibration and eliminates the unpleasant beat produced by unsynchronized propeller operation.
A typical synchrophasing system is an electronic system.

It functions to match the rpm of both engines and establish a blade phase relationship between the
left and right propellers to reduce cabin noise. The system is controlled by a two-position switch
located forward of the throttle quadrant. Turning the control switch on supplies direct current (DC)
power to the electronic control box. Input signals representing propeller rpm are received from
magnetic pickup on each propeller. The computed input signals are corrected to a command signal
and sent to an rpm trimming coil located on the propeller governor of the slow engine. Its rpm is
adjusted to that of the other propeller.
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FUEL GAUGE
The measurement of the quantity of fuel in the tanks of an aircraft fuel system is an essential
requirement, and in conjunction with measurements of the rate at which the fuel flows to the engine
or engines permits an aircraft to be flown at maximum efficiency.
There are two principal methods of indicating the quantity of fuel carried. Either the Volume (e.g.,
Gallons) or Mass (kg or lbs) are measured. The former is now only used on light aircraft as the
Mass of the fuel is of more interest to the pilot. This assists the pilot in calculating the aircraft's ' all-
up-weight ' and also gives a better indication of the energy that can be released by the fuel. One
pound of fuel has the same number of energy molecules regardless of temperature and volume.
The simplest form of volume indication is a float system. Early aircraft had a float which sat on the
level of fuel. Attached to the float was a piece of wire that protruded out the top of the fuel tank. As
the fuel level reduced so the wire disappeared from view. There have been many variations of this
system. The most common of these is where the float moves to reposition a wiper on a variable
resistor which alters the current to an indicator moving a pointer over a scale calibrated in volume.
This is a DC powered system. The disadvantage of this system is that the indication is not linear,
and there is no provision for making adjustments for system accuracy. The gauge is set to be
accurate at the low and empty positions. The system is also subject to errors whenever the aircraft
manoeuvres and the attitude changes.

Capacitance Type Fuel Gauge System. In its basic form a capacitance system consists of a
variable AC capacitor located in the fuel tank an amplifier and an indicator. This system will indicate
volume without the errors of the float system. If a correction voltage due to change in volume or
temperature change is fed to the circuit, Mass of fuel will be indicated. A tank unit consists of two
concentric aluminium alloy tubes which are held apart by pairs of insulating pins. The electrical
connections are insulated and the unit is insulated from the tank. Co-axial connectors are used
throughout. Incorporated in the system are Reference units, which improve indication errors that
would occur if the permittivity of the fuel changes from its normal value. The reference unit is located
on the lower end of a tank unit and is always totally submerged in the unusable fuel level in the
tank.
The principle of operation of the capacitance system is based on the use of fuel and air as the
dielectric between parallel- plate capacitors of fixed area and a fixed distance between the plates.
The only variable then being the ratio offuel and air, which is determined by the quantity of fuel in
the tank. Capacitance is measured in Farads, the standard unit being the Picofarad ( 10-12 F ). The
capacitance depends on the following;
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The Relative Permittivity (Er) is a number given as a ratio of the capacitance of a capacitor having a
certain material as a dielectric to the capacitance of the same capacitor with a vacuum (or air) as its
dielectric. In an aircraft fuel system, the area of the plates and their distance apart remain constant,
but the capacitance of the tank units will vary depending upon the level of fuel within the tanks. The
value of capacitance of a tank can be considered as two components. Ca (air) and Cf (fuel) and at
any instance Tank Capacitance (Ct) =Ca + Cf. The pointer in the fuel quantity system measuring
fuel by volume is directly related to the change in fuel level as these changes dielectric constant of
the capacitor.

The change in capacitance results in a change in capacitive reactance will result in a change in
current as voltage and frequency are constant.
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Changes in temperature of the fuel will affect its density, volume and dielectric value (Er). A
decrease in temperature would cause a decrease in volume, increase in density and increase in Er.
The circuit is compensated for changes in temperature and can now indicate Mass of fuel which is
of more value to the pilot.

The system consists of a sensing and balancing loop circuit connected together by a signal
developing resistor. When the fuel quantity is full the current in the two loops are equal but anti-
phase. No signal voltage is produced. As the fuel is consumed the capacitance and therefore the
current in the sensing loop will decrease. The current in the balancing loop will then be greater and
a signal voltage is produced across the signal developing resistor. The voltage is phase detected
and amplified to drive an indicator. The system can be calibrated by the addition of trimming
resistors
For the calibration of gauges in terms of mass, an assumption is made that there is a constant
relationship Er value and density (p) for a given sample of fuel at a given temperature. As
Temperature is not a constant and a Compensating Capacitor circuit is incorporated in the system
and is fitted to the reference unit. The system will now sense changes in Specific Gravity (SG) of the
fuel and so indicate mass.
The indicating system can incorporate an additional indicator know as the 'Fuel Totaliser' which will
indicate the sum of all the tank gauges. In the event of failure, the system will fail safe and drive the
indicator slowly to the zero position. A test circuit is incorporated that when selected will simulate the
emptying of the tank. When the switch is released, the pointer should return to its original position.
If water is present in the tanks, it will cause errors with the indicating system. The capacitors in the
sensing units are effectively shorted, and the indicator is driven beyond the full scale.
If the unusable fuel supply for any tank exceeds one gallon, or 5% of the tank capacity,